Electronic Theses and Dissertations (Masters)
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Item Paternity, floral morphology and pollen viability analyses of African Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) populations in South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) Hall, Timothy; Glennon, K.L.; Goodman-Cron, G.V.; Venter, S.M.; Witkowski, E.T.F.The African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a valuable flagship, cultural and socio-economic species for communities across Africa. Not only is the baobab an important medicinal plant, but products such as seed oils and fruit pulp are sold to supplement rural community income. Baobab trees produce hermaphroditic flowers, but fruit numbers vary between individuals, with some trees producing many fruit (50 –200) every season, termed producers, and other trees producing little to no fruit every season (< 5), poor producers. This difference is not due to environmental conditions such as rainfall, soil conditions or land use type as tree types occur in the same environment, sometimes only meters apart. The aim of this study was to evaluate how floral reproductive traits and the movement of pollinators between A. digitata producer and poor producer trees may affect the paternity of seed sets from producer trees. I measured seven floral traits of producers and poor producers to assess floral differences using one-way ANOVA between the tree types across three populations in the Vhembe region of South Africa. Floral traits included flower diameter, stamen ball diameter, filament length, anther length, stigma surface diameter, style length from stamen ball emergence and peduncle length. Producers had longer styles emerging from the stamen balls and longer peduncles, whereas poor producers had larger stamen balls, longer filaments, and larger anthers. There were no differences in flower diameter and stigma surface diameter between producer and poor producer trees. Similarly, canopy volume, width, and stem diameter revealed no difference between tree types. Additionally, I evaluated differences in pollen viability between producer and poor producer trees using Alexander’s stain. Although both tree types possess viable pollen, poor producers had nearly 50% higher percentage viability compared to producers. There appears to be some level of functional dioecy across baobab individuals as we found that trees either allocate resources predominantly to either male or female floral structures. Assessing the movement of alleles as a measure of pollen movement between trees may aid in our understanding of how this functional dioecy is influencing allele movement within the population. Eleven microsatellite loci were amplified to assess the paternity of 117 offspring from 13 ‘maternal’ fruit-producing trees across three A. digitata subpopulations in Vhembe, South Africa. v The six nearest potentially paternal trees to each maternal tree were genotyped to test whether they were pollen donors. Parentage analyses conducted using POLYGENE revealed that offspring of maternal trees had alleles from multiple genotyped pollen donor trees outside of their six nearest trees with selected paternal trees contributing pollen to multiple maternal trees. Analyses suggested that pollen dispersed an average of 300 m within subpopulations, but also repeatedly dispersed distances over 40 km between subpopulations. The duration of pollen viability was determined through pollen tube germination trials and aids in our understanding of how long pollen remains viable for in the environment. Pollen grains that were 24, 48 and 72 hours old were deposited on receptive stigmas and allowed to germinate overnight. Scanning electron microscopy was used to confirm pollen tube growth for the three ages of pollen; it indicated that the pollen remains viable for at least 72 hours as it successfully germinated on stigmatic surfaces across these three treatments. This indicates that pollen present in the environment, especially on the surface of pollinators (e.g., moths, bats, or beetles) has the potential to pollinate flowers when up to 72 hours old, although pollen that is older than 72 hours may still be viable, which requires further investigation. The degree of functional dioecy in individual baobab trees, proportion of viable pollen, and extensive potential range of pollen dispersal, all contribute to our knowledge of A. digitata fruit production. Understanding baobab fruiting may aid in future conservation and regeneration strategies and would improve agroforestry security of the species.Item Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Afrotemperate Forests in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2025-06) Nyembezi, Linda; Fisher, JoleneThis study investigated Afrotemperate forests’ extent and composition from 1940 to 2022 in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Thirty patches were examined (10 small patches (~one hectare), 10 medium patches (~ between 1 and 1000 hectares ) and 10 large patches (~1000 hectares)) over three time periods (1940s, 1980s and 2020s). Aerial photographs, with their high spatial resolution and long temporal extent, were used to estimate forest extent, composition (indigenous versus non-indigenous) and the surrounding land cover. Georeferencing and digitising of aerial photographs was done in QGIS. Fire extent and frequency from 1990-2024 was calculated seasonally using the difference in Normalised Burn Ratio (dNBR) on Landsat and Sentinel images in Google Earth Engine and ArcGIS Pro. Generalised Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) were run to determine the relationship between forest extent, surrounding land cover and fire. The results of this study indicated that