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Browsing *Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management (ETDs) by SDG "SDG-5: Gender equality"
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Item A legal analysis of the complexity of race and gender disadvantage in terms of the Employement Equity Act in South Africa(2019) Mushariwa, Muriel TapiwaCenturies of colonialism and Apartheid created a legacy of inequality in South Africa that the democratic Constitution, 1996, seeks to address. The constitutional mandate in section 9 of this Constitution, enacted through the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 (EEA), requires designated employers in the public and private sphere to address the inequality in the workplace through the application of affirmative action. The EEA identifies the beneficiaries of affirmative action policies as black people, women and persons with disabilities. It is clear that these constitute three distinct groups, but that it is also possible for an individual to belong to more than one of these collectives. For example, black women fall within two designated groups on the basis of race and gender, and this dual disadvantage creates a multi-layered, unique and complex type of inequality. The main aim of the EEA is to create a representative workforce, and designated employers have a duty to break down the barriers that prevent members of the designated groups from entering the workplace. Once employed, employers need to assist members of the designated groups to progress in the workplace. However, having a representative workforce does not translate into a transformed workforce. It will be argued in this thesis that a transformed workplace is representative, but also requires the breakdown of institutional norms, processes and structures that prevent the progression of members of the designated groups. The question to be asked is whether affirmative action, in its current form, is able to transform the workplace. To answer this question, it is vital that consideration be given, firstly, to the type of substantive equality that is to be achieved in the application of affirmative action. It will be shown that the aim should be a transformative substantive equality of outcome. Focus will be placed on the fact that individuals who fall within the designated groups are not equally placed in terms of their experience of disadvantage. It is submitted that consideration of differing experiences of disadvantage needs to be taken into account so as to avoid the creation of an elite middle class black, and possibly male, group, which benefits from affirmative action to the exclusion of others, thus hampering the achievement of equality in the workplace. This thesis will show that a transformative form of substantive equality of outcome needs to be applied to affirmative action in the workplace. This transformative form of substantive equality includes a situation sensitive approach to the implementation of affirmative action in the workplace. A situation sensitive approach will apply affirmative action strictly on a case by case basis with regard to the demographic profile of the specific workforce, and the employment equity policy of the particular workplace. A one size fits all approach cannot deal with the complexity of disadvantage that needs to be addressed. It will be argued that, besides a situation sensitive approach to race, gender and disability, the issues of social, political, economic and educational disadvantage are factors that should be given consideration in identifying the true beneficiaries of affirmative action. To further illustrate this point, particular attention will be given to women within the designated groups, in order to unpack the nature of disadvantage they experienced in the workplace. Two case studies, focusing on women in male dominated professions, the legal profession and the mining industry, will be used to illustrate this point. This thesis will show that ultimately, the goal of affirmative action must be seen to be to change the workplace by breaking down both the visible and invisible barriers of equality and, in doing so, create an environment where, constitutional values of equality, human dignity and freedom are truly recognized and protected.Item A study of gender differences in job finding strategies(University of the Witswatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-06-30) Ralefeta, Neo; Posel, DorritMen and women in the South African labour market face different sets of challenges with women persistently having higher unemployment rates when compared to men. How they search for and find work is an important aspect of the country’s labour market and may inform policy solutions on how to address the large unemployment gaps between men and women. Active job searching is a costly exercise and individuals may use passive searching methods and rely on their social networks to connect them to job openings. This research report examines the differences in job finding strategies between adult men and women; it groups unemployed individuals into searching and non-searching categories and considers their individual and household characteristics. Using data from the National Income Dynamics study from years 2012 and 2014/2015, the study shows that there is a positive correlation between men’s search status and their employment outcomes. However, this is not the case for women whose employment outcomes are not influenced by whether they search for employment or not. For women, a negative correlation is found between social reproductive work and employment outcomes, and a positive correlation is found between educational attainment and employment outcomes. Social reproductive work hinders women more than men from actively searching for employment and being a female lowers the probability of finding employment. This research report contributes to the literature by providing a national analysis of gendered job searching strategies and