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Item Youth sexual behaviour in South Africa: social disorganisation as an alternative explanation(2022-10) Ugwe, Nebechukwu HenryIntroduction Youths’ consistent engagements in risky sexual behaviour continue to be a source of concern for parents, researchers, practitioners and policymakers. Several researchers argue that a high proportion of youths that engaged in risky sexual behaviours were influenced by risk factors at the individual, household/family and community/neighbourhood levels. However, very few studies have explored the influence of community-level factors associated with risky sexual behaviour among young people across genders in South Africa. Currently, most efforts are directed towards addressing individual-level factors at the expense of not addressing community-level issues such as social disorganisation, contributing to risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa. The question of how socially disorganised societies/communities create adolescents’ unfavourable sexual behaviour in the modern world has remained less explored across genders in South Africa. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to understand adolescents’ sexual behaviour of youths aged between 15–24 years across genders in South Africa and explain the risk factors associated with them through the lens of social disorganisation-related factors. Further, it was to explore possible pathways through which some of these social disorganisation factors led to adolescents’ risky sexual behaviour in South Africa. The risky sexual behaviours explored in this study were multiple sexual behaviours and inconsistent/lack of condom use. Theoretical Framework The study was situated within the confines of the social disorganisation theory. The theory argues that social disorganisation factors such as community poverty, residential instability, family dysfunction and race/ethnic heterogeneity in certain neighbourhoods diminish community attachments, including social norms and social ties, by weakening community-level social control of crime devices. Although the social disorganisation theory was originally applied to crime and delinquency, researchers have applied the theory to different behavioural studies such as risk behaviours among adolescents and youths, sexual and gender-based violence, rape and educational behaviour. The theory identifies places and community structures responsible for the creation of conditions that are favourable or unfavourable to adolescents’ behaviour. Specifically, the study would have been better explored through a concurrent triangulation approach, but due to the terrain of South African communities and available resources to carry out the research, I decided to adopt an analytical cross-sectional method that made use of a quantitative approach to examine the influence of social disorganisation factors that are associated with risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa, Data and Methods The data source that was used in this study was the 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) which provides adequate information on knowledge, perceptions and sexual behaviours of youths aged between 15–24 years in South Africa. Specifically, the SADHS obtained information on the knowledge and perceptions of the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus, sexual debut, patterns and partner characteristics and condom use. The 2016 SADHS was nationally representative and adopted a multistage cluster sampling design. The survey made use of the sampling frame from the Statistics South Africa Master Sample Frame, which was created using census 2011 enumeration areas. Due to the geographical hierarchy structure of the census that linked enumeration areas to administrative boundaries, information was available at the municipal, district and provincial levels in the survey. The surveys involved a multistage cluster sampling design, with clusters selected from the enumeration areas, and households selected from the clusters. For instance, there were 750 clusters also known as primary sampling units (PSUs), selected from the 26 sampling strata, which included 468 urban, 224 traditional and 58 farm areas. The selected sample of youths was 2 621 females and 1 268 males, giving a total of 3 889 youths who had never married aged between 15–24 years of age. Key findings Objective 1: Individual and family-level correlates of risky sexual behaviour The frequency distribution showed that risky sexual behaviours were found to operate at both micro and macro levels. The findings showed that at the micro level, the impact of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics on young people’s involvement in risky sexual behaviour was evident across genders. Although differences were minor, young males were shown to be more exposed to risky sexual behaviour than females. In addition, the independent effect of age on risky sexual behaviour indicates that young people between the ages of 20–24 years were found to of South African communities and available resources to carry out the research, I decided to adopt an analytical cross-sectional method that made use of a quantitative approach to examine the influence of social disorganisation factors that are associated with risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa, Data and Methods The data source that was used in this study was the 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) which provides adequate information on knowledge, perceptions and sexual behaviours of youths aged between 15–24 years in South Africa. Specifically, the SADHS obtained information on the knowledge and perceptions of the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus, sexual debut, patterns and partner characteristics and condom use. The 2016 SADHS was nationally representative and adopted a multistage cluster sampling design. The