changes in forest extent were patch size specific, with smaller and larger patches increasing in extent and medium patches decreasing in extent. Smaller forests’ expansion in extent was due to the invasion of non-indigenous vegetation. The invasion of non-indigenous vegetation was aided by the high fire extent and frequency that the small forests experienced. Medium sized patches had the highest amount of non-indigenous vegetation in their surrounding matrix which can contribute to the reduction of available water and the degradation of indigenous forests. Larger forest patches are able to buffer the effects of changes in fire and land cover patterns which can aid in indigenous forest expansion. The surrounding matrix of the larger forests had the highest amount of abandoned agricultural land which can promote forest expansion and bush encroachment. Fire extent was highest for the smaller forests possibly due to the high amounts of non-indigenous vegetation found within them. Fire frequency was highest in medium forests’ matrices possibly due to the medium forests having the highest levels of non-indigenous vegetation in the surrounding matrix and the lowest reduction in herbaceous vegetation in the surrounding matrix. Statistically fire extent and land cover were found to impact forest extent independently. The results of this study indicate that small and medium sized forests are at a higher risk of degradation in comparison to larger forests. Therefore the results of this study can be used to inform decisions around where to focus prioritisation efforts for forest conservation.Item Exploring the Extent of Youth Participation in Disaster Risk Reduction in Blantyre, Malawi(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2025-06) Mughogho, Ruth Ntombihle; Vogel, ColeenIn recent years, the world has experienced an increase in the frequency and intensity of disasters. Globally, more than a billion people have been affected. Disaster risk has become more prominent in the context of climate change where global temperatures continue to rise due to anthropogenic and other activities. Climate projections indicate intensified and more frequent disasters. Southern Africa is a climate hotspot owing to its dry and warm climate. With climate change, the region is projected to become warmer and drier resulting in unprecedented extreme events such as drought and heavy rainfall. Disasters often follow extreme events due to people’s exposure and vulnerability. Therefore, reducing exposure and vulnerability will lessen the likelihood of disasters. In order to achieve this, knowledge inputs from wider all facets of society is required. Youth, who make up more than half of the world’s population are disproportionately affected by disasters. They also are often sidelined when it comes to participation in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) work often being viewed as a vulnerable group and victims needing protection. Recent studies, however, have shown that they present an important demographic dividend that may be leveraged to further the DRR goal through their human and creative capital, employability, and civic involvement. Malawi, a developing country in southern Africa, has a strong legal and policy framework foundation supporting the participation of youth in DRR. Nevertheless, youth participation in disaster risk reduction seems to be a challenge. This study explored the extent of youth participation in DRR in Blantyre, Malawi. Using qualitative methods, twenty youths ages 18 to 35 were engaged in focus group discussions and key informants from informal institutions working in DRR were interviewed. The focus group discussions revealed that youth participation in DRR in Blantyre is decorative; representing non-participation. This means that youth are engaged in DRR activity implementation, they understand the aim of the activities, but they are not usually involved in any planning and decision-making processes. A number of barriers were discovered through this research which have been categorized into five themes; (1) DRR activities are politicized, (2) Non-consultation – adults plan and make decisions for youth without youth, (3) Limited access to information (4) Non-responsiveness – youth ideas are met with no response and (5) Financial benefits – youth are engaged where projects have no financial benefit, but excluded on ones that do. The study also highlights key disaster impacts experienced by youth in Blantyre and the strategies used for youth participation. Finally, the study provides opportunities, as suggested by the youth for enhancing youth participation which include: (1) Train and empower youth, (2) Include youth in local government committees for DRR, (3) Youth’s passion and motivation for action and (4) Platforms for communication, learning and feedback.Item The role of practitioners in facilitating the public participation process: A review of EIA in renewable energy projects(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2025-06) Madiba, Nthabiseng Pebetse; Watson, IngridThe public participation process is a crucial part of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in renewable energy projects. The role of Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs) in ensuring that this process is carried out as mandated by environmental legislation is equally important. Globally there has been a significant increase in renewable energy projects to support the transition to a low carbon economy. The role played by EAPs and the associated challenges they face when conducting public participation in EIA, particularly in renewable energy projects, has recently been the subject of studies across the globe. The aim of this study was to assess the practice