Electronic Theses and Dissertations (Masters)

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A comparative analysis of mining environmental management programme reports following a change to the one environmental system
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2022) Mathe, Lebogang; Watson, I.
The mining fraternity has recently seen a shift in terms of environmental requirements under the ambit of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002 (MPRDA) to the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA). The objective was to ensure a streamlined environmental compliance and to put emphasis on integrated environmental management. The One Environmental System (OES) was introduced which denotes that all environmental related projects or activities, including mining, are regulated through an ambit of one system. NEMA is recognised as an overarching law which provides for co-operative environmental governance; therefore, all environmental related activities are regulated under its ambit and EIA regulations. In this research report, the Environmental Management Programme (EMP) reports and Environmental Authorisations that were issued under the MPRDA and the 2014 NEMA regulations respectively, were analysed using the respective regulations to compare the environmental management measures outlined in the reports to achieve better environmental results. The aim of the research was to assess whether the Environmental Authorisations granted in terms of NEMA reflect better environmental results as compared to those issued under the MPRDA. Better environmental results mean improved management plans with clearer assessment of impacts, more detailed mitigation measures with specific, achievable, relevant and time bound actions that do not pose harmful effects on the environment and communities. A mixed method of analysis was implemented which included a review and comparison of legislation, evaluation and scoring of 20 EMPs (10 submitted under MPRDA and 10 submitted under NEMA) and interviews with key informants, namely competent authorities and the Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs) were conducted to support the findings of the reports. In conclusion, the reports analysed presented a significant improvement and better environmental results under NEMA. The interviews conducted with authorities and the EAPs have also substantiated the observations made in terms of Environmental Management Programme reports and Environmental Authorisations submitted. The findings indicated that there were similarities in the MPRDA and NEMA regulations as 4 | P a g e regards some environmental requirements. However, the MPRDA lacked to outline a detailed description of environmental requirements needed to manage environmental impacts. Thus, applicants provided limited information in terms of the management of impacts. NEMA has provided additional requirements, including baseline environmental information, specialist reports and public participation amongst others; these contributed to improved environmental results. The study revealed that the reports submitted under NEMA provided better environmental management measures as compared to the reports submitted under MPRDA.
Biodiversity stewardship in south africa - an assessment of the klipkraal biodiversity stewardship programme and its potential for conservation
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Butler, Kirsten
The importance of conservation in agriculture has become more apparent over the last couple of years, however it involves complex social-ecological relationships and as agriculture is a critical industry for human survival, biodiversity conservation in the industry is a major challenge worldwide. In South Africa, biodiversity stewardship programmes, which involve agreements between landowners and conservation authorities to secure land in biodiversity priority areas, are becoming a prominent method of conservation in agriculture. Yet there is a lack of research on the conservation benefits and whether they show improvements in the area’s biodiversity. This study focussed on the Klipkraal biodiversity stewardship programme which consists of two privately owned functional cattle farms in a peri-urban area of the southern grasslands of Gauteng making up 2 656 hectares of land of which 1 600 hectares are natural vegetation, and the remaining area is cultivated land used for farming maize and soya. The study sought to answer the question: what is the ecological state of the area and does this programme have potential for conservation in the long-term? The aim of this study was to assess the potential conservation benefits and sustainability of the Klipkraal biodiversity stewardship programme. The study involved both qualitative and quantitative data collection, including landcover mapping, field surveying to assess the vegetation state and mammal diversity and distribution of the site, and interviews with key stakeholders. The landcover mapping allowed for a visual representation of the various landcover types and percentage coverage of each of the six landcover types found in the study area. Vegetation assessments at five different sites resulted in an understanding of the vegetation structure, composition and cover across the two farms and from this it was established that the vegetation structure and species diversity differ, but the species composition is similar throughout the study site. An anthropogenic disturbance score was allocated to each site and the highest rated anthropogenic scores correlated with the sites consisting of the highest exotic species. The mammal assessments showed that the varying vegetation structure allows for specialist species to occupy a range of habitats within the site and also indicated that there are barriers to the movement of large mammals within the site. The results of the vegetation and mammal assessment which suggest a diverse range of vegetation units, habitats, and mammal diversity, emphasise that the area is important for conservation. The interviews revealed the multiple challenges involved in the Klipkraal Biodiversity Stewardship Programme and requirements in order for the programme to be successful in the long term. These include a need for willingness of landowners to put their time and resources into conservation efforts on their properties, a need for constant monitoring of management strategies, the importance of expanding the stewardship areas to ensure conservation of the entire area and not just isolated fragments of the area. However, key challenges in expanding the programme were also revealed, such as scepticism by landowners in entering land agreements with the government and in Gauteng, many areas of conservation interest are made of multiple small properties that are owned by different landowners which means a lot of effort is required in getting each landowner to sign up. Insight was also given into the roles of the various stakeholders and the relationship between the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (GDARD) and the landowners, and it was indicated that GDARD’s role is to provide guidance, education and resources when available to the landowners in order to manage their protected area. This study can be used as a baseline study for GDARD to measure the progress in conservation in terms of the landcover and ecological aspects at the site and to monitor any changes in landowner-GDARD dynamics.
