Electronic Theses and Dissertations (Masters)

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    The potential of regenerative agriculture in creating climate adaptive and gender inclusive food systems: a study of rural communities in Mpumalanga, South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-08) Govender, Yashila; Kabisa, Mulako; Pereira, Laura
    Numerous social-ecological risks to food systems are brought on by industrial agriculture – resulting in various narratives around the sustainability of agriculture, offering a solution to the problems confronting this system. One of these narratives is regenerative agriculture (RA), which has recently gained popularity. The potential of regenerative agriculture could contribute to sustainable agriculture and is capable of addressing climate adaptation challenges and potentially fostering gender inclusivity within food systems. Despite growing interest around regenerative agriculture, this concept is not well understood or researched in South Africa, especially in rural farming villages. This research delves into the multifaceted domain of regenerative agriculture and looks to describe this in the South African context. This study sets out to achieve three research questions, what is the definition of regenerative agriculture in a South African context, what is the current understanding around this concept among smallholder farmers in farming villages of Bushbuckridge and if so, how does regenerative agriculture considers the local gender dynamics in rural farming communities? A mixed methods approach was used for this study. Ten expert interviews with key stakeholders in the agricultural sector were conducted to construct a definition of regenerative agriculture tailored to South African conditions. Thereafter, individual interviews were used to gauge the level of understanding and adoption of regenerative practices among smallholder farmers in the villages of Bushbuckridge. This sample consisted of 74.2% female and 25.8% male. Finally, an in-depth analysis of how regenerative agriculture compared with local dynamics in rural farming communities was conducted through participatory engagement. A total of 54 participants participated in focus group discussions. The results indicate there is a multifaceted understanding of regenerative agriculture in South Africa, with most experts indicating that regenerative agriculture is practiced under the name of conservation agriculture (CA). Aspects of both practices have some commonalities with agroecology, such as principles of soil conservation, polyculture and no-tillage that are highly promoted in South Africa. Additionally, smallholder farmers in Mpumalanga practice regenerative agriculture, with different adoption rates in different villages. Furthermore, this research highlights that the adoption of regenerative agriculture in rural farming communities requires further discussion and stakeholder engagement, especially with women, and includes socio-economic and cultural factors. This study contributes to the broader discourse on regenerative agriculture by providing a context-specific definition, indicating that regenerative agriculture is an overlap of agroecology and conservation agriculture in South Africa, shedding light on the challenges and opportunities for smallholder adoption, and emphasizing the importance of community-based approaches in regenerative agriculture educational programs. The research underscores the need for tailored education and extension programs that account for local conditions and socio-cultural factors.
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    An initial estimation of the concentrations of methane (CH4) emitted from the Wakkerstroom wetland and Majuba power station in Mpumalanga province, South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-08) Bobo, Christine; Scholes, Mary C.; Furniss, David. G.
    The continuous increase in methane (CH4) emissions to the atmosphere poses a formidable challenge to Earth's climate resilience and exacerbates the impacts of global warming. This study compared microbial CH4 concentrations from the Wakkerstroom wetland to fossil fuel concentrations from the coal stockpiles at the Majuba power station in Mpumalanga, South Africa, using three methodological approaches: flexfoil bags, isotopic analysis, and satellite data. Seasonal ground measurements were collected in 3L flexfoil bags and analysed for CH4 mole fraction using a Picarro 2301 calibrated to the WMO X2004A CH4 scale. Samples were prepared for isotopic analysis by continuous-flow isotope-ratio mass spectrometry using an Isoprime Trace Gas system. Findings from ground sampling measurements showed that for three out of the four seasons, Phragmites australis at the Wakkerstroom wetland had the highest CH4 concentration [spring (0.209 ± 0.076 ppm), autumn (0.537 ± 0.239 ppm), and winter (0.132 ± 0.065 ppm)], and the coal stockpiles at the Majuba power station had the lowest CH4 concentration [summer (0.022 ± 0.021 ppm), autumn (0.014 ± 0.053 ppm), and winter (0.002 ± 0.004)]. Isotopic measurements, which identify and differentiate gas sources by examining distinct isotopic signatures, showed that the Wakkerstroom wetland had consistently light, 13C depleted isotopic signatures seasonally ranging between -61.4‰ to -55.6‰. In contrast to