Electronic Theses and Dissertations (Masters)

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    The impact of nickel and chrome mine tailings on the growth of Hibiscus cannabinus and Linum usitatissimum and a preliminary assessment of their applicability as economically beneficial phytoremediation species
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-07) Campbell, Tiago Roberto; Furniss, David; Scholes, Mary
    Current and previous mining activities in South Africa have caused various environmental, human health and societal impacts. This has led to the formation and enforcement of legislation regarding the rehabilitation of active, closed and abandoned mines in South Africa. The requirements contained in this legislation include rehabilitation, skills transfer, job creation and development of post mine land use regarding active, closed and abandoned mines. A common impact of mining activities is the contamination of soils with various metals. The process of phytoremediation has demonstrated potential in the remediation of metal contaminated soils. Plant species commonly utilised in this process are hyper accumulators, which can translocate and accumulate high concentrations of various metals from soils into their biomass. However, large areas of previously economically productive land become underutilised when hyper-accumulators are used for phytoremediation. Economically valuable fibrous plant species have demonstrated potential in their use as phytoremediation species. This presents an opportunity in which economically valuable plant species could be utilised in phytoremediation applications on active, closed and abandoned mines in South Africa. Thus, the aim of this research was to assess the ability of Hibiscus cannabinus and Linum usitatissimum to grow in and extract metals from soil contaminated with nickel and chrome mine tailings. Furthermore, the concurrent use of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum as phytoremediative and economically beneficial plant species was determined. Normal (non impacted), rehabilitated (previously impacted) and tailings (impacted) soil treatments were collected and used from the Onverwacht tailings storage facility of Nkomati Nickel mine. Hibiscus cannabinus and L. usitatissimum were cultivated in each soil treatment in greenhouse conditions over a six-month period. Multiple plant growth parameters were recorded at monthly intervals. The amount (mg) and concentration (mg/kg) of Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cr and Co contained within plant tissue samples at the end of the six-month period was determined. The area (ha) of land categories available for H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum cultivation onsite was determined using Sentinel 2B satellite imagery and supervised image classification. The measured and expected total yield (t), yield value (R), profit/loss margin (R) and amount (g/ha) of Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cr and Co extracted through cultivation of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum onsite was determined. The growth of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum cultivated in rehabilitated soil was severely impacted. While growth of each species exhibited minimal differences between those cultivated in normal and tailings soil. Hibiscus cannabinus consistently exhibited greater growth than L. usitatissimum. Both species demonstrated the ability to accumulate varying amounts and concentrations of each of the tested metals in their total, above and below ground components. Both species consistently accumulated increased amounts and concentrations of Mn and Zn. Those cultivated in tailings soil exhibited increased accumulation of Cr. Linum usitatissimum generally accumulated metals at higher concentrations than H. cannabinus, however, minimal differences in the amount of metal accumulated between species were observed. Based on the measured yield cultivation of each species onsite would result in economic loss and generally low metal extraction. However, based on the expected yield, species cultivation onsite, in normal and tailings soil, would result in economic gain and generally high metal extraction. Hibiscus cannabinus and L. usitatissimum exhibited phytoremediative and economic potential. Aspects of the current state of mine impacted land in South Africa and the requirements of rehabilitation enforced through South African legislation could possibly be addressed through the application of H. cannabinus and L. usitatissimum for mine rehabilitation strategies.