survey made use of the sampling frame from the Statistics South Africa Master Sample Frame, which was created using census 2011 enumeration areas. Due to the geographical hierarchy structure of the census that linked enumeration areas to administrative boundaries, information was available at the municipal, district and provincial levels in the survey. The surveys involved a multistage cluster sampling design, with clusters selected from the enumeration areas, and households selected from the clusters. For instance, there were 750 clusters also known as primary sampling units (PSUs), selected from the 26 sampling strata, which included 468 urban, 224 traditional and 58 farm areas. The selected sample of youths was 2 621 females and 1 268 males, giving a total of 3 889 youths who had never married aged between 15–24 years of age. Key findings Objective 1: Individual and family-level correlates of risky sexual behaviour The frequency distribution showed that risky sexual behaviours were found to operate at both micro and macro levels. The findings showed that at the micro level, the impact of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics on young people’s involvement in risky sexual behaviour was evident across genders. Although differences were minor, young males were shown to be more exposed to risky sexual behaviour than females. In addition, the independent effect of age on risky sexual behaviour indicates that young people between the ages of 20–24 years were found to of South African communities and available resources to carry out the research, I decided to adopt an analytical cross-sectional method that made use of a quantitative approach to examine the influence of social disorganisation factors that are associated with risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa, Data and Methods The data source that was used in this study was the 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) which provides adequate information on knowledge, perceptions and sexual behaviours of youths aged between 15–24 years in South Africa. Specifically, the SADHS obtained information on the knowledge and perceptions of the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus, sexual debut, patterns and partner characteristics and condom use. The 2016 SADHS was nationally representative and adopted a multistage cluster sampling design. The survey made use of the sampling frame from the Statistics South Africa Master Sample Frame, which was created using census 2011 enumeration areas. Due to the geographical hierarchy structure of the census that linked enumeration areas to administrative boundaries, information was available at the municipal, district and provincial levels in the survey. The surveys involved a multistage cluster sampling design, with clusters selected from the enumeration areas, and households selected from the clusters. For instance, there were 750 clusters also known as primary sampling units (PSUs), selected from the 26 sampling strata, which included 468 urban, 224 traditional and 58 farm areas. The selected sample of youths was 2 621 females and 1 268 males, giving a total of 3 889 youths who had never married aged between 15–24 years of age. Key findings Objective 1: Individual and family-level correlates of risky sexual behaviour The frequency distribution showed that risky sexual behaviours were found to operate at both micro and macro levels. The findings showed that at the micro level, the impact of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics on young people’s involvement in risky sexual behaviour was evident across genders. Although differences were minor, young males were shown to be more exposed to risky sexual behaviour than females. In addition, the independent effect of age on risky sexual behaviour indicates that young people between the ages of 20–24 years were found to engage in risky sexual behaviour more than those between the ages of 15–19 years. The findings showed that becoming older was not a protective factor for engaging in risky sexual behaviour for both male and female youths. Several studies have documented the relationship between peoples’ age and their exposure to risky sexual behaviour. The possible explanations for the results could be attributed to the fact that older youth tend to have more confidence as well as better knowledge and experience about risks in a sexual relationship, which might influence their action to engage in risky sexual behaviour. They are also capable of withstanding any sociocultural norms and values preventing them from engaging in risky sexual behaviour that exists in the environment in which they live. Objective 2: Effects of community social disorganisation-level factors and risky sexual behaviour among young people Overall, the findings supported the social disorganisation theory (model) based on explaining variations that exist across neighbourhoods where young people live. The theory identifies neighbourhood poverty, residential mobility due to migration, family dysfunction, race/ethnic diversity and community literacy level as the main structural factors that reduce communities’ ability to regulate themselves, most especially the activities of young people, which in turn leads to risky sexual behaviour. For instance, individuals who reside in disadvantaged communities may experience these specific elements to the degree that they may influence them to engage in risky sexual behaviour. Previous studies have consistently found that some factors such as family dysfunction, residential mobility, neighbourhood poverty and ethnic and racial diversities in disorganised communities can influence an individual to engage in risky sexual behaviour. This study found that female adolescents living in a community with a high proportion of literate parents, tend to engage in RSB, unlike male youths that have fewer chances of engaging in risky sexual behaviour. This