Causes of death and strategies to improve linkage to HIV and TB care in adults being investigated for TB in South Africa
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Date
2020
Authors
Maraba, Mosehle Noriah
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Abstract
Introduction
There is high mortality amongst adults being investigated for tuberculosis (TB) in primary
health care (PHC) facilities in South Africa, but the causes of death (CoDs) are not clearly
defined. Patient and health system-related factors such as diagnostic delays, delays in delivery
of laboratory results and treatment start delays exist and prevent this population from linking
into care. Innovative interventions are needed to assist with linkage to HIV and TB care. This
is important as the first two goals of the South African National Strategic Plan are to hasten
the development of interventions to prevent new infections, and to reduce morbidity as well as
mortality by providing treatment and adherence support. The first target of the global STOP
TB plan is to reach 90% of all people with TB and place them on appropriate treatment. The
national tuberculosis guidelines also recommend that everyone undergoing TB investigation
should be tested for HIV, a recommendation that links to the Joint United Nations Programme
on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) targets to ensure that 90% of people living with HIV know their
status.
The aim of this PhD was to determine the causes of death amongst adults being investigated
for TB, and pilot two interventions in PHC facilities to improve linkage into HIV and TB
care, a case manager and mobile health (mHealth) intervention.
A study investigating causes of death in people being investigated for TB and two studies
piloting interventions to improve linkage to care form the basis of this thesis:
(i) Determining causes of death amongst people undergoing TB investigation using
verbal autopsy in South Africa
(ii) A pilot study to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of using a case manager to
improve linkage to TB and HIV care amongst people investigated for TB in primary
health care facilities in South Africa
(iii) Development and implementation of mHealth-based clinical decision support
messaging for health care workers and patients in the initial investigation of
tuberculosis in primary health care facilities in South Africa. This thesis comprises of these three studies and is presented in two parts: an integrative
narrative which synthesises the studies, followed by three published papers and one
unpublished manuscript presenting the studies.
Methods
The first study determined the CoDs in people being investigated for TB and was a sub-study
of the XTEND Trial, a cluster-randomized trial comparing Xpert MTB/RIF versus smear
microscopy as the initial test for diagnosing TB. The study was done amongst caregivers of
the 231 deceased participants who were enrolled in the XTEND study. The caregivers were
aged 18 years and above and lived in four provinces (Gauteng, Free State, Eastern Cape and
Mpumalanga) of South Africa. For the sub-study, all contactable caregivers of deceased
XTEND participants were interviewed using the World Health Organization (WHO)
approved verbal autopsy (VA) tool. The VA tool has a quantitative section with questions
requiring ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ responses and a narrative section which allows for detailed
documentation of events leading to death. Cause of death (CoD) was determined using
physician certified verbal autopsy (PCVA) and InterVA 4.3 software with comparison of the
CoD profile between the two methods. Responses from the narrative section of VA were used
to ascertain perceived barriers of care as described by caregivers of the decedents.
The second study piloted a case manager intervention, where a lay counsellor supported
patients undergoing TB investigations for three months by encouraging HIV testing, calling
them to return for results, following up on their laboratory results, and assisting with
treatment initiation if confirmed to have TB. The study was done amongst people undergoing
TB investigation aged 18 years and above, in six PHC facilities in Mpumalanga and Gauteng
provinces of South Africa. Linkage to TB care was defined as starting TB treatment within 28
days of having sputum taken for TB investigation. HIV linkage to care for HIV positive
people was defined as having blood taken for CD4 count test and, for those eligible, starting
antiretroviral therapy within three months. The feasibility of implementing the intervention
was assessed by attempts made through telephonic calls or participants visiting the clinic.
Qualitative interviews were conducted to assess the acceptability of the intervention and
explore barriers and facilitators of linkage to HIV care and TB treatment initiation.
The third study developed and piloted an mHealth application to capture patients’ TB
investigation data and deliver laboratory test results directly to patients via text messaging.