employment outcomes by using recent nationally representative data.Item Antecedents of online shopping behaviour: the moderating role of gender in Gauteng(2022) Sikhalela, KhanyisaOnline shopping is a growing phenomenon, and, with the COVID19 pandemic, it has been exacerbated. This study sought to assess the antecedents of online shopping behaviour and the moderating role of gender. Driven by the need to expand the knowledge of digital marketing and consumer behaviour, research on consumer behaviour and gender was imperative. This study was motivated by the lack of studies in the South African context that have investigated the online shopping antecedents and how the relationship between these antecedents and online shopping is influenced by gender. To achieve the aim of the study, this study utilised a selfadministered questionnaire to collect data from 200 online shoppers from Gauteng province, South Africa. Correlation and regression analyses were used to evaluate the objectives of the study. Thus, a causal-comparative research design was employed to investigate the effect of perceived benefit, online consumer attitude, perceived risk and trust on online shopping, and how gender influences these relationships. The study revealed that perceived benefit, trust, and online consumer attitude positively affect online shopping. Perceived risk was found to have a negative effect on online shopping. Further results revealed that gender influences the relationships between online shopping behaviour and its antecedents. The study concluded that gender matters regarding online shopping behaviours in Gauteng province. It was recommended that online businesses implement gender-sensitive marketing strategies to attract more online buyers. The results imply that online businesses should pay attention to the four antecedents of online shopping to increase their online sales. Building trust and reducing the perceived risks would enhance online business growth. This suggests that gender-specific or gender-sensitive marketing strategies should be implemented to increase online shopping.Item Challenges Johannesburg non-governmental organisations face in the fight against gender-based violence(2022) Rwebangira, Annelies ByeraThe purpose of this research is to examine the challenges NGOs in Johannesburg face that hinder the fight against GBV, and to offer recommendations on how to overcome them so as to achieve greater success in their work. A qualitative methodology is used to obtain the findings of the research, with methods of semi-structured interviews and document analysis. The three main challenges facing NGOs dealing with GBV, according to Britton (2006) are shortages in funding, inadequate leadership, and inappropriate methods. This research interrogates these three challenge areas as they relate to GBV. The findings suggest that similar challenges still persist among NGOs as those pointed out by Britton. Shortage in funding is still the leading challenge facing NGOs. Inadequate leadership is continually observed in the form of the limited extent of collaboration of the NGOs with other stakeholders especially the government officials. Lastly, it builds upon the challenges associated with the methods carried out by the NGOs while implementing the strategies, i.e. they are hindered by harmful socio-cultural practices and ethical challenges while carrying out GBV research. In conclusion, the research suggests that NGOs should devise alternative means of securing additional funding, provide more training to enhance leadership, and design methods that are socially and culturally sensitive to the needs of the victims of GBV.Item Cultural values and consumer choice of motor vehicle brands: the case of women in SA(2021) Majola, JoniaCulture is one of the accepted determiners used by marketing researchers as an influencer of consumer behaviour. This research seeks to determine how cultural values impact women’s vehicle brand choice in South Africa. The study also seeks to determine effect of vehicle purchasing factors on vehicle brand choice particularly for women and compared with men. The methodology used for this study entailed an online quantitative survey. A total of 7 cultural values hypotheses were tested and two were accepted and 5 were rejected. A total of 6 vehicle purchasing factors were tested and 3 were accepted and 3 were rejected. The findings revealed that brand choice is influenced by two cultural values: affective cultural value and mastery cultural values. Moreover, vehicle purchasing factors that influence vehicle brand choice are styling, pricing and image. The study also confirmed that there are significant differences between male and female consumers within the cultural values of intellectual autonomy cultural value and hierarchy cultural values. Furthermore, male and female buyers embody a significant difference in one vehicle purchasing factor: styling. The theoretical findings contribute to the limited and existing research, literature and knowledge on the effect of cultural values on vehicle brand choice and the effect of vehicle purchasing factors on vehicle brand choice. The study broadens knowledge on the vehicle purchasing factors; it extends our understanding on the differences between women and men in terms of vehicle purchasing factors and cultural values. The managerial implications reveal the importance of understanding customers. Two cultural values influence vehicle brand choice; these are: affective autonomy and mastery cultural values. Therefore, automotive marketers should ensure that their marketing strategies speak to these cultural values. For mastery cultural value communication strategies should embrace the spirit of goal-oriented people and success. For affective autonomy cultural value, it is therefore important for marketers to verify that their marketing strategies focus on ensuring that customers will use their vehicles to enjoy life. Vehicles should be portrayed as a tool that enables customers