Analyzing lithic raw material qualities and hominid selectivity in the Early Palaeolithic

Abstract

Numerous studies have been employed to analyse early hominid lithic raw material selection using a variety of different methods, but have not been done for the large majority of sites throughout the world, with the main focus being on East African Oldowan sites. Thus, our knowledge of early hominid behaviour across the world and across time is not nearly as extensive and complete. In addition, a universal methodology to gauge raw material selection has not yet been presented. This is because each archaeological site is unique, making it difficult to do so. Some researchers have made use of rigorous engineering and geochemical testing methods to determine the quality of rock types selected and utilised, while others have applied more qualitative methods or included an experimental aspect to their research. The research presented in this thesis incorporates raw material studies from China and South Africa for both the Oldowan and Acheulean technological time periods. Most importantly it shows the significance of developing a methodology to gauge raw material selection that is unique for each particular site with the aid of experimental knapping. The inclusion of experimental knapping is not only important for determining quality characteristics of rocks for analyses, but it can also help in discovering behavioural aspects of early hominids by isolating specific reasons for their selection choices. Such knapping experiments were performed for the Cradle of Humankind sites Sterkfontein and Swartkrans, as well as for sites in the Danjiangkou Reservoir Region (DRR), central China. In the Cradle, experimental creation and use of tools made from the twelve different available rock types determined which of these rock types were best for tool creation. The experimentally created lithics also provided a basis for comparison with the artefacts from Oldowan and Acheulean assemblages at both sites showing that selection was present, and to what extent. The two time periods were compared to each other and differences between the two sites assessed. The results indicated that there was more selection during the Acheulean and that more selection was practiced at the Sterkfontein site. This is likely due to the larger distance from Sterkfontein to the main source of gravels in the area. Experimental knapping of materials in the DRR revealed that hominid selection for raw material is also present in Asia during the Middle Pleistocene and is just as complex as selection in Africa. Variables for analyses had to be adjusted to suit the uniqueness of the geology of the area as the rock types available in this region are different from the materials in East and South Africa. The rock type most often selected for large cutting tools (LCTs) at the DRR sites (terrace three)is one that frequently exhibits a multitude of visible flaws (quartz phyllite) and is the most common material available from the local gravels. This might leave one to conclude that raw material selection was absent or highly expedient for the creation of LCTs at this Middle Pleistocene site. Experimental knapping of this material, and the others available, revealed that quartz phyllite was the most optimal for the creation of LCTs. The unique nature of the flaws allowed for cobbles to be easily split in half with little effort. The halves could then easily be shaped into functional LCTs with minimal further shaping, despite the flaws in the material. Furthermore, these flaws could be circumvented or further exploited with knapping skill. Another factor that contributed to this material’s usefulness was the ease with which large flakes could be dislodged. Less force was needed to flake this material (much like glassy material) than the quartzites and igneous cobbles, which rarely exhibited flaws. Quartz phyllite is also durable and allowed for exceptionally sharp edges to be created. Experimentation with various knapping techniques indicated that bipolar flaking of quartz phyllite cobbles was the most successful method for blank creation for LCTs. The bipolar knapping of this material made it possible to determine a feature often unique to this technique, namely compression fractures, which could be used to identify which of the Acheulean LCTs were created from bipolar flakes. This technique was present in the assemblages, and shows flexible technological solutions among the Middle Pleistocene hominids living in the DRR. These experiments demonstrated the importance of experimental knapping being included within lithic raw material studies, as it helped show the intricacies of raw material reduction and its associated selection at the sites in this project. This thesis also presents information with regards to the complexities of raw material selection during the Acheulean and the Palaeolithic in Asia