Characterisation of Drought Using Hydrological and Meteorological Indices: A Case Study of Bethlehem, South Africa
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) Tshabalala, Khanyisile; Evans, Mary; Masindi, Khuliso
The study aims to assess the severity and evolution of drought/s in Bethlehem using the hydrological: Streamflow Drought Index (SDI), Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI), Effective Reconnaissance Drought Index (eRDI) and meteorological: Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI), Agricultural Standardised Precipitation Index (aSPI), and Precipitation Deciles (PD) indices. These indices were computed using the Drought Indices Calculator (DrinC). The RDI, eRDI, aSPI, and SPI identified three drought events between 1980 and 2017. The PD on the other hand, identified particular years between 1980 and 2017 that received below-normal to much below- normal precipitation. Further, the years identified to have received below normal to much below normal precipitation fell between the drought periods identified by the other indices, such as the 1980 – 1990 drought identified by the SPI, RDI, aSPI, and eRDI; the PD identified 1982, 198, 1985, and 1986 as specific years the received significantly low precipitation within the decade long drought. Of critical note is the absence of the SDI results, stream levels data was not available at the time the results presented in this report were computed. The unavailability of SDI values did not compromise or negatively affect the results presented in this study as the computed indices had a strong correlation, implying the reliability of the results presented in this report
Functional feeding groups of mayfly nymphs (Ephemeroptera) in South African rivers of the North West and Limpopo Provinces
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024-02) Bossman, Esi H.; Harrison, James du G.; Woodford, Darragh J.
Researchers, primarily in the Northern hemisphere, have extensively studied mouthpart morphology and dietary variability in Ephemeroptera (colloquially called mayflies). Ephemeroptera are key primary consumers in rivers around the world and are used as aquatic biomonitoring indicators due to interspecific variation in ecological tolerances that make them good indicator taxa. Cummins (1973, 1974) created a functional feeding groups (FFG) classification system, based on northern hemisphere macroinvertebrates, as a universal tool to functionally categorise organisms based on their primary feeding mode within their habitat. The FFG classification system is useful in identifying interrelations between structural and functional components of an ecosystem. The aim of this study was to contribute knowledge on FFGs for particular mayfly species, in the southern African savanna biome, through mouthpart morphology and gut content analysis. Four study sites were sampled from the Magaliesberg (M) and Waterberg (W) catchments. There were three species studied, namely Afroptilum parvum (Family Baetidae), Afronurus barnardi (Family Heptageniidae) and Elassoneuria sp. (Family Oligoneuriidae). These species’ mouthparts were dissected and their macro- and microstructures were prepared for viewing with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and light microscopy. Micrographs and images showed variation in mouthpart morphology between all three species, with special attention to the labia and maxilla microstructures. The identification and description of microstructures that differentiate mayfly species (and the adaptations of these appendages to facilitate food uptake and ingestion) are important to address knowledge gaps regarding mayfly mouthpart morphology. A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed distinct grouping of the three species, with mandibles and maxillary palps showing the most variation between species. After analysis, the following feeding groups were assigned: Afroptilum parvum is a collector-gatherer feeder, Afronurus barnardi is a brusher-scraper feeder and Elassoneuria sp. is a filter feeder. This study showed, in part, that the Cummins’ (1973, 1974) classification categories were too broad for classifying organisms from a South African savanna stream. However, it is a good foundational starting point for region specific FFG classification systems. Thus, it is recommended to use the classification system Cummins created as a starting point for classifying organisms into FFGs with an initial definition that can be expanded upon to create individual classification systems for different localities.