to enjoy life when embarking on new experiences such as visiting markets and Page | 3 adventurous experiences and excursions. Marketing strategies should also include three vehicle purchasing factors pillars: styling, pricing and image.Item Factors influencing entrepreneurial intentions of women in the South African digital ecosystem(2021) Danisa, NombuleloIn line with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there have been increasing calls in support of female entrepreneurship in Sub Saharan Africa. The entrepreneurial gender disparity against women in South Africa is a cause for concern considering the important role of female entrepreneurs in the economy. Potential female entrepreneurs face challenges and hostile environments that discourage entrepreneurial spirit. However, with the advent of the digital ecosystem, it is hoped that these institutional barriers would be overcome. Thus, an investigation on the influence of institutional factors and the digital environment on entrepreneurial intentions of women is imperative. Utilising the Theory of Planned Behaviour within an institutional embedded perspective, a model for the digital economy was inferred to analyse factors affecting female entrepreneurial intention in the South African digital ecosystem. This quantitative study utilised cross sectional data collected for a final sample of 302 females across South Africa. Results reflected that entrepreneurial intentions of women are positively influenced by favourable perceptions of the cognitive and normative institutional dimensions. However, the regulatory dimension had a positive but insignificant influence with no evidence that the digital environment interacts with the institutional environment to influence entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, it is recommended that government and policy makers play a leading role in promoting a culture that values female entrepreneurship. This would assist in creating favourable perceptions of the institutional environment and in turn encourage aspiring female entrepreneurs to start their own business.Item Feminist evaluation: case study of graça machel trust women creating wealth programme(2022) Mokoena, RefilweFeminist evaluation assesses the value or merit of a policy, programme or other initiative with a focus on the gender-based inequality and its contribution to social injustice. Evaluation results and processes are then used to act and advocate for gender equality. Applying a feminist lens to evaluation increases the likelihood that systemic gender-based norms, beliefs and discrimination will be examined and addressed. This, in turn, can increase the evaluation’s utility as feminist evaluation approaches involve users in defining and addressing these norms. This study applied feminist evaluation principles to the Graça Machel Trust Women Creating Wealth (WCW) programme in Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia, to examine how these principles affect the usefulness of the evaluation. The research used Alkin’s (2017) concept of the two categories of the Program Evaluation Utility Standards – those to do with the evaluation and those to do with the evaluator – to define utility. The study evaluated the WCW by employing the Most Significant Change approach, complemented by document review. The study’s research component included semi-structured key informant interviews with feminist evaluation experts, the WCW programme manager and a literature review. Results revealed the ways in which the two feminist principles contributed to the evaluation-related utility standards, namely attention to stakeholders and meaningful processes and products. Adding a feminist lens to the evaluation context analysis of the WCW programme made visible the gender norms and beliefs in the external environment as well as those demonstrated by the programme. This context review also brought to light the power dynamics within the programme. This information strengthened attention to more marginalized stakeholders, which increased the study’s utility. The use of feminist principles outlined the ways of knowing espoused by the WCW programme and showed that some ways of knowing and learning were privileged over others, even in an all-women initiative The use of feminist evaluation principles and the Most Significant incited some learning and reflection on feminist programming on the part of WCW staff. The full investigation into the evaluation’s utility remained underdeveloped, however, due to logistical and time constraints. This presents an opportunity for further and future research into the effect of feminist evaluation on evaluation utility in Africa.Item Inequality of opportunity in South Africa(2023) Booysen, Andrid AngeliqueRecent studies conducted in South Africa and other developing countries show that measuring the “unfair inequalities” in society (such as with income) that have an effect on one’s abilities to achieve certain outcomes, can assist in better understanding total inequality. Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) is the government agency that is responsible for measuring and reporting inequality in the country. The purpose of this research is to contribute in providing an alternative view on how Stats SA can measure and report inequality in South Africa. The study adopts the ex-ante view when measuring inequality of opportunity. Data used for the study was sourced from the Living Conditions Survey (LCS). The variables used in the study were divided into outcome, circumstance and effort. The outcome or dependent variable used for this research was individual income annualised and adjusted for inflation. Results from the study show that individual employment status, individual years of schooling, race, parental educational level and employment status, sex of individual at birth and place of residence had the biggest effect on individual income in South AfricaItem Institutional arrangements in the coordination of policies for