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    Using the South African Diatom Index (SADI) to determine the present ecological status of the Crocodile River, Kruger National Park
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-08) Thamae, Seeng; Snow, Gavin; Parrini, Francesca
    The Crocodile River in the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa is a river of great economic significance, while providing support to the surrounding aquatic and riparian ecosystems through ecological processes of chemical, hydrological, and geomorphological nature. This river forms part of the Inkomati River Basin, which serves as a transboundary basin shared between the Republic of South Africa, Mozambique and Eswatini. The importance of the effective management of transboundary water resources, from an African perspective, cannot be stressed enough due to the water-scarce nature of the Southern African region, particularly South Africa. Incorporating Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Strategic Adaptive Management approaches into the governance of water resources can aid in the protection of both the quality and quantity of the country’s freshwater reserve. Good governance of water resources is essential in the conservation of aquatic and riparian ecosystem biodiversity, as well as meeting the basic human needs reserve, which is essential to meet people’s daily drinking, food preparation and personal hygiene requirements. The Crocodile River is not immune to pollution of anthropogenic origin, such as urbanisation, mining, agriculture, and industrial by-products. The above mentioned constitutes some of the direct and indirect results of large-scale stresses that are exerted on a river system, mainly owing to environmental factors such as landscape, demographic, atmospheric and hydrologic changes. A few practical examples of these factors include changing population dynamics and resultant land-use requirements, accompanied by compromised riparian vegetations arising from the altered land-use. All this necessitates the regular monitoring of the quality of water in this river system. The outcome of regular river monitoring is essential to the protection of this resource through regulation and policy. The use of physico-chemical parameters to determine the health of the Crocodile River has assisted in identifying compromised aquatic and riparian ecosystems and ultimately recommending relevant mitigation strategies necessary in maintaining an acceptable standard of water quality. Incorporating biomonitoring techniques, wherein aquatic microorganisms are used to infer water quality, as a tool to assess the health of a river ecosystem has proven useful, mainly due to the sensitivity of periphyton assemblages (algae, cyanobacteria, diatoms) to changing river conditions, based on nutrients and physico-chemical parameters. The use of these organisms, in bio-assessments of aquatic ecosystems has been key to overall river health monitoring. This study highlights how diatoms, through their published ecological data, can contribute to the Resource Directed Measures method of determining the Present Ecological Status of a river, using the Crocodile (East) River as a case study. The current study was developed to assess the ecological category of the Crocodile River, along the southern boundary of the Kruger National Park. Four sampling sites were identified for the study, from which water samples were collected during September 2019, October 2019, and March 2020 sampling sessions. The basis of this was to investigate the changes in diatom communities and dominant microphytobenthos (MPB) groups (based on the tolerance to fluctuating environmental conditions amongst the various species) in response to the spatio-temporal changes in the quality and quantity of water at the four sites throughout the study period. These results were then compared to past studies to determine if there has been a change in river health over the past decade. Physico-chemical variables were measured in situ using a YSI Professional Plus (Pro Plus) multi-parameter instrument, which included temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen. The benthic microalgal biomass of cyanobacteria, green algae and diatoms was quantified from the fluorescent signatures of the groups in situ using a bbe BenthoTorch. The bbe BenthoTorch is a hand-held apparatus that uses in situ quantification of chlorophyll-a fluorescence as an index of benthic algal biomass. The diatoms present in the samples were later prepared and isolated for microscopic identification and individual counts. The Relative Abundance (RA%) of dominant diatom species and the ecological category of each sampling site was determined using OMNIDIA software based South African Diatom Index (SADI). Ecological categories using the SADI range from A (good quality) to E (bad quality). Data analyses include the use of ordination plots (CCA and PCA) to evaluate the response of the dominant diatom species to changing environmental variables and the interspecific relationships between the diatom species in each assemblage, based on their ecological requirements. The study revealed that the ecological status of the Crocodile River when compared to previous studies had remained the same; C (moderate quality). This finding supports the use of the South African Diatom Index (SADI) in determining the Present Ecological State of the Crocodile River, in the Kruger National Park. There have been similar studies in other river systems within the Kruger National Park, wherein diatoms (specifically diatom-based index scores) were used to infer the water quality, at the time, in comparison to historic / benchmark water quality parameters. These studies were conducted in the Olifants, Letaba and the Sabie rivers of the park. The viability of these studies is motivated by benthic diatoms being particularly sensitive to changes in water quality, making them an ideal indicator of river health that is complementary to the current suite of biomonitoring tools. This method has immense potential in South Africa, provided that more focus is placed on diatoms and investment made in capacitating researchers and diatom taxonomists with the skills to perpetuate this vast field of study.