of public participation in South African renewable energy projects, and to explore the role of practitioners in facilitating this process. The methodology employed involved reviewing the documentation from four renewable energy projects, this included the environmental impact reports, public participation reports, and background information documents. Legislation, in particular, the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), EIA regulations, and NEMA public participation guidelines were reviewed and studied. Furthermore, structured interviews were conducted with EAPs to address the study's objectives. Results indicated that the public participation guidelines and EIA regulations provide clear and concise requirements that EAPs should meet when conducting public participation. However, there is a key contention on the parts of the EIA regulation that give discretion to EAPs in some activities of the public participation process. The findings indicate that to a greater extent EAPs meet the requirements of public participation. EAPs also face some challenges that are unique to renewable energy projects such as lack of public knowledge, the dispersed nature of settlements in the location of renewable energy projects, and lack of public interest when it comes to the participation of Interested and Affected Parties (I&APs) in renewable energy projects. Also, the Covid-19 restrictions on public gathering had both negative and positive impacts on the public participation process. However, on the positive side these restrictions encouraged the use of social media apps and other internet platforms. The conclusions indicates that the EIA regulations and public participation guidelines provide clear and concise requirements for public participation which are implementable and has led to EAPs being able to meet most of these requirements when conducting public participation. One of the key points of contention however was the discretion given to EAPs when it comes to certain practices in public participation. An example is the issue relating to language barriers, wherein minority groups were left out, because communication was only being made in Afrikaans and English. It is recommended that concerning the issue of discretion the regulation should be revised to determine the limitation of this discretion, for example when it comes to language barriers, a multilingual clause should be included in the regulation wherein it makes it mandatory for EAPs to make information available in the language of all registered I&APs to accommodate minority groups. It is further recommended that community engagement and education be promoted when it comes to renewable energy projects to minimise the disinterest of the community in participating due to misconceptions and lack of information. A change in practice is suggested to accommodate all those participating in meetings. As such translation and interpretation services should be offered to ensure meaningful discourse and contribution to decision making. It is suggested that future studies be employed to address some of the issues that emanated from this study, but where not thoroughly investigated, such as an investigation into the role of education coupled with awareness creation in changing the public’s attitude towards renewable energy projects. Additionally, an in-depth study maybe conducted that compares and contrasts the different practices and regulation approaches to public participation in renewable energy projects across different regions and contextual circumstances.Item Habitat, plant communities and threats to the Robertson Granite Renosterveld(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2025-05) Kgomo, Thapelo Josias; Szewczuk, Alekzandra; Dayaram, Anisha; Witkowski, Ed T.F.The Robertson Granite Renosterveld (FRg3) vegetation type is found north of La Colline in the Breede River Valley near Robertson at altitudes of between 250 – 850 m a.s.l. This vegetation type is identified as understudied because of the isolated character of its granite pluton, which made it virtually unknown and led to it being identified as a priority for scientific research. As a result, the current study aims to improve the current understanding of plant communities, important habitat characteristics, threats, and identify dominant and endemic species in the FRg3. To investigate the species composition and communities within the FRg3, 53, 10m x 5m plots were sampled across the vegetation type for cover abundance of all the plant species coupled with environmental variables (altitude, and the ground covers of herbaceous vegetation, litter, bare ground, and rock). In addition, soils (~0-10 cm depth) were tested for pH (KCl), total organic carbon (C), soil texture (sand, silt, and clay), exchangeable phosphorus (P), and extractables of boron (B), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca). Fire is an important ecological disturbance in the Fynbos biome; therefore, Google Earth Engine (GEE) was explored to assess the fire history (2000-2023) of the FRg3 and map the outputs using image collections from MODIS/061/MCD64A1. The plant communities were classified using dissimilarity hierarchical cluster analysis, which showed that the FRg3 comprises five major plant communities, the following four of these communities are found in fire affected areas: Dodonaea viscosa – Euryops tenuissimus; Dicerothamnus rhinocerotis - Dodonaea viscosa, Passerina obtusifolia–Restio capensis, and Muraltia heisteria – Restio capensis; and the fifth community (Pteronia paniculata–Dicerothamnus rhinocerotis) is found in areas that have not burnt since 2000. The FRg3 had three major fires (2000, 2006, and 2017) over 24 years (2000-2023). In 2000, approximately 35% of the