gender equality(2020) Sobudula, ViweGender inequality is a challenge which has been inherited from the apartheid government in South Africa. The democratic government has through the establishment of various institutions such as the Department of Women, Youth and Persons with Disabilities (DWYPD) and the development of policies and laws made efforts to address gender inequalities, however, the problem still persists. The purpose of this study is to analyse how the DWYPD works with other government departments through institutional arrangements to coordinate policies for the promotion of gender equality/equity. The research found that although the DWYPD has an enabling environment for policy coordination, institutional arrangements are structurally and operationally weak. The study also found challenges such as unclear policy mandate, lack of legislative authority to coordination policies and poor communication and planning within the DWYPD for the institutional arrangements. The study gives insights into challenges faced by different departments and makes recommendations for better coordination and managementItem Investigating policy exclusion of heterosexual male perpetrators in the National Strategic Plan on Gender-based Violence and Femicide(University of the Witswatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Silaule, Nichole; Chikane, RekgotsofetseGender-based violence (GBV) is not a minor novel societal challenge occurring in certain pockets of society. It is a pervasive global social justice issue, which transcends race, class, religion and geographical location. The policy exclusion of heterosexual male perpetrators within national policy presents a barrier to curbing gender-based violence and promoting social cohesion. A broad knowledge base exists regarding the drivers and implications of gender-based violence, however, there is a disconnect between gender-based violence national policy and the subjects inflicting the violence. This research therefore aims to broaden the discussion on the polarised narrative of heterosexual male perpetrators in the gender-based violence policy environment. A qualitative methodological approach is utilised to analyse the National Strategic Plan on Gender- based Violence and Femicide report and two associated reports in relation to the role and reference of heterosexual male perpetrators. Thematic content analysis and interpretive phenomenological analysis of the reports and 15 semi-structured interviews with government officials, non-governmental organisations and subject matter experts are methods used in the research to enhance the understanding of the data gathered. The intersectionality theory and ecological framework form the analytical lens shaping the research, these theories form the intersecting ecological factors at play informing policy and the policy stakeholders who passively and actively influence gender-based violence policy decisions. The findings show that factors in national policy formulation provide exclusionary barriers to heterosexual male perpetrators. The target group is not prevalent in stakeholder participation in consultations, patriarchal ideologies remain intact shaping gender-based violence and femicide policy. Local grassroots consultations with specific focus on un-converted heterosexual male perpetrators in various locations need to be provided platform. Also, applying inclusive gender transformative approaches in policy formulation are key determinates to effective policy implementation and inclusion of all policy stakeholders. In conclusion, the meaningful insights on gender-based violence perpetration will guide both future research and policy initiatives driven by government officials, civil society and private stakeholders in South African societyItem Representation of women in the South African military(2021) Prins, Ammerenthia PetronellaAlthough the breakthrough came in 1998 for women to join the combat corps, twenty years later, the SANDF is still facing the challenge of not being able to increase the number of women, and to meet the national target of a 50:50 male versus female ratio in the combat environment. The purpose of this research was to explore the reasons why the SANDF had not been able to achieve a 50:50 male to female ratio in the combat environment and to consider possible implications for the gender transformation mandate of the SANDF. Patriarchy stood out to be the biggest challenge women face in the military. Some of the symptoms of patriarchy visible in the SANDF is that the leadership of the SANDF is predominantly male, policies are not gender neutral and the continuous sexual harassment of women to the extent where the MOD & MV had to intervene. The perception that women must behave like men to achieve military objectives must end however, the military remains a “man’s world” and as Heinecken (2016) claims, “..the only way to ‘regender’ the military is to stop privileging masculinity over femininity”Item Social media’s influence on public policy in gender based violence(2022) Naidoo, NalianeeConstitutional transformation is the cornerstone of our new democracy and has entrenched Constitutional supremacy in South Africa. However, regardless of our twenty-six years into a new democracy, we are still challenged with social injustice around gender-based violence in our country. These historical challenges are rooted in the legacy of apartheid, colonialism, and a patriarchal society. Although our Constitution and Bill of Rights protects the rights of women, and there has been progressive interventions around policy changes, we are still not effectively addressing the scourge of gender- based violence. Policy changes require active public participation to ensure social justice and the protection of the rights of women in our society. Today, with the advancements in technology the use of social media has become a popular tool in social movements and their mobilization strategies. This component of social media in advocacy has