indicates that residing in a community with a high proportion of literate parents does not prevent RSB among female youths in South Africa. Objective 3: Pathways through which social disorganisation factors influence RSB among young people in South Africa What is noteworthy in this study was the investigation of the independent association between social disorganisation-related factors and the outcome variables (multiple sexual partnerships and inconsistent condom use) to see how other variables (individual and family-level factors) influence this relationship. In each of the social disorganisation models, age, educational attainments, employment status and household size were the highly significant influences of RSB among youths. The study indicates that adolescent sexual risk behaviours in South Africa may worsen because of the link between family dysfunction, neighbourhood poverty and community literacy levels. Such a pattern of associations could be explained by the probability of adolescents from intact families (presence of father and mother) living in a low-poverty neighbourhood and also engaging in RSB even with the presence of both parents. Despite the high literacy level in the community (a high proportion can read and write), which should have provided better access to contraceptive information (through radio, the internet, TV etc), inadequate parental control over media use can make it more likely that youths will engage in RSB. These findings may not be entirely surprising given the proportion of youths congregating in the neighbourhood who have adequate media access (internet, radio, TV) without proper control, either from their father or mother, who should provide strong positive support for protection against risky behaviours. The findings showed that a lack of a stable relationship with their parents could affect positive decisions in exercising safer and healthier sexual practices. Therefore, when there is a stable relationship with parents that leads to regulation of media access among children, the odds of engaging in RSB among youths will reduce. Notwithstanding, there is indeed a high level of awareness of sexual and reproductive health safety and preventive actions, such as low condom use and sexual risk partnering. Due to the limited regulation over media content in such a highly literate South African community, this knowledge is not adequate among youths. Conclusions The study is of high value from the academic and programme design perspectives. The findings of the study are critical to making the different relevant responsible bodies in South Africa alert and responsive – at the individual and community levels – to designing flexible programmes to respond to the high risks that youths are exposed to and their vulnerabilities. The study has also indicated potential areas of future interventions for the possible reduction of risks – unemployment, dysfunctional communities and family – and provides some directions on how to reduce RSB among youths in South Africa. Implications of findings The results imply that intervention programmes are needed for young people in South Africa to support them and help them avoid engaging in RSB because of community/neighbourhood defects existing in some of their communities. The findings also showed that existing sexuality programmes/policies are not very effective in addressing HIV prevention. They are also not effective in tackling the interplay between ethnic diversity and cultural norms and values that expose young people to engage in RSB. Therefore, specific programmes should be implemented that address community or neighbourhood factors that have exposed young people to many sexual and reproductive health challenges including sexually transmitted infections such as HIV; unintended pregnancies which could lead to unsafe abortions and consequently, morbidity and even mortality; other non-consensual sexual experiences; unprotected sex; and multiple partnerships. Frontier of future research Future qualitative investigations may be conducted to test the association between social disorganisation factors and youths’ RSBs in South Africa. Also, further qualitative/quantitative studies may explore the effects of extended family members on adolescent engagement in RSB among youths. Future research may also investigate the direct impacts of role models on sexual behaviour among youths. For instance, residing in a community where there are few role models/adult supervisors may not only offer youth sexual opportunities but may also provide them with the resources (eg money, time, energy, etc) by which to do so.Item Youth sexual behaviour in South Africa: social disorganisation as an alternative explanation(2022-09) Ugwu, Nebechukwu HenryIntroduction Youths’ consistent engagements in risky sexual behaviour continue to be a source of concern for parents, researchers, practitioners and policymakers. Several researchers argue that a high proportion of youths that engaged in risky sexual behaviours were influenced by risk factors at the individual, household/family and community/neighbourhood levels. However, very few studies have explored the influence of community-level factors associated with risky sexual behaviour among young people across genders in South Africa. Currently, most efforts are directed towards addressing individual-level factors at the expense of not addressing community-level issues such as social disorganisation, contributing to risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa. The question of how socially disorganised societies/communities create adolescents’ unfavourable sexual behaviour in the modern world has remained less explored across genders in South Africa. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to understand adolescents’ sexual behaviour of youths aged between 15–24 years across genders in South Africa and explain the risk factors associated with them through the lens of social disorganisation-related factors. Further, it was to explore possible pathways through which some of these social disorganisation factors led to adolescents’ risky sexual behaviour in South Africa. The risky sexual behaviours explored in this study were multiple sexual behaviours and inconsistent/lack of condom use. Theoretical Framework The study was situated within the confines of the social disorganisation theory. The theory argues that social disorganisation factors such as community poverty, residential instability, family dysfunction and race/ethnic heterogeneity in certain neighbourhoods diminish community attachments, including social norms and social ties, by weakening community-level social control of crime devices. Although the social disorganisation theory was originally applied to crime and delinquency, researchers have applied the theory to different behavioural studies such as risk behaviours among adolescents and youths, sexual and gender-based violence, rape and educational behaviour. The theory identifies places and community structures responsible for the creation of conditions that are favourable or unfavourable to adolescents’ behaviour. Specifically, the study would have been better explored through a concurrent triangulation approach, but due to the terrain of South African communities and available resources to carry out the research, I decided to adopt an analytical cross-sectional method that made use of a quantitative approach to examine the influence of social disorganisation factors that are associated with risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa, Data and Methods The data source that was used in this study was the 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) which provides adequate information on knowledge, perceptions and sexual behaviours of youths aged between 15–24 years in South Africa. Specifically, the SADHS obtained information on the knowledge and perceptions of the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus, sexual debut, patterns and partner characteristics and condom use. The 2016 SADHS was nationally representative and adopted a multistage cluster sampling design. The survey made use of the sampling frame from the Statistics South Africa Master Sample Frame, which was created using census 2011 enumeration areas. Due to the geographical hierarchy structure of the census that linked enumeration areas to administrative boundaries, information was available at the municipal, district and provincial levels in the survey. The surveys involved a multistage cluster sampling design, with clusters selected from the enumeration areas, and households selected from the clusters. For instance, there were 750 clusters also known as primary sampling units (PSUs), selected from the 26 sampling strata, which included 468 urban, 224 traditional and 58 farm areas. The selected sample of youths was 2 621 females and 1 268 males, giving a total of 3 889 youths who had never married aged between 15–24 years of age. Key findings Objective 1: Individual and family-level correlates of risky sexual behaviour The frequency distribution showed that risky sexual behaviours were found to operate at both micro and macro levels. The findings showed that at the micro level, the impact of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics on young people’s involvement in risky sexual behaviour was evident across genders. Although differences were minor, young males were shown to be more exposed to risky sexual behaviour than females. In addition, the independent effect of age on risky sexual behaviour indicates that young people between the ages of 20–24 years were found to engage in risky sexual behaviour more than those between the ages of 15–19 years. The findings showed that becoming older was not a protective factor for engaging in risky sexual behaviour for both male and female youths. Several studies have documented the relationship between peoples’ age and their exposure to risky sexual behaviour. The possible explanations for the results could be attributed to the fact that older youth tend to have more confidence as well as better knowledge and experience about risks in a sexual relationship, which might influence their action to engage in risky sexual behaviour. They are also capable of withstanding any sociocultural norms and values preventing them from engaging in risky sexual behaviour that exists in the environment in which they live. Objective 2: Effects of community social disorganisation-level factors and risky sexual behaviour among young people Overall, the findings supported the social disorganisation theory (model) based on explaining variations that exist across neighbourhoods where young people live. The theory identifies neighbourhood poverty, residential mobility due to migration, family dysfunction, race/ethnic diversity and community literacy level as the main structural factors that reduce communities’ ability to regulate themselves, most especially the activities of young people, which in turn leads to risky sexual behaviour. For instance, individuals who reside in disadvantaged communities may experience these specific elements to the degree that they may influence them to engage in risky sexual behaviour. Previous studies have consistently found that some factors such as family dysfunction, residential mobility, neighbourhood poverty and ethnic and racial diversities in disorganised communities can influence an individual to engage in risky sexual behaviour. This study found that female adolescents living in a community with a high proportion of literate parents, tend to engage in RSB, unlike male youths that have fewer chances of engaging in risky sexual behaviour. This indicates that residing in a community with a high proportion of literate parents does not prevent RSB among female youths in South Africa. Objective 3: Pathways through which social