Home range establishment of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a savanna environment
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-09) Ngorima, Patmore; Parrini, Francesca; Boyers, Melinda; Mariotti, Elena
Data from nine female African elephants translocated to Hurungwe Safari Area that had been collared was used to estimate home range patterns. Monthly home ranges for each elephant were estimated using the 50% and 95% Kernel Density Estimates (KDEs) method for a period of 20 months following translocation. At the population level, a linear regression model was used to test for the effect of months from release on the home range patterns. The findings revealed that the 95% home range of the elephants increased over time, while the 50% home range decreased since their initial release. I went further to compare the individual differences using the generalised additive model. The results showed some individual differences in patterns of exploration, with some displaying more linear home range patterns than others. Over and above, a considerably positive and relevant relationship between time and variation in the extent of the home range was observed.
Personality profiles of the Namaqua rock mouse (Micaelamys namaquensis), the Mozambique thicket rat (Grammomys cometes) and the woodland dormouse (Graphiurus murinus)
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-09) Mampa, Nthabiseng; Linhsan, Emmanuel Do; Madikiza, Kim
Personality is the variation in behaviour amongst individuals, which arises as a result of genetic differences and exposure to different environments. Although the term is usually associated with humans, multiple studies have found evidence for personality in other non-human taxa such as rodents, fish, reptiles, and primates, which ultimately showed that personality is ubiquitous. Personality determines how individuals react in different situations throughout their life, such as when they encounter stressors, interact with their conspecifics, prey and predators, how they select seeds and the distance to which they disperse, when displaying aggression, and when facing novel objects, their propensity to take risks, among other behaviours. Personality traits are most described using terms such as bold and shy, aggressive, docile, and avoidant. These terms relate to individual coping style, temperament, and correlated traits. Given the importance of personality, this study was aimed at studying personality in the woodland dormouse, Mozambique thicket rat and Namaqua rock mouse, in order to understand personality and how it varies among species and within species, i.e., between sexes. In consideration of the importance of genetic factors in the development of personality, it was expected that there would be differences among the three rodent species despite being exposed to similar environmental conditions. It was also expected that there would be differences between males and females within each species due to the influence of sex hormones on personality. Two standardised personality tests were conducted, namely the open-field and the novel object test to measure boldness, shyness, exploration, and avoidance when facing novelty by observing the frequency and duration of the behavioural responses exhibited during these tests. The study showed that rodents react to novelty by showing both shy and bold behavioural responses. However, the three species differ from each other in boldness and shyness. Males and females also showed differences in their behavioural responses to novelty. Overall, this study highlighted two strategies used for survival in nature. In consideration of this, it would be beneficial to preserve pristine forests to protect keystone structures that are crucial for preserving diversity in species and personality types. However, more studies on long-term trapping and correlation with personality tests could reveal more information on the personality profiles and their subsequent consequences.