broadened the scope and reach of social movements and has in many ways created wider terrain for which public policy can be influenced. To enhance democracy public participation has become a critical component and has contributed to changes in public policy, as it signals the ability of citizens to engage in democratic processes and to make contestations where necessary. The primary purpose of this research is to investigate, using qualitative methodology and a case study analysis, how the #TotalShutDown: 24Demands campaign leveraged social media in influencing public policy on Gender - Based violence in South Africa. Individual semi structured interviews were used for the collection of primary data from national and provincial members of the coordinating committees, while document analysis was used for the collection of secondary data which was collected and analysed. The research study revealed that through the leveraging of social media the #TotalShutDown:24Demands campaign was able to influence the policy environment. In addition, the study revealed that social media, as a strategic mobilization tool, allows for movements to broaden the terrain in which they can engage with women, thus providing wider reach for advocacy objectives to be reached. In the study, this was evidenced by the movement as they were able to effectively create networks across the country (nationally and provincially) to achieve its mission as described in the 24 Demands. Finally, the study will also show how integrated methods of mobilization (making use of traditional mobilization strategies while leveraging digital forms of engagement) strengthen advocacy efforts and often results in multiple forms of movement building and advocacy. The main recommendations made were, for a more inclusive approach to the Gender Based Violence space on the issue of intersectionality that needs to be addressed. A deeper 3 engagement with what constitutes a feminist approach needs to be analysed as there were different interpretations to this concept. Finally, for meaningful changes in the policy environment of the GBV space a more holistic approach needs to be adopted in the economic, social, and cultural spheres.Item The disproportionate effect of transport availability on the poor in South Africa: a gender perspective(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-06) Everts, Lee; Posel,DorritIssues relating to the cost and accessibility of transportation for the poor in South Africa have been thoroughly studied; however, research on the unequal impact on women and men is deficient. Thus, this study's purpose is to explore if there are gender variations in transportation disadvantage and costs, and if so, to probe possible reasons. To compare gender differences in mode of transport and expenditure, the 2020 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) from Statistics South Africa is used. Households are classified into female-dominated ( all adults in households are female), male-dominated (all adults are male) and mixed households (both female and male adults present in households). This method is used as it helps to distinguish gender differences in the economic resources available to each household type (Posel & Hall, 2021). Descriptive statistics on mode of transport (private, public and walking) and transport cost as a share of budget by household type and purpose of transport (travel to place of employment and educational institution) are first provided. A multinomial regression is then used to investigate gender differences in mode of transport in a multivariate context and an Ordinary Least Squares Regression (OLS) is used to explore gender differences in budget allocations to transport. The analysis finds that when household characteristics across household types are not controlled for, no significant differences in mode of travel between female- and male-dominated households are evident. Once included, people in female-dominated households are significantly less likely than others to walk and more likely to use public transport. Moreover, female-dominated households spend more on school transportation than male-dominated households, as well as transport shares allocated to work travelItem The glass cliff: exploring the dynamics around the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions in corporate South Africa(2021) Mashele, WinsomeThe current research explores the "glass cliff" form of discrimination. The research argues that while women are now appointed in high-profile positions, there is a greater likelihood that they end up on a 'glass cliff' as compared to their male counterparts. Glass cliff positions put women executives' in potentially risky roles that could harm their reputations and career prospects because, when a company performs poorly, people tend to blame its leadership without considering situational variables. The research problem statement centres around the overrepresentation of women who are in senior leadership positions in organizations that are experiencing difficulties, which is an increasing concern in corporate South Africa. The main objectives of the study, among others includes to: (i) gain a better understanding of why women choose risky leadership positions. (ii) identify the leadership experiences of women in leading organisations in relation to gender. (iii) understand the suitable leadership styles that women facing the glass cliff have at their disposal to build relationships with internal shareholders as well as influence the structure of the organisation. (iv) understand the tools and resources that are needed to support women in senior leadership roles during times of crises in corporate South Africa. Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative research methodology was employed, and data collected through semi-structured interviews from a total of 15 participants. Findings: The findings suggest that women are now allowed to occupy senior leadership positions where these positions record a decline in status, competence and prestige, and as a result are time consuming and difficult to combine with a successful academic career. An important set of findings is: (i) the participants perceived the risky activity as a form of promotional opportunity and were willing to accept an offer. (ii) if women are placed in the right positions with the right skills, success is potentially guaranteed. (iii) leaders should practice the situational leadership style which evolves according to the situation, the time at hand and its nature. Contribution / value: Despite some limitations that were experienced over the course of the study, some answers emerged in response to the key question on which the study was premised. Furthermore, iv the aim of this study was achieved in terms of its contribution not only in providing guidance to organizational decision makers, policy makers and business leaders to address inequalities in corporate South Africa, but also in highlighting the role played by women in making career decisions within the rubric of the glass cliff phenomenon.Item The impact of COVID-19 on the Gender Wage Gap in South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-06) Ngcobo, KhweziThe COVID-19 pandemic resulted in large distributional changes in the South African labour market. Prior to the pandemic, South African women were compensated less relative to South African men. This paper applies the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the gender wage gap between February 2020, April 2020, June 2020 and March 2021. Results indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic widened the existing monthly gender wage gap, while barely altering the hourly wage gap over the given period. The study finds that the main contributor to the gender wage gap is discrimination in the South African labour market. Key variables that contributed to the discrimination component across all periods are population group and having children aged below 7 years. Gender differences in the composition of the employment sector, having young children and hours of work also significantly contributed to the gender wage gap. These results suggest a need for gender- sensitive policies to improve the labour market position of disadvantaged individualsItem The role of executive coaching in enabling social capital amongst female senior managers in Corporate Investment Banking(2020) Mashinini, Keitumetse (Zani)Organisations across the globe are looking to improve their diversity and inclusion efforts. This is in recognition that, despite many efforts such as designing women leadership development programmes to aid the advancement of women, women remain underrepresented in the corporate pipeline. It is thus of great importance to embark on a study to investigate the role that leadership development interventions such as coaching can play in enabling women to make use of social capital. Qualitative data was collected by means of interviews with senior female managers that have participated in a women’s leadership development programme that incorporated coaching and that appreciates concepts such as social capital. Patterns of meaning were identified using a thematic analysis method. The findings showed that women’s preferences and values and their abilities and behaviours limited their career advancement. Other variables emerged as contributors to the lack of or the slow advancement of women. It was only after they had attended a leadership programme that included coaching to implement the learnings, that they started to adopt behaviours associated with social capital. The study recommends that, in order to facilitate the coaching experience and outcomes pertaining to career advancement, coaches need to understand the competencies that women need to adopt to make use of social capital. Further, human resources practitioners can make use of the findings to design leadership development programmes differently. The conclusion drawn from the study is that coaching as a leadership development intervention can enable the use of social capital and make a contribution to the career advancement of women particularly at senior management level.Item Women’s decision-making, child nutrition and motherhood: evidence from South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2021) Adediran, Olanrewaju Adewole; Oyenubi, AdeolaThe thesis comprised three main essays. These are issues affecting the degree of equality in economic opportunities and the dynamics of earnings inequalities within the labour market. The inferences made about women's decision-making and their varied labour income due to the number of children given birth in South Africa. First, much of the existing literature contends that income is a key determinant of household decision-making. Yet the causal connection between income and household decision-making is difficult to ascertain, given the obvious endogeneity bias that may arise from reverse causality and omitting (unobserved) confounding variables correlated with income and the household decision- making measures. Thus, this study exploited the exogenous variation in household income and their decision-making. This is based on a unique natural experiment in South Africa using age discontinuity in eligibility for Old Age Pension (OAP) income transfer- to identify the causal effect of income on household decision-making. Using a regression discontinuity design (RDD), the study found that women's decision-making responded to changes in income from OAP transfer more than that of men. More so, the OAP transfer influenced women decision-making by 12% points for the recipient more than non-recipient. The results from the quantile treatment effect confirmed that the OAP income transfer effect is heterogeneous across the distribution of household decision-making. The study suggested that women should be used as a channel of distribution of social grant (in development programmes) to reduced inequality and achieve gender equality