School of Mining Engineering (ETDs)
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Item Key block theory for the miner: a novel simplified method for determining block removability(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Van Rooyen , Christiaan; Stacey, T.R.Rock falls driven by gravity cause the most injuries and deaths in the South African underground mines. Discontinuities such as joints define most rocks that are free to fall. Key block theory describes how to decide if a rock defined by joints can move into an excavated space. Key block analysis requires complex calculations and many iterations to reach such a decision. The complexity of applying key block theory restricts its routine use. Although there are several methods that address some of the shortcomings of key block theory, none address the complexity of its underlying calculations. The main drive of this research project was to find a method to judge rock block removability that is simple enough to enable the routine application of key block theory in mining. The new gravitational removability theorem described in this report satisfied the need for simplicity. A comparison between the gravitational removability method and the edge vector method on many generated blocks yielded a fair correlation in terms of removability, but less so in terms of non-removability. The definition and application of a set of calibrating geometric conditions in conjunction with the gravitational removability method resulted in a perfect accounting of all the synthetic blocks. The gravitational removability method proved effective in identifying rotational removability as well. This research report presents the new gravitational removability theorem, equations to calculate the gravitational removability number and a set of geometric conditions that allows the judgement of removability of a block with no, or minimal calculation.Item A critical investigation into the creation of special economic zones in South African mining areas(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Phambane, Maureen; Leeuw, PasekaThe Bushveld Complex (BC) hosts the largest known deposits of platinum group metals (PGM) bearing ore in the world, divided into the Eastern Limb, Western Limb and Northern Limb. The three largest PGM producers include Sibanye Stillwater, Impala Platinum and Anglo-American Platinum and they have operations spread around the BC. With this endowment, the opportunity exists for South Africa to not only be just a producer country and exporter of the PGM but also be involved in several secondary and tertiary PGM activities by establishing business clusters around mining areas. The objectives of this research study were to assess the nature of the local Special Economic Zones (SEZ) landscape, including a detailed overview of the Bojanala and Fetakgomo-Tubatse SEZs on the western and eastern limbs respectively, and to develop a viability matrix to assess which of the two SEZs, namely Bojanala and Fetakgomo-Tubatse, is likely to succeed based on the socio-economic profile, sector analysis, education level and spatial linkages. The research sought to answer whether the Special Economic Zone model implemented in South Africa is adequate to enable successful SEZ operation in the BC and whether the current spatial linkages in the BC are sufficient to support the existence of a PGM SEZ. The research design is a case study, and the qualitative research methodology was chosen as the most appropriate. The data used involved desktop study from research papers, books, journal articles, conference papers, documents from government agencies, websites, annual reports, news articles, web blogs and published statistics from research organisations. A thematic analysis was used to interpret the literature reviews, case studies, and other secondary data cited in the study. The results indicated that the Fetakgomo-Tubatse SEZ has a high viable potential to succeed as an SEZ because it scored higher in the viability matrix, even though it scored lower on the spatial linkages and sector analysis. The likelihood of success of the Fetakgomo-Tubatse SEZ over the Bojanala SEZ was mainly driven by the value proposition offered and the regional education level assessment where it was found that the Fetakgomo-Tubatse municipality has a bigger population size and a larger iii [OFFICIAL][OFFICIAL] number of people with matric (30% of the population) and post-matric (4% of the population) qualifications. That is, it is likely to provide local labour with the qualifications and skills required in the SEZ. Furthermore, both SEZs have been successful in acquiring funding from companies that want to locate in the zones, so it could be argued that both of them will be in a position to promote business clustering in the area if the right ingredients such as government intervention, presence of small and medium enterprise, and integration of internal and external markets are in place. The study further supports the view that industrial policies have a role to play in changing and addressing market failures to encourage economic growth. However, these development efforts need to be based on the assessment of the implementation landscape of the SEZ to ensure its success. Lastly, it is acknowledged that the robustness of this study could be improved by conducting interviews with SEZ operators in South Africa, the Department of Trade, Industry and Competition SEZ Lead, North West Development Corporation (NWDC) and Limpopo Economic Development Agency (LEDA). The NWDC and LEDA are development agencies tasked with the development of the Bojalana and Fetakgomo- Tubatse SEZs respectively. Insights could also be gained by focusing on group discussions and interviewing community leaders, business forums, and traditional leaders in affected regions.Item Analysing the progress of skills development necessary for mineral beneficiation in the gold mining industry: a case study of harmony gold’s Moab khotsong mine(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Nengwenani, Shumani Maemu; Mtegha, H.The mining industry of South Africa is a cornerstone of the country’s economy, having contributed over 8% to the national gross domestic product in 2022. The mining industry has been responsible for major economic growth and job creation due to its mineral resource abundance. However, the socio-economic impact of this industry on communities has fallen short of expectations. The objective of the South African beneficiation strategy is to transform the country’s mineral wealth into competitive economic advantage through the promotion of economic diversification, industrialization, and job creation. The aim of this research is to determine progress made by the mining sector in skills training and development necessary for local mineral beneficiation, particularly in the gold mining industry. This is training provided through the achievement of formal qualifications such as a National Certificate in Jewellery Manufacturing, a Diploma in Jewellery design and Manufacture, as well as through the accumulation of skills such as jewellery processing, wax carving for jewellery, die stamping for jewellery, industrial design for jewellery, and jewellery evaluation. The reaserch also includes a critical reviews the company’s training initiatives within the context of the beneficiation skills pipeline, the National Skills Development Strategy, and the sector skills plan, which are all key elements of the National Growth Plan and the relevant Sector and Training Authorities. Harmony Gold company has shown commitment to socio-economic objectives through the implementation of numerous beneficiation projects, such as the Musuku Beneficiation Systems, the Harmony Jewellery School, the Oro-Maska Project, and the SARM project. While these initiations did not have long-term success, they indicate the company’s willingness to play a role in promoting skills transfer and in mineral beneficiation. The short-term success of these initiatives also highlights the complexities involved, underlining the need for proper planning, proper resource allocation, as well as the need for constant and consistent stakeholder engagement. A significant finding of this research is the identification of a skills gap, especially in areas crucial for mineral beneficiation. Despite existing efforts and policy frameworks like the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, the remains a need for more targeted training and skills development programs. The existing skills gap must be addressed to maximize the mining sector’s contribution to national development objectives.Item Geostatistical Modelling of Floor and Roof Hazard Data in the Highveld Coalfield – A New Denmark Colliery Case Study(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Hall, QuintinNew Denmark Colliery (NDC) is an underground coal mine located between Standerton and Bethal in the Mpumalanga province of South Africa. Due to the nature of the coal seam and the mining method in the research study area, mining operations are in constant contact with floor and roof lithologies which introduce operational challenges. To mitigate these challenges floor and roof hazard plans are used for operational planning purposes. Existing floor and roof hazard plans are deficient of both sound theoretical and procedural formality in their construction. This lack of formality in the hazard modelling was most concerning. The research establishes a methodology for the generation of meaningful floor and roof hazard plans from empirical and theoretical applications to both interpreted and measured variables relevant to the floor and roof hazards encountered. This methodology; developed for easy operational implementation, is supported by a formal system of procedures that allow for continuous updating, validation and monitoring. The quantitative and qualitative hazard data available in the study area required bridging. For this, the author introduces the concept of applying scorecards to the hybrid data and develops the scoring logic to convert the hybrid hazard information to numeric values, usable in quantitative analyses. The estimation software in place at NDC is limited to inverse distance weighting (IDW). The research therefore sought to determine whether the application of this classical technique would suffice for the creation of hazard plans. IDW, ordinary kriging and conditional sequential Gaussian simulation were applied to measured structural variables. The estimation results were visually compared. This would then confirm the suitability of applying IDW to the research data. The research takes a turn when the hazard scorecard numbers become the focus of the research as opposed to the structural variables. Floor and Roof hazard scores are individually classified, respectively representing either iv “competent”, “moderately