FRg3 burnt, while in 2006 and 2017 the fire burnt approximately 24% and 53% respectively. There have been overlaps in areas burned by multiple fires (2000 & 2017 = 23%; 2006 & 2017 = 22%), and almost half (47%) of the vegetation type did not burn at all over the 24 years. The soil analysis showed significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) in pH, Na, and texture (sand and clay) across the five communities. The FRg3 still retained most (99%) of its natural vegetation in 2023; however, there are disturbances and threats to the vegetation type, such as land clearing for agricultural purposes, and alien invasive plants such as Hakea sericea were observed within the vegetation type in 2023. The 24- year (2000-2023) changes in vegetation structure of the FRg3 were investigated using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which was computed from Landsat 5 and 8 over five different time periods (2000 – 2006, 2006 – 2013, 2013 – 2017, 2017 – 2023, and 2000 – 2023). This analysis showed an increase in FRg3 biomass (taller vegetation) between 2000 and 2006, largely because the area that burnt in 2000 had recovered despite the fire in 2006 which only burnt the small northern portion of the FRg3. The FRg3 lost most of its above ground biomass in 2017 due to a fire that burnt over half of it. The FRg3 had the most biomass in 2013 and 2023, likely due to the lack of natural or anthropogenic disturbances.Item Mining company governance and the spectre of environmental prosecutions: Is there any deterrent effect?(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-10) Monoke, Kwena Martha; Field, Tracy-LynnSouth Africa has developed good environmental legislation, but compliance with these laws is still a challenge (Linde, 2006; Skosana, 2019). According to (Digby, 2016), the South African mining industry has a notorious legacy of inadequate rehabilitation and partially closed mine sites. Mining company directors are the custodians of the company governance and have a duty to ensure compliance with all relevant mining legislation (Bezuidenhout, 2018). Their failure to comply with the law triggers, in many instances, a criminal infraction. All South African environmental legislation relies on criminal penalties to enforce its prescriptions and to punish its offenders (Murombo and Munyuki, 2019). South Africa has strict criminal sanctions for environmental noncompliance and degradation (Truter, 2014). The awareness of South Africans with regards to environmental crimes has increased due to initiatives such as the annual National Environmental Compliance and Enforcement Report, and online judgment archives such as the South African Freedom of Legal Information Institute (SAFLII) and Juta Law (Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, 2023a). The State v Blue Platinum Ventures and Mr Maponya case was used as a case study. This study seeks to investigate whether the threat of environmental prosecution influenced the mining company governance and its director and whether it had any deterrent effect on the company’s commission of environmental crimes. A qualitative case study approach was undertaken. Several documentary sources of information were relied on for the analyses of the Blue Platinum case and interviews were conducted to fill in the gaps from the data analyses. It was determined that the rule of law was being put into practice and that the community had received justice because rehabilitation was conducted and it addressed their concerns. The Blue Platinum Ventures and Mr Maponya case has had a deterrent effect on the company itself and Mr Maponya.Item Investigating hybridization among high altitude Rhodohypoxis species in the Drakensberg Alpine Centre(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-07) Coetzer, Dewald Janus; Glennon, Kelsey L.Putative hybridization between the alpine Rhodohypoxis taxa (R. baurii var. confecta, R. deflexa, R. rubella, R. incompta, and R. thodiana) as well as Hypoxis parvula var. parvula has been documented in the wild – suggesting that there are few genetic barriers between these taxa that often grow in sympatry. This study aimed to assess patterns of hybridization among the alpine Rhodohypoxis species and between them and H. parvula var. parvula at three different natural study sites and to contribute new data that might help delineate/solidify genus and species boundaries in this group using morphometric analysis, seed surface micromorphological comparisons, microsatellite data, and controlled greenhouse crosses. It was found that although all the methodologies were congruent in their ability to delineate the Rhodohypoxis species from one another and from H. parvula var. parvula (thereby corroborating their current circumscription), substantial admixture was detected at each of the three study sites – and admixed individuals were largely morphologically cryptic. Furthermore, morphometric analysis and seed surface micromorphology could not distinguish between R. thodiana and putative hybrid taxa – suggesting it may be of hybrid origin. The present study also reports the complete self-incompatibility of polyploid H. parvula var. parvula, the facultative self-compatibility of diploid R. baurii var. confecta, the successful crossbreeding of these two taxa from Sentinel Peak with a strong asymmetrical barrier to gene exchange, and a mechanism involving double-reduced polyploid pollen facilitating this interploidy cross. Low germination rate of the resulting hybrid seed is consistent with a decrease in F1 viability. These findings, coupled with the low incidence of polyploid H. parvula var. parvula individuals producing double reduced pollen, and the low levels of admixture detected, suggesting substantial post-pollination