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    Assessment of the Environmental Authorisation Processes and Mining Right Applications for Improved Environmental Outcomes
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) Antoniades, Maria; Watson, Ingrid
    This study investigates alignment of South African mining right and environmental authorisation application processes to determine their adequacy in catering for optimised early mine planning seeking to achieve enhanced environmental outcomes. First the legislative requirements for mining right and environmental authorisation applications are evaluated. Results are critically analysed, including an assessment of process alignments and disjunctions. Secondly, integration of the application study processes in practice are investigated. The practical implications of the application requirements are qualitatively examined through key informant and case study analysis. It is shown that integrated planning is not a legislated requirement nor readily adopted by proponents. Environmental planning conforms to technical outputs as tick-box exercises rather than being iterative and co-operative. Workstreams misalignments result in poor planning to the detriment of environmental outcomes. Finally, a practical guidance is presented for early integrated study processes aimed at meaningful project design through parallel planning to optimise environmental results.
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    Comparative Analysis of Water Hyacinth Efficiency as Biosorbent and Phyto remediating Plant for Removal of Lead (Pb) Water Contaminants
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-08) Nwagbara, Victor Uzoma; Parrini, Francesca; Newete, Solomon
    One of the major problems facing the modern society is the issues of water contamination. The ability of aquatic plants to serve as both heavy metal biomarkers and phytoremediators has been advocated for many years. The purpose of this study was therefore to compare the efficacy of water hyacith as a biosorbent and phytoremediating plant for removal of lead from contaminated waters. Dry and fresh water hyacinth biomass were exposed to Pb-contaminated water at different time intervals of 1, 7, 14 and 21 days. The results showed that with the increase of the exposure time, the Pb removal capacity of the plant biomass also increased. The Pb water concentration in day 1 and day 7 were significantly different from those in day 14 and day 21 which were not significantly different from each other. The average Pb removal from the Pb-treated waters for the different time exposure of 1, 7, 14 and 21 days in the fresh water hyacinth biomass were 40%, 56%, 78 % and 79%, respectively, the highest reduction being in the latter. The biomass of the freshwater hyacinth roots had the highest Pd concentration compared to the shoot. On The other hand the average Pb removal by the dry water hyacinth biomass were 78.9 %, 78.5%, 78.3 % and 78.3% for day 1, 7, 14 and 21 respectively, showing no significant difference between the different time series exposure. This suggests the instant adsorption of Pb by the dry plant material from the first day of exposure, after which the active sites for adsorption saturates to accommodate any further Pb ion uptake. There were some plant stresses such as leaf chlorosis, and significant decrease in biomass weight and length of leaf-2 petiole in the lead-treated fresh water hyacinth plants compared to the controls (Pb-free water hyacinth plant). Thus, this study confirms that the largest removal by the dry water hyacinth biomass, occurred in the first day as opposed to the last day (day 21) by the freshwater hyacinth biomass.
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    Characterizing microclimates as potential thermal buffers for reptiles, birds, and mammals in an arid-zone environment
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) Warner, Grace M.; Alexander, Graham J.; Fuller, Andrea
    Aridification, increases in air temperatures and frequency of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, are predicted to intensify under climate change, suggesting dire consequences for dryland animals. Microhabitats may buffer dryland animals against the changing climate, yet microclimatic data remains scarce from Africa and arid regions. The distribution, abundance, and thermal buffering capacity of five microhabitat types (burrows, nests, rock crevices, tree hollows and vegetation) were investigated across three habitat types (dunes, plains, and mountains) in the Kalahari. The distribution and abundance of microhabitats were assessed via strip transects, while thermal buffering capacity was evaluated by comparing miniature black globe temperatures from 70 representative sheltered microhabitats with 12 localised exposed-site microhabitats. The data generated have provided a baseline measure of the abundance and distribution of microhabitats in the Kalahari and have produced a year-long fine-resolution microclimatic thermal dataset. Microhabitat types and abundance were found to differ per habitat type and across topographic gradients. Abiotic drivers, such as soil type and fire frequency, along with drivers such as biotic community composition, were highlighted as potential causes of these microhabitat distribution patterns. Burrows were the best buffered microhabitat across all tested temporal and spatial gradients, providing an average maximum decrease of -29.5 ˚C during the day, and an average maximum increase of 20.1 ˚C during the night. Well-buffered microhabitats were rare within the field-site, whereas some of the poorest buffering microhabitats (Vegetation) were abundant and widespread. Thus, competition for well-buffered microhabitats may increase under climate change, whilst the risk of traversing large distances between microhabitats may become too great for smaller animals as exposure risk to extreme temperatures increases. Furthermore, birds and large mammals may likely be at a high risk of extreme temperature exposure, as their size and structural adaptations may restrict them from access to well-buffered microhabitats. Therefore, the need for the concurrent assessments of microhabitat distribution, abundance and buffering capacity in future species vulnerability assessments is highlighted, as it is the combination of these factors that are likely to impact population viability under climate change.