this, the Majuba power station coal stockpiles had inconsistent isotopic signatures through the sampling seasons- heavier CH4 emission isotopic signatures with 13C enrichment during spring and summer at -35.3 ± 1.0 ‰ and -43.5 ± 3.5 ‰ respectively, and lighter isotopic signatures with 13C depletion during autumn and winter of - 62.0 ± 1.6 ‰ and - 87.0 ± 10.3 ‰ respectively. On a larger temporal and spatial scale, satellite-based measurements from the Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) showed no significant differences between Wakkerstroom (1855.4 ± 18.0 ppb) and Majuba power station (1857.1 ± 22.9 ppb) in terms of the total column averaged dry-air mole fraction of methane (XCH4). An increasing trend in CH4 mole fraction, in Southern Africa as measured at Cape Point Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW) station over a 39-year period was also observed. Meteorological variables, particularly wind direction, had a more significant impact on CH4 mole fractions at Cape Point than at the Wakkerstroom wetland. The multi-faceted approach of utilizing the three measurement techniques provided a comprehensive view of atmospheric CH4 showing that wetlands could be more significant CH4 hotspots in comparison to coal stockpiles at power stations. Measuring methane concentrations is challenging due to its inherent complexity, thus the utilisation of different measurement methodologies further highlighted the spatial and temporal variability of CH4 concentrations at both the wetland and the coal stockpiles.
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    Landscape-scale carbon stocks in the subtropical thicket of the Baviaanskloof, South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-08) Kooverjee, Neha; Smart, Kathleen; Fisher, Jolene; Scholes, Bob
    South Africa’s subtropical thicket biome has garnered interest for its potential for carbon sequestration through the restoration of degraded land, funded locally and internationally by the carbon market. Accurate carbon estimation of pre- and post-restoration carbon storage is key to monitoring the progress of restoration efforts and determining accurate estimates of carbon increase. Most past thicket studies have based landscape-scale carbon estimates on plot data alone, without accounting for the spatial variation in factors such as soil depth, resulting in overestimates of the average potential carbon that can be stored. The aim of this research was to estimate and create maps showing the spatial distribution of the thicket carbon stocks in the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve, South Africa, by calculating the amount of carbon stored in the soil, woody biomass, root biomass and litter biomass across the thicket area of the reserve using plot data with remote sensing imagery. Soil organic carbon was estimated using soil profile data collected in the same primary catchment as the Baviaanskloof and extrapolated across the landscape using a Random Forest-based regression model. Woody carbon was estimated using previously recorded in situ carbon recordings. This data was then extrapolated across the landscape using raster data for vegetation height and cover, climate data, and elevation as predictor variables. Root and litter carbon were then calculated individually based on the woody carbon estimates and ratios of root and litter carbon to woody carbon from a past study. The average soil organic carbon (37.7 ± 29 t ha-1), woody carbon (18.1 ± 4 t ha-1), root carbon (3.1 ± 0.7 t ha-1), and litter carbon (2.4 ± 0.5 t ha-1) estimated in this study for intact thicket are all lower to varying degrees than those of past thicket studies that were based solely on plot data, indicating the importance of accounting for variation in the landscape and its effect on carbon stocks. The results of this study indicate that slope position, a proxy for soil depth, has a significant effect on thicket carbon stock. Woody carbon, root carbon and litter carbon estimates significantly decreased downslope, but soil organic carbon, the largest carbon pool in thicket, significantly increased downslope. In general, the results also indicate an increase in carbon after restoration, however, an illogical trend of lower potential root and litter carbon compared to current carbon in degraded thicket is present, indicating that the results of this study are not reliable for restoration planning and decision-making. This may be due to the inaccuracy of global Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) products, such as the Global Land Analysis and Discovery (GLAD) canopy height dataset, over non-forested areas such as thicket which are much shorter. Accurate estimates of current and potential carbon and accurate monitoring of restoration is important in tracking South Africa’s progress towards its biodiversity conservation goals under the Convention on Biological Diversity, and carbon emission reduction goals under the Paris Agreement. With access to locally captured LiDAR imagery that is suited to the short, dense structure of thicket vegetation and the topography of the landscape, and a larger database of in situ thicket carbon recordings, the methods used in this study could be employed to calculate more accurate carbon estimates and aid in directing restoration efforts to the most appropriate areas.