competent” or “incompetent” floor conditions and “normal”,” cautionary” or “high risk” roof conditions. An innovative method of defining hazard indicators sets is introduced. IDW estimation is applied to each hazard indicator set. Results are interpreted, and inflection points on the slopes of the cumulative distribution plots of the estimates are used to identify cut-off values to clearly distinguish the hazard conditions mentioned. Resulting in updated Floor Hazard and Roof Hazard Plans for NDC aligned to a formal analytical process and estimation methodology. With this in place, the research goals were accomplished through the construction and validation of reliable and easily implementable floor and roof hazard plans. Procedures for applying hazard scorecards to newly drilled boreholes and for updating the hazard models appear in the Appendices.Item Quantification of the benefits of pumpable emulsion explosives in narrow reef gold mines(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Chosi, Ramphele LordwickPumpable emulsion explosives usage is gaining ground in South African underground narrow reef mining following its wide application on the surface and underground massive mining. Following the advancement in the narrow reef, this research sought to quantify the benefits of pumpable emulsion explosives in narrow reef stopes of gold mines under non-trial conditions on three key performance areas (KPA) of cost of explosives, blasting efficiency and post-blast conditions. The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches where historical and primary data was collected at the identified underground shafts of Ya Rona and Hlanganani. Historical data included planned targets and achieved results before and after the introduction of pumpable emulsion explosives at the shafts. The primary data was gathered through a total of 33 underground observations at the two shafts. The analysis of three KPAs was done through corresponding KPIs of explosives cost, face advance, powder factor, fragmentation distribution, and hangingwall overbreak. The cost of explosives KPA analysis indicated that pumpable emulsion was cost-effective when compared to cartridge explosives and the planned target. The blasting efficiency KPA was analysed through three KPIs, namely, face advance, powder factor, and fragmentation. The primary data analysis showed that the pumpable emulsion explosives were capable of achieving the mine’s required face advance at both shafts, and the historical data analysis showed that pumpable emulsion explosives performed better at the Ya Rona shaft and poorly at the Hlanganani shaft. The pumpable emulsion explosives powder factor calculated iii from the underground measurements can be lower or higher than the corresponding planned powder factor due to in-situ site conditions. Blast fragmentation analysed images showed that pumpable emulsion explosives can achieve the mine expected range fragmentation size or be below as indicated by the two image analysis programmes used and the Kuz-Ram estimation. Post-blast conditions were analysed using the hangingwall overbreak which cautiously showed that emulsion explosives have the potential to negatively impact the panel's post-blast condition due to non-adherence to the blast design parameters and the influence of the geological conditions. The research KPAs of cost of explosives, blasting efficiency and post blast conditions through the respective KPIs have indicated that emulsion explosives could achieve blast outcomes that were within the mine target. The analysis of the cost of explosives, face advance and powder factor KPIs conclusively showed the positive outcome pumpable emulsion explosives could have in narrow reef mines; though the powder factor showed dependence on other factors. The analysis of hangingwall overbreak KPI revealed a possible negative impact, while the analysis of the fragmentation KPI yielded an inconclusive outcome. Based on the results, the study proved the effectiveness of pumpable emulsion in narrow reef stope mining under non-trial operational conditions. It also quantified the benefits of pumpable emulsion explosives in narrow reef gold mines. Notwithstanding, it is recommended that further research on fragmentation analysis using different analysis methods and more research on the extent of the hangingwall damage when pumpable emulsion explosives are used should be conducted.Item Large-Scale Mining and Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Partnerships for Sustainable Socio-Economic Development in Zimbabwe(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Tsoriyo, Vincent; Mutemeri, NelliaThe study focuses on the partnership between Large-Scale Mining (LSM) and Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) as a pathway to address the challenges of informal ASM in mineral-rich communities. It highlights the collaboration between Pickstone-Peerless Mine (PPGM) and ASM operators under the Bluestreak Mining Cooperative (BMC) in the Chegutu district of Zimbabwe, with the goal of formalizing ASM activities to benefit local communities and the broader economy. The research seeks to provide empirical evidence and a practical model for such partnerships, which are lacking in documentation, particularly in the context of Zimbabwe. The partnership model is proposed to increase the socio- economic impact of ASM and allow the government to efficiently harness economic gains from mineral