The effects of resource variability on the demographic rates of black and white rhinoceroses
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023) Ndlovu, Latoya; Marshal, Jason
Given the importance of rhino survival and reproduction to conservation goals, the aim of the study was to investigate the effects of resource variability on the demographic rates of black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinos at Lapalala Wilderness. I used historical rhino-monitoring, rainfall and vegetation greenness data to investigate the vital rates of two rhino populations. I investigated population demographics (mainly density, growth rates, age and sex structure) and survival using stratified Cox models. Black and white rhino density peaked at 0.06 rhinos/km2 and 0.2 rhinos/km2 , respectively during the study period and was below the estimated maximum density for suitable rhino reserves. Average growth rate for the black rhinos was 4.784%, which was almost half of the white rhino’s rate of 8.861%. The survival of both species was stage-specific, and rainfall effects were similar for both species and age groups as low amounts of rainfall, which likely represent decreased forage availability, were associated with increased mortality risk. Decreasing greenness was also associated with increased mortality except with white rhino calves, where mortality increased with greenness. I suggest that this case might have been caused by their nutritional requirements: most grasses lose nutritional value as the season progresses (i.e., represented as increases in greenness values and so reduced access to high quality forage might affect mom’s body condition and her ability to produce nutritious milk, consequently resulting in increased mortality rates of calves. I also investigated the reproductive phenology (mainly conception and birth timing, age at primiparity and inter calving intervals) and birth sex ratios in relation to sex allocation theories. White rhinos conceived and calved at an earlier age compared to the black rhinos; mean age at primiparity for white and black rhinos was 9.448 years (8.467, 10.43) and 11.724 years (10.52, 12.927), respectively. Conceptions for both species peaked during the wet season and were associated with periods of high forage availability; however, births were asynchronous and occurred throughout the year. Effects of rainfall and greenness on age at first conception differed between species; the odds of having their first calf increased with rainfall, EVI and NDVI for white rhinos but decreased with EVI and NDVI for the black rhinos. Increases in wet-season integrated greenness during conception periods might indicate a shorter period of access to high quality forage for the black rhinos. Age at primiparity increased with density for both species because population density increases competition for resources, potentially making it difficult for females to accumulate the body mass and energy reserves needed to reproduce. Inter-calving intervals increased with rainfall, supporting the idea that excessive amounts of rainfall might result in lower forage quality, which then affects maternal body condition. In conclusion, vital rates of black and white rhinos are associated with resource availability as a function of environmental stochasticity and density, which in turn affects productivity and performance as climate change results in more variable conditions.
The function of “plant biltong” collected by bush Karoo rats (Otomys unisulcatus)
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Sanweni Siyabong Patrick
Food storing is a commonly observed strategy in many rodents living in environments with seasonally fluctuating food availability. Stored food allows small mammals to survive through food restricted periods and has been extensively studied in the northern hemisphere, characterised by cold winters. It could also be adaptive in semi-deserts of the southern hemisphere, such as the Succulent Karoo, which experience winter rainfall and hot dry summers. Here I want to understand the function of food plants carried back by bush Karoo rats (Otomys unisulcatus) to the stick lodges they build in the Succulent Karoo. Some of the food plants carried back to their lodges dry out, forming what I refer to as “plant biltong” or ‘plantong.’ To date, the function of the plantong remains unknown. Plantong might function as food in the dry season, or it might just be left over from food eaten at the lodge, or it can aid in construction of the lodges. I studied which plant species were collected as plantong, and whether there were seasonal differences in collection and consumption of plantong. I observed 15 lodges over 12 months and recorded the fate of plant pieces carried back to each lodge by bush Karoo rats. I tested experimentally whether they do eat the plantong. Plant species that were collected and dried out to become plantong were mostly annual shrubs (Zygophyllum retrofractum, Lycium cinereum, Salsola zeyheri, Helichrysum), grass species (Schismus) and perennials species (Atriplex, Drosanthemum spec, Galenia sarcophylla, Hermannia, Mesembryanthemum, oxalis sp, Chlorophytum crassinerve, Psilocaulon sp.). Most plant pieces were collected in winter and spring which is in the moist season. Plantong was consumed the most in the autumn (end of the dry season). Collected plant pieces were multifunctional. Most, 68%, of plant pieces carried back to the lodge were eaten green before they became plantong,Of the plant pieces that were collected, 12% were later eaten as plantong, 11% was incorporated into the structure of the lodge, while the fate of 9% was unknown. Experiments in captivity showed that bush Karoo rats indeed eat plantong. Plantong was not stored for months (from moist to dry season), but mostly days to weeks. Thus, I regard plantong as a food source derived from leftover food during collection and consumption but not as stored food for later consumption during harsh conditions.