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    The implications of mandible morphology and dental structure on the feeding ecology and predatory behaviour in Hyaenidae (hyenas) using geometric morphometric analyses
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-03) Naidoo, Riyanta; Iqbal, Safiyyah
    Hyenas are often overlooked as being successful predators due to their scavenging behaviour. However, their morphological adaptations allow them to succeed in bone-cracking behaviour, an act that most carnivores are unable to achieve. Craniodental morphology influences carnivore performance, therefore understanding the functional morphology of carnivore mandibles would allow for the justification of Hyaenidae behaviour. This study investigates the morphological differences between the Hyaenidae mandible and large carnivore mandibles in Africa, as well as the differences in mandible morphology within the Hyaenidae family. This study uses a two-dimensional landmark-based geometric morphometric methodology to analyse morphological features on the carnivore mandibles and dentition to determine the morphological clusters linking the carnivore species, determine how the mandible morphology accommodates biomechanical needs, and to determine the implications that mandible morphology and dentition has on feeding ecology. The results of this study indicated that the sizes (PC1) of the carnivore mandibles were clustered according to their respective families (i.e. Hyaenidae, Canidae, and Felidae), however the shape (PC2) of the mandibles differed according to diet. The mandible morphology of the hypercarnivorous Hyaenidae displayed evident adaptations to osteophagy behaviour, including a thickened corpus, a large masseteric fossa, an anteriorly-displaced coronoid, and robust and blunt-like canines. The Proteles cristata, however, displayed mandibular adaptations to a hypocarnivorous diet. Ultimately, it was found that an increased resistance to bending forces and an increased area for muscle attachment on the mandible, directly relates to an increase in the Hyaenidae bite force, improving their feeding and hunting success.
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    Higher Education Sustainability: Investigating the barriers and opportunities to sustainable infrastructural development in tertiary education institutions
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-03) Buthelezi, Nontobeko Lynda Valerie; Engelbrecht, Francois; Reid, Memory
    The research investigates sustainability initiatives in South African higher education, focusing on the refurbishment of water heating systems at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It examines the economic and environmental impacts of adopting greener technologies, highlighting the importance of stakeholder engagement. Using a mixed methods approach, the study combines qualitative interviews to understand stakeholder perspectives with quantitative analysis of costs and carbon emissions. The findings reveal that the new water heating system significantly reduces emissions—6.6 times less than the traditional system—resulting in a 9.71 kg monthly carbon footprint versus 64.296 kg with old geysers. Financial analysis shows an 81% cost reduction in water heating expenses due to the switch from grid electricity to natural gas, achieving a 4.16% return on investment. The research underscores the challenges in securing broad stakeholder support and the importance of a holistic sustainability approach that integrates economic, environmental, and social factors. It highlights the potential of such initiatives to reduce environmental impact, save costs, and drive innovation, providing insights for future sustainability efforts in higher education.