reproductive isolation between these two taxa. Nevertheless, caution should be taken when making strong taxonomic inferences from phylogenies that include R. baurii var. confecta and H. parvula var. parvula representatives from the Sentinel Peak study site.Item Critiquing existing criteria for financial provisioning for rehabilitation and closure of coal mines in South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-08) Raine, Keith Ian; Watson, Ingrid; Schwaibold, UteIt's vital for mining companies to allocate sufficient funds for environmental restoration after mining activities. This research explores the adequacy of financial provisions for the rehabilitation and closure of coal mines in South Africa, a critical issue given the country's heavy reliance on coal for energy and the significant environmental impacts associated with mining activities. The purpose of this research is important as it aims to ensure that financial provisions accurately reflect the true costs of environmental rehabilitation, thereby safeguarding ecological integrity and promoting sustainable mining practices. This is especially important in the context of South Africa's transitioning energy landscape and the global shift towards more sustainable energy sources. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the study combines an extensive literature review, analysis of South African mining legislation, and comparison with international standards and best practices. The methodology is further augmented by the researcher's direct engagement with the industry, providing an insider's perspective on the challenges faced in financial provisioning for mine closure. Through interviews with industry the research offers an examination of the current state of financial provisions in the coal mining sector. Key findings reveal gaps in the existing framework for calculating financial provisions in South Africa, including underestimation of costs, lack of comprehensive criteria covering all aspects of mine closure, and the misalignment of legal requirements with actual rehabilitation needs. The study also highlights the disparity between South African regulations and international best practices, underscoring the need for a more robust, transparent, and inclusive approach to financial provisioning. The research proposes a set of detailed themes and criteria to enhance the accuracy and efficacy of financial provisions, advocating for a just transition that balances economic, environmental, and social considerations. However the over-reliance on specialist studies when calculating financial provisions for mine closure poses significant risks and challenges that can compromise the effectiveness and sustainability of closure efforts. The significant costs associated with conducting comprehensive specialist studies can pose a barrier to smaller mining operations, potentially exacerbating the issue of mine abandonment.Item The Impact of the Just Energy Transition on Job Creation in South Africa: A Case of the Wind Energy Sector(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-10) Zondi, Nomvula Beryl; Ngubevana, LwaziSouth Africa's ratification of the Paris Agreement, an international accord established during the Conference of the Parties (COP21) in December 2015, underscores its dedication to confronting climate change and enacting measures to counteract human-induced global warming. Aligned with numerous other nations, South Africa is actively promoting a just energy transition that prioritises the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations General Assembly on September 25, 2015. This transition entails a shift from reliance on carbon-intensive fuels like coal towards renewable energy sources. Given South Africa's substantial coal reserves—ranking sixth globally coal mining and processing has historically played a central role in the nation's energy sector, industrialisation, and economy, contributing significantly to its GDP and providing employment for up to 150,000 individuals throughout the coal value chain. However, the imperative for an energy transition to mitigate climate change and fulfil the country's National Determined Contributions necessitates structural changes that will inevitably impact socio-economic dynamics. Notably, disruptions in the coal value chain will have profound repercussions on both direct and indirect employment and the communities and local economies reliant on the coal industry. The Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) 2010-2030 outlines South Africa's energy trajectory of increasing renewable energy sources into the energy mix. This study focused on wind energy deployment, with a targeted capacity of 17,742 MW by 2030. It aims to identify critical considerations essential for facilitating a just energy transition that maximises job creation in South Africa. Applying a qualitative research methodology, semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather data, utilising a deductive approach based on predetermined themes derived from existing literature on factors influencing job creation. Findings underscore the importance of addressing policy implementation gaps related to the socio-economic impact of the transition, establishing clear directives for skills development in the low-carbon economy, and prioritising local manufacturing and assembly of turbine components. Moreover, the study highlights wind energy deployment as a catalyst for fostering the development of a low-carbon ecosystem while advocating for exploring broader low-carbon value chains such as green hydrogen to enable new industries and employment opportunities. Finally, the study underscores the need for focused attention and investment in research and development of