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    Factors affecting mammal utilisation of non-wildlife railway underpasses within the Greater Kruger, South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) de Villiers, Hannah; Parrini, Francesca; Teren, Gabriella
    Railways are an integral component of sustainable transport systems, but cause significant impacts to biodiversity, primarily through wildlife-train collisions and the habitat fragmentation created in the landscape. Crossing structures (CSs) for wildlife are the key mitigation measure for these adverse impacts, which will be critical throughout Africa, where 55,000 km of new railway lines are predicted to cut through hundreds of protected areas. For the first time in southern Africa, mammal usage of railway underpasses that were not designed to facilitate wildlife movement was studied using camera traps in the Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa. This study demonstrates that 70% of the terrestrial medium and large mammals species present in the area used at least one non-wildlife CS during the study period, with a total of 1,823 usage events by 33 species. Twelve medium to large African mammal species used underpasses regularly, improving the permeability of the railway line for these species. A viaduct design was characterised by almost four times the usage rate of a typical box culvert and was used by twice as many species, including megaherbivores and mesoherbivores, whereas box culverts supported a smaller number of species, of which the majority were predators. Species most affected by rail collisions in the study area were mostly herbivorous and seldom used non-wildlife underpasses. These results indicate that a railway line with only drainage culverts and the occasional viaduct is not effective in providing adequate safe crossing structures for megaherbivores and ungulate mesoherbivores. Contrary to expectations, vegetation and environmental factors influenced mammal usage of box culverts more than structural dimensions. Ensuring that there is high visibility through the structure, with less herbaceous cover and more woody cover outside of entrances, is likely to enhance culvert usage by most trophic groups. In a savanna context where faunal diversity is high and no single species is a target for mitigation, a range of underpass designs including larger viaducts, located in different types of vegetation cover, thereby combining the range of requirements of different guilds, is recommended.
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    Evaluating the Effectiveness of Green Drop Audit Criterion in Relation to Its Link to Enforcement Protocol in South Africa
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2022-08) Tshongweni, Olwethu Lenox; Tutu, Hlanganani; Richards, Heidi L.
    The Green and Blue Drop programs are incentive-based regulatory systems based on the Department of Water and Sanitation's (DWS) realization that rewarding positive behaviour is more efficient and effective than penalizing undesirable behaviour. The Green Drop was developed for the Wastewater Quality Management Regulation certification program. In contrast, the Blue Drop was developed for the certification program for the Drinking Water Quality Management Regulation (Burgess, 2021). Most municipalities have accepted them and have raised awareness about the need for better efficiency in the wastewater sector. The Sand River, in Polokwane wastewater treatment works (WWTWs), was chosen as the research area for this study. This particular river was selected based on the premise of continuous non-compliance of the wastewater treatment plant and the resulting pressure it puts on the Sand River by compromising its quality, with the DWS not having a successful way of regulating and enforcing the water user to abide by the rules of the license that has been issued. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the Green Drop Program audits and assessments about their link to the regulatory system within the DWS. Additionally, a risk assessment and cumulative risk rating are used to assess wastewater discharge into the Sand River in the Limpopo Province. Based on the observation made during the study, it appears that within the DWS organizational arrangements, the lack of coordination among the sectors (compliance monitoring, water quality management, the green drop program, and enforcement), lack of accountability, and the regulatory requirement of cooperation within DWS sectors have hindered implementation. Some of the non-compliance factors may be due to the misuse of funds meant for infrastructure development and difficulties relating to capacity, procurement, and management of the WWTWs. Moreover, DWS's absence of interactive data management systems and business processes contributes to non-compliance. The Polokwane WWTW, directly linked to the Sand River, is overloaded and needs to comply with the Water Use Licence (WUL) conditions. For example, the 21 August 2022, this facility was found to be non-compliant by 69.01%, collectively with administration and technical conditions of the WUL issued to the facility (DWS, 2022c). In addition, this investigation discovered that the Polokwane facility, which has been operating outside of regulations for the past four years, therefore, as calculated in equation 7 could be responsible for 72.3% of the hazards to people's health, the quality