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    The Effects of Land Use Change on Water Quality in the upper Berg - and Breede River catchments, Western Cape, South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-08) van Wyngaard, Zahn; Sheridan, Craig
    Pollution of surface water resources is gaining global attention due to increasing freshwater stress and scarcity. This study assessed how land use changes in the upper catchments of the Berg and Breede rivers affect water quality. Land Cover Data, covering a 22-year period, was prepared, categorised, and analysed. Land use classes include “natural”, “urban”, “agricultural”, “water bodies”, “mining” as well as “degraded land, bare rock, and soil”. Changes of these land use classes were analysed to establish their influence on water quality parameters such as electrical conductivity, pH, total nitrogen including ammonium, nitrate and nitrite, orthophosphate, and sulfate. In the Berg River catchment, urban, natural, water bodies and degraded land, bare rock, and soil increased while agricultural and mining decreased. In the Breede River catchment, urban, water bodies and degraded land, bare rock, and soil as well as mining increased while agricultural and natural decreased. In the Berg River catchment, Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (ammonium, nitrate and nitrite), as well as pH increased while electrical conductivity, sulfate, and orthophosphate decreased. In the Breede River catchment, ammonium and orthophosphate increased while a decrease in electrical conductivity, nitrate and nitrite, pH, and sulfate was noted. In the Berg River catchment, the following correlations, or relationships, were noted. Urban land was correlated with ammonium and sulfate; agricultural land was correlated with electrical conductivity and sulfate, natural land cover was correlated with electrical conductivity, orthophosphate, and sulfate. Water bodies were correlated with orthophosphate, sulfate, degraded land, bare rock, and soil was correlated with ammonium and mining was correlated with electrical conductivity, orthophosphate, and sulfate. In the Breede River catchment, urban land was correlated with ammonium and orthophosphate, agricultural land was correlated with nitrate and nitrite and pH, and natural land cover was correlated with electrical conductivity, ammonium, and sulfate. Water bodies were correlated with electrical conductivity, nitrate and nitrite, and sulfate, degraded land, bare rock, and soil were correlated with electrical conductivity, ammonium, orthophosphate, and sulfate, and mining was correlated with electrical conductivity, ammonium and sulfate. The study therefore recommends that we mitigate land use change impacts on water quality by enforcing strict land-use regulations, promote sustainable agricultural practices, protect riparian areas and wetlands, implement better stormwater and wastewater management, educate the public, and coordinate integrated water resource management efforts to reduce pollution of scarce surface water resources.
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    Assessing the climatic suitability and environmental responses of Anthonomus morticinus Clark (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a potential biological control agent of Solanum mauritianum Scopoli (Solanaceae) in South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-10) Keizan, Yaron Yakov; Byrne, Marcus; Venter, Nic
    Insect biology is greatly influenced by the surrounding climate. Desiccation, owing to low relative humidity, poses a significant threat to insect populations, especially those with small body sizes. To avoid exposure to low relative humidity (RH) levels, insects actively seek out nearby microenvironments with raised RH. The flowerbud feeding weevil Anthonomus morticinus is an optimistic agent to limit the spread of the highly invasive Solanum mauritianum throughout South Africa. However, the restricted geographic range shown by A. santacruzi in South Africa due to climatic unsuitability questions how A. morticinus will respond to climatic variables, particularly humidity. The effect of low temperatures has shown to be a limiting factor by Mkhomazi (2022) on the survival of A. morticinus, but the effects of RH remains untested. This study examined the influence of RH on the survival and oviposition of A. morticinus inhabiting S. mauritianum inflorescences. Furthermore, this study also intended to reveal the influence of lethal humidities on A. santacruzi cultures compared to that of A. morticinus when sheltered by host inflorescences. Anthonomus morticinus colonies inhabiting S. mauritianum bouquets were kept at seven relative humidities, from ~80% to ~20% for a period of 14 days. Survival and oviposition, observed by dissection of buds, were recorded. For comparison, colonies of A. morticinus and A. santacruzi were maintained at 20% and 46% relative humidity for seven days to determine if the species had differing responses at the lower RH levels. A. morticinus survival and oviposition showed no significant differences at the decreasing humidity levels. Moreover, no significant differences were observed in the survival between A. morticinus and A. santacruzi at 46% and 20% RH. Weevils residing within the S. mauritianum flowers and shoots were shielded from the unfavourable environmental humidities owing to higher humidity levels within these microclimates. These results highlight the dependence of biological control agents on their hosts for more than just food and reproduction but also for physiological functionality.