The Impacts of Ungulate Foraging on Small Mammal Diversity in a Protected Site and Livestock Grazing Site
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2023-09) Dlamini, Sifiso; Linhsan, Emmanuel Do; Madikiza, Kim
Vegetation cover and food availability are important determinants of how favourable an area is for the settlement of animals, especially small mammals such as rodents, which rely heavily on vegetation for protection against predators and access to food. This study investigated the impact that ungulate foraging activities (both domesticated and wild) have on small mammal diversity in two Short Euphorbia Thicket habitats within the Albany Thicket Biome: a natural site in the Great Fish River Nature Reserve and an adjacent livestock grazing site belonging to Kwandwe Private Game Reserve. Trapping was carried out over 7-day/7-night trapping sessions during the wet and dry seasons at each site, with grids of 10 x 10 traps with a 10 m spacing. Over a total of 5,600 trap nights/days, 272 unique individuals of six small mammal species (4 rodents, 1 shrew, and 1 sengi) were captured. Habitat (i.e., the 1 ha area studied on each site) and microhabitat differences were assessed for the two study sites using plant cover at different heights, the number of bushes, the presence of Euphorbia bothae, as well as the amount of bare ground and rocky surfaces around each trap station. Between the habitats, vegetation in all the height categories differed significantly during each season, while the number of bushes did not differ. The microhabitats also showed seasonal variation, with the dry season having less vegetation cover than the wet season. Although greater vegetation cover was recorded during the wet season, small mammal abundance was low, as were species richness and diversity. It was the dry season that had the higher small mammal abundance for both sites, with the protected site having four times the abundance (across all species) of the livestock grazing site. Small mammal diversity was, however, highest at the livestock grazing site, where the species were evenly represented, whereas the protected site had unevenly represented species with a lower diversity. It is concluded that both domesticated and wild ungulate foraging activities, as well as seasonal changes in climatic conditions, alter vegetation cover. This determines whether a habitat is conducive for small mammals, thereby driving their richness, abundance, and ultimately diversity within a habitat.
The implications of mandible morphology and dental structure on the feeding ecology and predatory behaviour in Hyaenidae (hyenas) using geometric morphometric analyses
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Nadioo, Riyanta; Iqbal, Safiyyah
Hyenas are often overlooked as being successful predators due to their scavenging behaviour. However, their morphological adaptations allow them to succeed in bone-cracking behaviour, an act that most carnivores are unable to achieve. Craniodental morphology influences carnivore performance, therefore understanding the functional morphology of carnivore mandibles would allow for the justification of Hyaenidae behaviour. This study investigates the morphological differences between the Hyaenidae mandible and large carnivore mandibles in Africa, as well as the differences in mandible morphology within the Hyaenidae family. This study uses a two-dimensional landmark-based geometric morphometric methodology to analyse morphological features on the carnivore mandibles and dentition to determine the morphological clusters linking the carnivore species, determine how the mandible morphology accommodates biomechanical needs, and to determine the implications that mandible morphology and dentition has on feeding ecology. The results of this study indicated that the sizes (PC1) of the carnivore mandibles were clustered according to their respective families (i.e. Hyaenidae, Canidae, and Felidae), however the shape (PC2) of the mandibles differed according to diet. The mandible morphology of the hypercarnivorous Hyaenidae displayed evident adaptations to osteophagy behaviour, including a thickened corpus, a large masseteric fossa, an anteriorly-displaced coronoid, and robust and blunt-like canines. The Proteles cristata, however, displayed mandibular adaptations to a hypocarnivorous diet. Ultimately, it was found that an increased resistance to bending forces and an increased area for muscle attachment on the mandible, directly relates to an increase in the Hyaenidae bite force, improving their feeding and hunting success.