of the river's water, and the aquatic ecosystem life in the Sand River in a single month. As much as some municipalities do not perform according to the desired standards, there have been a few noticeable, well-performing ones reported in the green drop report released in 2022. These include Langebaan WWTW (90%), Riebeek Valley WWTW (97%), Gansevallei WWTW (84%), and Wellington WWTW (95%), and this illustrates that the Green Drop Certification is achievable if the municipalities follow and adhere to the Water Use Authorization (WUA) issued them (DWS, 2022b). The DWS must integrate the internal structures or link sectors responsible for monitoring and regulating municipal water service facilities and incentivize performing facilities to improve their performance. Additionally, facilities with minor compliance issues, such as water quality, must be referred to the Water Quality Management (WQM) unit for further investigation and recommendations. However, those non-compliances of authorized wastewater treatment facilities that require regulatory attention must be referred to the compliance monitoring sector through the system for compliance monitoring. Lastly, those facilities that are not authorized must be directed to enforcement for further action. Therefore, using the Integrated Regulatory Information System (IRIS) as the umbrella body for both database and work-based information has an imperative role that can curb some of the issues faced by the DWS. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should guide all interactions between these systems.
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    Home range establishment of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a savanna environment
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-09) Ngorima, Patmore; Parrini, Francesca; Boyers, Melinda; Mariotti, Elena
    Data from nine female African elephants translocated to Hurungwe Safari Area that had been collared was used to estimate home range patterns. Monthly home ranges for each elephant were estimated using the 50% and 95% Kernel Density Estimates (KDEs) method for a period of 20 months following translocation. At the population level, a linear regression model was used to test for the effect of months from release on the home range patterns. The findings revealed that the 95% home range of the elephants increased over time, while the 50% home range decreased since their initial release. I went further to compare the individual differences using the generalised additive model. The results showed some individual differences in patterns of exploration, with some displaying more linear home range patterns than others. Over and above, a considerably positive and relevant relationship between time and variation in the extent of the home range was observed.
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    The function of “plant biltong” collected by bush Karoo rats (Otomys unisulcatus)
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Sanweni Siyabong Patrick
    Food storing is a commonly observed strategy in many rodents living in environments with seasonally fluctuating food availability. Stored food allows small mammals to survive through food restricted periods and has been extensively studied in the northern hemisphere, characterised by cold winters. It could also be adaptive in semi-deserts of the southern hemisphere, such as the Succulent Karoo, which experience winter rainfall and hot dry summers. Here I want to understand the function of food plants carried back by bush Karoo rats (Otomys unisulcatus) to the stick lodges they build in the Succulent Karoo. Some of the food plants carried back to their lodges dry out, forming what I refer to as “plant biltong” or ‘plantong.’ To date, the function of the plantong remains unknown. Plantong might function as food in the dry season, or it might just be left over from food eaten at the lodge, or it can aid in construction of the lodges. I studied which plant species were collected as plantong, and whether there were seasonal differences in collection and consumption of plantong. I observed 15 lodges over 12 months and recorded the fate of plant pieces carried back to each lodge by bush Karoo rats. I tested experimentally whether they do eat the plantong. Plant species that were collected and dried out to become plantong were mostly annual shrubs (Zygophyllum retrofractum, Lycium cinereum, Salsola zeyheri, Helichrysum), grass species (Schismus) and perennials species (Atriplex, Drosanthemum spec, Galenia sarcophylla, Hermannia, Mesembryanthemum, oxalis sp, Chlorophytum crassinerve, Psilocaulon sp.). Most plant pieces were collected in winter and spring which is in the moist season. Plantong was consumed the most in the autumn (end of the dry season). Collected plant pieces were multifunctional. Most, 68%, of plant pieces carried back to the lodge were eaten green before they became plantong,Of the plant pieces that were collected, 12% were later eaten as plantong, 11% was incorporated into the structure of the lodge, while the fate of 9% was unknown. Experiments in captivity showed that bush Karoo rats indeed eat plantong. Plantong was not stored for months (from moist to dry season), but mostly days to weeks. Thus, I regard plantong as a food source derived from leftover food during collection and consumption but not as stored food for later consumption during harsh conditions.