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    The impact of nickel and chrome mine tailings on the growth of Hibiscus cannabinus and Linum usitatissimum and a preliminary assessment of their applicability as economically beneficial phytoremediation species
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-07) Campbell, Tiago Roberto; Furniss, David; Scholes, Mary
    Current and previous mining activities in South Africa have caused various environmental, human health and societal impacts. This has led to the formation and enforcement of legislation regarding the rehabilitation of active, closed and abandoned mines in South Africa. The requirements contained in this legislation include rehabilitation, skills transfer, job creation and development of post mine land use regarding active, closed and abandoned mines. A common impact of mining activities is the contamination of soils with various metals. The process of phytoremediation has demonstrated potential in the remediation of metal contaminated soils. Plant species commonly utilised in this process are hyper accumulators, which can translocate and accumulate high concentrations of various metals from soils into their biomass. However, large areas of previously economically productive land become underutilised when hyper-accumulators are used for phytoremediation. Economically valuable fibrous plant species have demonstrated potential in their use as phytoremediation species. This presents an opportunity in which economically valuable plant species could be utilised in phytoremediation applications on active, closed and abandoned mines in South Africa. Thus, the aim of this research was to assess the ability of Hibiscus cannabinus and Linum usitatissimum to grow in and extract metals from soil contaminated with nickel and chrome mine tailings. Furthermore, the concurrent use of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum as phytoremediative and economically beneficial plant species was determined. Normal (non impacted), rehabilitated (previously impacted) and tailings (impacted) soil treatments were collected and used from the Onverwacht tailings storage facility of Nkomati Nickel mine. Hibiscus cannabinus and L. usitatissimum were cultivated in each soil treatment in greenhouse conditions over a six-month period. Multiple plant growth parameters were recorded at monthly intervals. The amount (mg) and concentration (mg/kg) of Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cr and Co contained within plant tissue samples at the end of the six-month period was determined. The area (ha) of land categories available for H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum cultivation onsite was determined using Sentinel 2B satellite imagery and supervised image classification. The measured and expected total yield (t), yield value (R), profit/loss margin (R) and amount (g/ha) of Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cr and Co extracted through cultivation of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum onsite was determined. The growth of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum cultivated in rehabilitated soil was severely impacted. While growth of each species exhibited minimal differences between those cultivated in normal and tailings soil. Hibiscus cannabinus consistently exhibited greater growth than L. usitatissimum. Both species demonstrated the ability to accumulate varying amounts and concentrations of each of the tested metals in their total, above and below ground components. Both species consistently accumulated increased amounts and concentrations of Mn and Zn. Those cultivated in tailings soil exhibited increased accumulation of Cr. Linum usitatissimum generally accumulated metals at higher concentrations than H. cannabinus, however, minimal differences in the amount of metal accumulated between species were observed. Based on the measured yield cultivation of each species onsite would result in economic loss and generally low metal extraction. However, based on the expected yield, species cultivation onsite, in normal and tailings soil, would result in economic gain and generally high metal extraction. Hibiscus cannabinus and L. usitatissimum exhibited phytoremediative and economic potential. Aspects of the current state of mine impacted land in South Africa and the requirements of rehabilitation enforced through South African legislation could possibly be addressed through the application of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum for mine rehabilitation strategies.
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    Using the South African Diatom Index (SADI) to determine the present ecological status of the Crocodile River, Kruger National Park
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-08) Thamae, Seeng; Snow, Gavin; Parrini, Francesca
    The Crocodile River in the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa is a river of great economic significance, while providing support to the surrounding aquatic and riparian ecosystems through ecological processes of chemical, hydrological, and geomorphological nature. This river forms part of the Inkomati River Basin, which serves as a transboundary basin shared between the Republic of South Africa, Mozambique and Eswatini. The importance of the effective management of transboundary water resources, from an African perspective, cannot be stressed enough due to the water-scarce nature of the Southern African region, particularly South Africa. Incorporating Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Strategic Adaptive Management approaches into the governance of water resources can aid in the protection of both the quality and quantity of the country’s freshwater reserve. Good governance of water resources is essential in the conservation of aquatic and riparian ecosystem biodiversity, as well as meeting the basic human needs reserve, which is essential to meet people’s daily drinking, food preparation and personal hygiene requirements. The Crocodile River is not immune to pollution of anthropogenic origin, such as urbanisation, mining, agriculture, and