clean coal technologies, offering a potential avenue for sustainable coal utilisation devoid of adverse greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts.Item Natural resource use and environmental perceptions in different types of rural villages in Bushbuckridge, South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-09) Mbedzi, Mary Emma; Twine, WayneHouseholds in rural communities in developing countries rely on natural resources that contribute to income generation, food, medicine, cooking energy, and act as livelihood safety nets. Levels of dependency vary between households within communities due to factors such as wealth status and household size. However, less is known about differences in household resource use between communities within an area. Environmental awareness, values, and preferences are shaped by various factors including, local context. Thus, perceptions of the environment and natural resources, and changes in these are likely to vary between communities. This study aimed to compare the levels of natural resource use and environmental perceptions across village types and determine if there is any relationship between the level of natural resource use and environmental perceptions across village types in the Bushbuckridge Local Municipality in the Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Village types were defined and categorised based on their size, socio-economic factors, access to basic services, connectedness, and remoteness. The level of natural resource use was analysed using existing data from a survey of 491 households across 12 villages located in the Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System (AHDSS) site. This included data on the use, collection, buying, and selling of a range of natural resources used locally (e.g., wild foods, firewood, and medicinal plants), annual consumptions, ownership of resources made from natural resources, and livestock (cattle) ownership. The survey included questions on respondents’ perception of the change in the supply of natural resources over the past 5 years (2016-2021) before the survey. Focus group discussions were conducted in 10 of the study villages asking participants their perception of the changes in the environment and the causes thereof, the importance of the natural environment, natural resources used for their daily needs, income generation, their culture, as well as the changes in availability of natural resources and impacts on their livelihoods. The study villages were classified according to a village typology that had been developed for the AHDSS study site, based on factors such as connectedness, access to amenities and services, and the proportion of Mozambican refugee households. ANOVA and Kruskal Wallis tests were used for continual data, while the Chi-squared test was used for categorical data to test for significant differences across village types in the quantitative part of the study. For qualitative, responses of participants from each village were recorded and grouped into village types, and an overall picture of the perception of natural resources that participants used was developed using the focus group schedule. Similarities and differences in natural resources between villages were assessed by grouping widely and less used resources by villages and village types. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the mean prevalence of use, collection, buying, and selling of natural resources, or annual consumption of natural resources across villages and village types. Households in better-serviced villages owned more products from natural resources and were to greater extent, likely to own livestock than poorly-serviced villages. As to environmental perceptions, more respondents in the poorly serviced village types (refugee settlements (RS) and underdeveloped communities (UC)) perceived a decrease in the supply of natural resources than better-serviced village types (established communities (EC) and central communities (CC)). Participants in focus group discussions also noted a decrease in the supply of natural resources across all villages and village types. There was a relationship between village types, natural resource use, and perceptions of change in natural resource availability. Established communities correlated with a higher number of resources perceived as decreasing and central communities were associated with higher cattle ownership. Underdeveloped communities and refugee settlements were associated with a higher number of resources used/owned, a higher number of resources used often (more than 4 times a month), and a higher number of resources sold, and buying firewood. Natural resources were more highly used in, better-serviced village types (central communities, and established communities), than in poorly-serviced village types (underdeveloped communities, and refugee settlements), which was unexpected. However, there were quite a few proxies such as the collection and selling of resources, which were used that did not help back up these findings which could explain the unexpected results. Most respondents in remote and poorly-serviced village types perceived a change in the supply of natural resources, the greatest decrease being in the supply of natural resources. This is associated with awareness of the value of the environment and high reliance on natural resources for these poorly-serviced village types. This study suggests that differences exist in resource use patterns between villages, even in the same area. However, village characteristics were not a good predictor of all aspects of resource use. Changes in proxies of resource utilization and re-evaluating the existing village typology would be useful for further studies.