resources. Using qualitative and quantitative methods, the study assesses stakeholder perspectives and the partnership's socio-economic significance, advocating for LSM-ASM partnerships to formalize ASM operations and citing benefits like improved control, coexistence, and mutual advantages. While the PPGM-BMC collaboration has made progress in formalizing ASM and enhancing environmental and social responsibilities, further enhancements are needed for sustained community impact. Recommendations include alternative extraction methods, rehabilitation plans, and long-term sustainability plans, with future research directions exploring economic models for low-free-gold ores and LSM-ASM partnerships' role in transitioning away from mercury use, ultimately promoting sustainable mining practices and improving ASM community livelihoods.Item Impact of secondary rock-breaking equipment availability on mining plan in block cave mining(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Pedro, MartinaIn 2018, the Angolan economy was ranked the third largest in sub-Saharan Africa, behind Nigeria and South Africa. This performance is mainly driven by oil production, which represents 50% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product, 95% of its exports, and more than 70% of government revenue, while diamonds represent only 5% of Angola’s exports. The Angolan Government has already invested US$ 260 million into the National Geology Plan (PLANAGEO), which concluded the geophysical aerial survey of the country’s mineral and geological potential in October 2023, putting the country in a better position for future investment. According to the African Diamond Council, it was reported in the Kimberley Process Certification System Statistics in 2021 that the diamond industry in Angola represented almost 1.2 billion Euros, with the contribution to the Gross Domestic Products at 1.6%, making Angolan diamonds the second most important export commodity. The socio-economic impact of the diamond sector has improved from 2016 to 2022, of which a value of US$ 29.58 million was contributed to the areas of education, health, sport, environment, culture, et cetera in local and surrounding communities through the Brilhante Foundation. The diamond mining industry in Angola was regulated by the Diamond Law enacted in 1994. Presently, Angola’s mining industry is subject to state regulation stipulated in the Angolan constitution—Law No. 31/11 of September 2011 (the Mining Code)—and various additional statutory and regulatory acts. In the past five years, under the newly appointed government of 2017, the 2018 Mining Code was amended. This report aimed to investigate whether Angola had fully developed its diamond mining sector to maximise revenue from the industry while also iv attracting more investors and generating socio-economic benefits for everyone, including its citizens. The methodology used in this research was a qualitative research approach. This involved the collection of primary data by interviewing experts in the diamond mining industry, and secondary data that relied on desktop studies of published and unpublished data from books, journals, abstracts, statistical data, and reports from the government gazette. The research findings unequivocally affirmed a positive response to this inquiry. The construction of the Saurimo Diamond Pole in the Lunda Sul Province—featuring seven fully operational polishing factories including Kothari, Stardiam, Kapu Gems, and the KGK factory—has generated employment opportunities and had a positive socio-economic impact within the region. The CEFOLAD Diamond training centre is currently equipping Angolan citizens with the necessary skills and tools to make meaningful contributions to the growth and sustainability of future generations. Angola is the sixth-largest diamond producer globally and is known for its high-quality gemstones. The annual production of rough diamond exports in Angola was 9.396 million carats, with an average of US$ 163 per carat and a gross revenue of US$ 1.56 billion in 2023. The Angola diamond industry employed 200 000 individuals in 2020. The Luele mine was inaugurated on November 10, 2023, in Lunda Sul Province, Angola, and it is expected to contribute an additional 5–7 million carats to the annual diamond sector. The mine currently employs 1 300 Angolan nationals. Based on the findings of this report, it is recommended that more geological investigation needs to be done in areas with visible geological potential in order to enhance and find new deposits which will eventually increase diamond production.Item Impact of the mining charter on socio-economic development and mining investment attractiveness in South Africa(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Meela, Princess Makone; Mutemeri, NelliaThe purpose of this study was to review the impact of the Mining Charter on socio- economic development and mining investment attractiveness in South Africa. The impact on socio-economic development was assessed by reviewing government compliance reports and Minerals Council of South Africa publications. The analysis of exploration budgets as a percentage of country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was used to gauge the investment attractiveness of South Africa’s mining industry. A qualitative description was also conducted on mining codes and mineral policies of Canada, Australia, Brazil, Chile and five African