The study was done amongst people undergoing TB investigation aged 18 years and above in
two clinics in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Data were collected over two periods:
pre-implementation period and implementation period. The pre-implementation period
involved facility health care workers recording TB investigation data in the paper-based TB
identification register, and the implementation period involved the facility health care workers
recording TB investigation data in an electronic register while research staff recorded the data
in paper-based TB investigation registers. The feasibility of using the mHealth application
was assessed in the implementation period by comparing proportions of patients with
complete personal details and documented results using mHealth application versus paper. TB
indicators (turn-around time from sample collection to when a patient gets sputum results,
time to TB treatment initiation and proportion on treatment within a specific period) were
compared in the pre-implementation and implementation periods to assess the potential
effectiveness of the mHealth application. Qualitative interviews were conducted to assess the
acceptability of the intervention.
Results
Amongst the 231 who died during the XTEND trial, caregivers of 137 decedents were
interviewed as part of the study on causes of death. Of the 137 deceased, 76 (55.4%) were
males, median age was 41 years (interquartile range [IQR] 33-50 years). PCVA assigned 70
(51.1%) deaths to TB; 21(15.3%) to HIV and 46 (33.5%) to other CoD. InterVA 4.3 software
assigned 48 (35.0%) deaths to TB, 49 (35.7%) to HIV and 40 (29.1%) to other CoD. Delays
in accessing health-care, treatment delay and clinic organisation were perceived to challenge
the health-seeking journey of decedents.
Amongst 562 participants enrolled in the case manager study, 307(54.6%) were females with
a median age 36 years (IQR 29-44). A total of 189/562 (33.6%) participants needed linkage to
care: 132 needed only HIV care, 35 needed TB treatment initiation only, 22 needed both HIV
care and TB treatment initiation. Of the 57 participants who needed TB treatment, 53 (93%)
were initiated on treatment. By the end of three months follow-up, 40 participants (29/132
[22%] needing HIV care, 4/35 [11.4%] needing TB treatment and 7/ 22 [31.8%] needing HIV
linkage to care and TB treatment initiation) had not linked to care. Patient (fear and
competing priorities) and health system (poor implementation of updated TB and HIV
management guidelines as well as the way facilities booked patients for ART initiation)
related factors were highlighted as barriers to HIV linkage. Patients’ ill-health and clinic
experience were the main facilitators of initiating TB treatment.
In the mHealth study, 457 patients were recorded in the register during the pre implementation period (195 [42.7%] males, median age 34 years [IQR 28-40]). During
implementation period, 319 patients were recorded in paper register and mHealth application
(131 [41.1%] males, median age 32 years [IQR 27-38]). Implementation of the mHealth
intervention in PHC facilities showed no difference in proportion with complete personal
details: (mHealth 95% versus paper register 94.0%, [p=0.54]) and proportion with
documented results: (mHealth 97.4% versus paper 97.8%, [p=0.8]). The intervention
improved the proportion of patients with results available within 48 hours from sample
collection, (pre-implementation 68.6% versus implementation period 96.8%; [p>0.001]) but
did not improve time to TB treatment initiation (pre-implementation, median = 4 days
interquartile range [IQR] 2-6; implementation median = 3 days IQR [2-5]; p=0.5). The
delivery of results via text message did not infringe on patients’ privacy.
Conclusion
TB and HIV are leading CoDs amongst adults being investigated for TB in primary health
care clinics in South Africa, as determined by VA. This points to the importance of integrated
TB and HIV care and linkage into care for both diseases in this group. InterVA underestimates TB associated deaths and needs to be refined to be able to include
extrapulmonary TB as a CoD.
Support interventions using lay workers as case managers to link adults undergoing TB
investigation into HIV and TB care might help improve TB treatment initiation. However,
this kind of support is not adequate to assist HIV positive patients’ to link into HIV care,
showing the complexity of the HIV linkage to care process. Future support interventions to be
piloted should address both patient and health system factors.
Finally, mHealth applications could take the place of current paper-based TB care programme
case-finding tools, and could substantially improve results turn-around time and management
of TB within the programme. These applications may empower patients with direct receipt of
TB results. Implementation of mHealth interventions to support and improve TB care has the
potential to improve patient-level outcomes, and large-scale evaluations of these technologies
are urgently required. Additionally, future interventions to improve TB treatment initiation
need to focus on how to improve patients’ clinic experience and empower patients to seek
care.
Description
A thesis
submitted In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy to the School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences,
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2020
Johannesburg, 2020