industrial by-products. The above mentioned constitutes some of the direct and indirect results of large-scale stresses that are exerted on a river system, mainly owing to environmental factors such as landscape, demographic, atmospheric and hydrologic changes. A few practical examples of these factors include changing population dynamics and resultant land-use requirements, accompanied by compromised riparian vegetations arising from the altered land-use. All this necessitates the regular monitoring of the quality of water in this river system. The outcome of regular river monitoring is essential to the protection of this resource through regulation and policy. The use of physico-chemical parameters to determine the health of the Crocodile River has assisted in identifying compromised aquatic and riparian ecosystems and ultimately recommending relevant mitigation strategies necessary in maintaining an acceptable standard of water quality. Incorporating biomonitoring techniques, wherein aquatic microorganisms are used to infer water quality, as a tool to assess the health of a river ecosystem has proven useful, mainly due to the sensitivity of periphyton assemblages (algae, cyanobacteria, diatoms) to changing river conditions, based on nutrients and physico-chemical parameters. The use of these organisms, in bio-assessments of aquatic ecosystems has been key to overall river health monitoring. This study highlights how diatoms, through their published ecological data, can contribute to the Resource Directed Measures method of determining the Present Ecological Status of a river, using the Crocodile (East) River as a case study. The current study was developed to assess the ecological category of the Crocodile River, along the southern boundary of the Kruger National Park. Four sampling sites were identified for the study, from which water samples were collected during September 2019, October 2019, and March 2020 sampling sessions. The basis of this was to investigate the changes in diatom communities and dominant microphytobenthos (MPB) groups (based on the tolerance to fluctuating environmental conditions amongst the various species) in response to the spatio-temporal changes in the quality and quantity of water at the four sites throughout the study period. These results were then compared to past studies to determine if there has been a change in river health over the past decade. Physico-chemical variables were measured in situ using a YSI Professional Plus (Pro Plus) multi-parameter instrument, which included temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen. The benthic microalgal biomass of cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms was quantified from the fluorescent signatures of the groups in situ using a bbe BenthoTorch. The bbe BenthoTorch is a hand-held apparatus that uses in situ quantification of chlorophyll-a fluorescence as an index of benthic algal biomass. The diatoms present in the samples were later prepared and isolated for microscopic identification and individual counts. The Relative Abundance (RA%) of dominant diatom species and the ecological category of each sampling site was determined using OMNIDIA software based South African Diatom Index (SADI). Ecological categories using the SADI range from A (good quality) to E (bad quality). Data analyses include the use of ordination plots (CCA and PCA) to evaluate the response of the dominant diatom species to changing environmental variables and the interspecific relationships between the diatom species in each assemblage, based on their ecological requirements. The study revealed that the ecological status of the Crocodile River when compared to previous studies had remained the same; C (moderate quality). This finding supports the use of the South African Diatom Index (SADI) in determining the Present Ecological State of the Crocodile River, in the Kruger National Park. There have been similar studies in other river systems within the Kruger National Park, wherein diatoms (specifically diatom-based index scores) were used to infer the water quality, at the time, in comparison to historic / benchmark water quality parameters. These studies were conducted in the Olifants, Letaba and the Sabie rivers of the park. The viability of these studies is motivated by benthic diatoms being particularly sensitive to changes in water quality, making them an ideal indicator of river health that is complementary to the current suite of biomonitoring tools. This method has immense potential in South Africa, provided that more focus is placed on diatoms and investment made in capacitating researchers and diatom taxonomists with the skills to perpetuate this vast field of study.
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    Assessment of the Environmental Authorisation Processes and Mining Right Applications for Improved Environmental Outcomes
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) Antoniades, Maria; Watson, Ingrid
    This study investigates alignment of South African mining right and environmental authorisation application processes to determine their adequacy in catering for optimised early mine planning seeking to achieve enhanced environmental outcomes. First the legislative requirements for mining right and environmental authorisation applications are evaluated. Results are critically analysed, including an assessment of process alignments and disjunctions. Secondly, integration of the application study processes in practice are investigated. The practical implications of the application requirements are qualitatively examined through key informant and case study analysis. It is shown that integrated planning is not a legislated requirement nor readily adopted by proponents. Environmental planning conforms to technical outputs as tick-box exercises rather than being iterative and co-operative. Workstreams misalignments result in poor planning to the detriment of environmental outcomes. Finally, a practical guidance is presented for early integrated study processes aimed at meaningful project design through parallel planning to optimise environmental results.