countries (Ghana, Botswana, Tanzania, DRC, Zambia) to understand how these countries utilise natural resources to advance socio-economic developments. The study concluded that the Mining Charter has a positive impact on socio-economic development in South Africa. The research further revealed that globally, South Africa ranks relatively low in its exploration expenditure in terms of both absolute exploration budget and percentage of exploration budget to GDP. Findings of the international benchmarking study are that the requirements of elements of the Mining Charter are similar to other socio- economic development interventions observed in the assessed mining jurisdictions. The requirement of ownership of mining companies by local people is restricted to South Africa and the DRC. In Canada there is limited sharing-holding/profit-sharing for the benefit of the community where there is an agreement in place between the mining company and such community. These agreements are not imposed by law or mining policy. The research finding regarding the ownership element is significant in that it links to the problem statement of the research study wherein the requirement of ownership of mining companies by citizens (“black people”) is reportedly one of the main hindrances of mining investments in South Africa, as singled out by some of the iii mining executives. The recommendation from the study is that the South African Government should enforce empowerment deals where all shareholders are treated equally in terms of contributions and participation in the managing of a mining company. In line with other mining jurisdictions particularly in Africa, direct state participation could be considered as an option for meaningful economic participation of the South African Government, for the benefit of all South Africans.Item Developing a work management system to create an integrated and optimal short-term planning process at South Deep Mine(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Maleka, ManuelThis research was conducted at South Deep Mine, an underground trackless gold mine located within the Modderfontein Farm in the Westonaria District, Southwest of Johannesburg. The aim of this study was to develop a work management system to create an integrated and optimal short-term planning process at South Deep Mine. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative research methods to achieve its objectives. Most of the data was obtained through an online survey which targeted individuals employed within the mine technical services department. The problem being addressed in this research is the challenge associated with manual data capturing during planning sessions. This research is driven by a desire to improve work efficiency and mine productivity at South Deep Mine through the application of innovative planning and reporting tools. Literature review presented the importance of innovation and effective planning in mining operations, indicating the role of integrated work management systems in modernized underground mining environments. Work Management Systems investigated were Deswik and MineRP software and Syncromine reporting system. The results reflected that Deswik and Syncromine are used throughout the industry with some benefits such as the ability to produce integrated production reports and the reliability in data handling. However, data analysis revealed shortcomings in existing work management systems, particularly in addressing real-time data and promoting automation. The aims of this research were achieved through the development of a systemized planning protocol. The study highlighted the need for an iv integrated approach to address short-term planning challenges. Future studies include the adoption of user-friendly software tailored with site specific requirements and the development of models covering all aspects of the mining value chain.Item An investigation into equity market timing practices by South African mining companies(University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2024) Matumba, LindelaniThis research examines the practice of equity market timing among 30 Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)-listed mining companies from 2006 to 2022. Mining companies, characterised by their capital-intensive nature, rely on management for optimal capital management, which includes both the acquisition of capital through debt or equity and its optimal allocation. The concept of equity market timing, introduced by Wurgler and Baker in the 1990s, suggests that company management may engage in timing the equity market when they perceive their stock to be mispriced. This study incorporated control variables such as market-to-book value (a relative valuation metric that investors use to assess a company's market value in relation to its book value), asset tangibility, degree of leverage, and profitability. Panel regression analysis, utilising both fixed effects and random effects, revealed that market-to-book value was not statistically significant at the 5% level. The overall R-squared value was 58.8%. Given the lack of significance for market-to- book value and asset tangibility, it is recommended to consider other capital structure theories, such as the pecking order or trade-off theory. Additionally, incorporating variables like interest rates and other macroeconomic factors could help address the potential for omitted variable bias.