The influence of plant phenolic compounds on the host range of Coniatus tamarisci Fabr. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): a potential biological control agent of invasive Tamarix L. (Caryophyllales: Tamaricaceae) Taxa in South Africa
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2022) Hatile, Sivenathi Luvolwethu; Byrne, Marcus; Mayonde, Samalesu
Tamarix L. (Caryophyllales: Tamaricaceae) are halophyte species that are native to Eurasia, North Africa, and southwestern Africa. These phreatophyte trees or shrubs have become prominent and widespread invaders in North America, South America, Australia, and South Africa. In South Africa, the Alien and Invasive Species regulations of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 2014 (NEM:BA) has classified invasive Tamarix as category 1b invader, which require control. Thus, three potential biological control agents have undergone laboratory-based host-specificity trials for the long-term sustainable control of Tamarix. The first two of these biocontrol agents, Diorhabda carinulata (Desbrochers.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and Trabutina mannipara (Hemprich & Ehrenberg) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), both failed the laboratory-based host-specificity trials because they completed their life cycle on the indigenous T. usneoides E. Mey ex Bunge. Previously, potential biocontrol agents were selected based on their native distribution and the phylogenetic relatedness of the invasive weed to indigenous nontarget species. However, it has recently been suggested that secondary metabolites also play a major role in insect host selection, and thus should be considered to improve the selection criteria of potential biocontrol agents. The current study is based on the third biocontrol agent that recently underwent laboratory based host-specificity trials in South Africa, Coniatus tamarisci (Fabr.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). This was in conjunction with an analysis of the potential influence Tamarix phenolic compounds have on insect host selection. The results show that although C. tamarisci could complete its’ life cycle on T. usneoides, the weevil had a low affiliation/risk associated with the indigenous Tamarix taxon. This advocates for the conduction of open field host-specificity trials, which will allow for a better understanding of C. tamarisci behaviour in a natural setting. Regarding phenolic compounds, three phenolic acids have been identified as being significantly prominent in T. usneoides compared to the invasive Tamarix taxa present in South Africa. These are gallic acid, dehydrodigallic acid, and syringic acid. These compounds are associated with protection from plant herbivory, which could explain the behaviour of C. tamarisci when exposed to and reared on T. usneoides.
The supply of ecosystem services along an urban-rural gradient, in Johannesburg, South Africa
(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Jaxa, Busisiwe; Schwaibold, U.
Currently, the entire world is experiencing an unparalleled process of urbanisation, which is marked by an increase in population, economic progress, and the spread of urban areas. Although urbanisation presents opportunities such as economic advancement, enhanced infrastructure, and improved living conditions, it also brings about adverse effects on the natural environment. Ecosystem services vary along urban-rural gradients as they are largely affected by land use and land cover change. There is an increasing focus on urban ecosystem services that enhance urban resilience. Nonetheless, there has been minimal research conducted in South Africa regarding the effects of urbanisation on the provision of ecosystem services. This study aimed to investigate the impact of urbanisation on ecosystem services in the greater Johannesburg area and provide a deeper understanding of how the provision of three specific ecosystem services has evolved. These ecosystem services included temperature regulation, flood regulation and carbon sequestration. The land surface temperature (LST) along each gradient was derived from the Landsat (5 TM, 7 ETM+, 8 OLI) datasets available in the Google Earth Engine. Carbon storage was determined by estimating biomass using basic tree measurements. Soil compaction was measured as a proxy for the flood regulation ecosystem service. Lasty, land cover change was also assessed with the use of the ArcGIS software. The findings revealed that the supply of ecosystem services increased with an increasing distance from the city centre. Temperature and soil compaction were found to be high at the urban end of the gradient and carbon storage was found to be low at the urban end of the gradient. The land cover assessment revealed that the City of Johannesburg has suffered a substantial loss of green spaces over the 20 years, as the area covered by built-up surfaces increased. This study, therefore, has how how green spaces in urban areas enhance the sustainability of cities by supporting the supply of various ecosystem services including flood and climate regulation, carbon sequestration and storage. It has also shown that, the rapid urbanisation that the city experienced has led to a reduction in the overall supply of ecosystem services, whilst rural landscapes on the other hand continue to maintain the provision of these services. In order to enhance the green infrastructure in urban areas, it is recommended that, the urban natural systems are integrated in the urban planning and infrastructure initiative

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