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    Modelling current and future distributions of Warburgia species at continental (Africa) and local (South Africa) scales Samista Kim
    (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Rooplal, Samista Kim; Thompson, D.I.; Glennon, K.L.; Witkowski, E.T.F.
    Warburgia is a genus of trees and shrubs that is greatly valued in Africa for its use in traditional medicine. The genus contains four species, one of which has two subspecies: Warburgia elongata, W. salutaris, W. stuhlmannii, W. ugandensis subsp. longifolia and Wugandensis subsp. ugandensis. Individuals are harvested primarily for their bark, which contains pharmacological compounds that are used to treat various ailments. Due to the high demand, species within the genus are overharvested throughout their range and have consequently become threatened by extinction. Warburgia salutaris, the pepper-bark tree, is the only species of the genus that naturally occurs in South Africa. Like its congeners, Wasalutaris is heavily exploited for its bark and has been listed as IUCN Endangered in South Africa. This dissertation, therefore, assesses the distributions of Warburgia species in eastern and southern Africa to identify new, potentially suitable areas to increase population numbers to aid in the conservation of the genus. The aim of the first part of the study was to assess the eastern and southern African distributions of Warburgia species. Species distribution models (SDMs) were created for the four Warburgia species and two subspecies, and the geographic distributions and key environmental predictors were identified for each taxon. Environmental niche analyses were also performed to understand whether the two subspecies of W. ugandensis should be considered as a single species in accordance with the ecological species concept. The second part of the study aimed to assess how the current South African distribution of W. salutaris will be affected by future climate change. An SDM was produced to assess the current distribution of W. salutaris in South Africa and identify its key predictor climate variables. The SDM was then extrapolated into the future (2070) using two climate change scenarios, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, which are greenhouse gas emission scenarios that predict future climates under a probable and extreme scenario, respectively. Ecological niche analyses were also used to assess the degree to which W. salutaris’ climatic niche will change in response to the two climate change scenarios. Results showed that the distributions of Warburgia species are restricted and primarily influenced by climatic variables that likely impact their seeds’ and seedlings’ sensitivity to water stress and desiccation. Ecological niche modelling results show that the climatic niches of W. ugandensis subsp. longifolia and W. ugandensis subsp. ugandensis are identical and should therefore be considered as a single species according to the ecological species concept. The South African distribution of W. salutaris is fragmented and restricted. The species’ current and future distribution is influenced by its sensitivity to frost and the fact that it produces seeds that are susceptible to drying out. SDMs predicted that the distribution of W. salutaris will shrink in eastern Limpopo and in parts of Mpumalanga, but increase in eastern KwaZulu-Natal by 2070 under both climate change scenarios. Overall, this species was predicted to contract from the Indian Ocean coastal belt and grassland biomes and expand into the savanna biome. This study has expanded our knowledge of the distributions and environmental drivers of Warburgia species. It was found that in general, Warburgia species have restricted ranges that are likely governed by their sensitivity to desiccation at the seed and seedling stages. Climate change is anticipated to negatively impact the populations of many plant species, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa. While the environmental niche of W. salutaris will remain stable, its geographical distribution was predicted to expand further in the savanna biome along the eastern coast of South Africa in response to climate change. Results from this study support pursuing different conservation techniques, including propagating Warburgia populations around the Great Lakes of Africa and Mt. Kenya and in western Limpopo and eastern KwaZulu-Natal for W. salutaris only. This study therefore emphasizes the importance of using SDMs as a baseline to inform effective conservation efforts for important medicinal plant species