disorganisation factors influence RSB among young people in South Africa What is noteworthy in this study was the investigation of the independent association between social disorganisation-related factors and the outcome variables (multiple sexual partnerships and inconsistent condom use) to see how other variables (individual and family-level factors) influence this relationship. In each of the social disorganisation models, age, educational attainments, employment status and household size were the highly significant influences of RSB among youths. The study indicates that adolescent sexual risk behaviours in South Africa may worsen because of the link between family dysfunction, neighbourhood poverty and community literacy levels. Such a pattern of associations could be explained by the probability of adolescents from intact families (presence of father and mother) living in a low-poverty neighbourhood and also engaging in RSB even with the presence of both parents. Despite the high literacy level in the community (a high proportion can read and write), which should have provided better access to contraceptive information (through radio, the internet, TV etc), inadequate parental control over media use can make it more likely that youths will engage in RSB. These findings may not be entirely surprising given the proportion of youths congregating in the neighbourhood who have adequate media access (internet, radio, TV) without proper control, either from their father or mother, who should provide strong positive support for protection against risky behaviours. The findings showed that a lack of a stable relationship with their parents could affect positive decisions in exercising safer and healthier sexual practices. Therefore, when there is a stable relationship with parents that leads to regulation of media access among children, the odds of engaging in RSB among youths will reduce. Notwithstanding, there is indeed a high level of awareness of sexual and reproductive health safety and preventive actions, such as low condom use and sexual risk partnering. Due to the limited regulation over media content in such a highly literate South African community, this knowledge is not adequate among youths. Conclusions The study is of high value from the academic and programme design perspectives. The findings of the study are critical to making the different relevant responsible bodies in South Africa alert and responsive – at the individual and community levels – to designing flexible programmes to respond to the high risks that youths are exposed to and their vulnerabilities. The study has also indicated potential areas of future interventions for the possible reduction of risks – unemployment, dysfunctional communities and family – and provides some directions on how to reduce RSB among youths in South Africa. Implications of findings The results imply that intervention programmes are needed for young people in South Africa to support them and help them avoid engaging in RSB because of community/neighbourhood defects existing in some of their communities. The findings also showed that existing sexuality programmes/policies are not very effective in addressing HIV prevention. They are also not effective in tackling the interplay between ethnic diversity and cultural norms and values that expose young people to engage in RSB. Therefore, specific programmes should be implemented that address community or neighbourhood factors that have exposed young people to many sexual and reproductive health challenges including sexually transmitted infections such as HIV; unintended pregnancies which could lead to unsafe abortions and consequently, morbidity and even mortality; other non-consensual sexual experiences; unprotected sex; and multiple partnerships. Frontier of future research Future qualitative investigations may be conducted to test the association between social disorganisation factors and youths’ RSBs in South Africa. Also, further qualitative/quantitative studies may explore the effects of extended family members on adolescent engagement in RSB among youths. Future research may also investigate the direct impacts of role models on sexual behaviour among youths. For instance, residing in a community where there are few role models/adult supervisors may not only offer youth sexual opportunities but may also provide them with the resources (eg money, time, energy, etc) by which to do so.Item Youth sexual behaviour in South Africa: social disorganisation as an alternative explanation(2022-11) Henry, Ugwu NebechukwuIntroduction Youths’ consistent engagements in risky sexual behaviour continue to be a source of concern for parents, researchers, practitioners and policymakers. Several researchers argue that a high proportion of youths that engaged in risky sexual behaviours were influenced by risk factors at the individual, household/family and community/neighbourhood levels. However, very few studies have explored the influence of community-level factors associated with risky sexual behaviour among young people across genders in South Africa. Currently, most efforts are directed towards addressing individual-level factors at the expense of not addressing community-level issues such as social disorganisation, contributing to risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa. The question of how socially disorganised societies/communities create adolescents’ unfavourable sexual behaviour in the modern world has remained less explored across genders in South Africa. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to understand adolescents’ sexual behaviour of youths aged between 15–24 years across genders in South Africa and explain the risk factors associated with them through the lens of social disorganisation-related factors. Further, it was to explore possible pathways through which some of these social disorganisation factors led to adolescents’ risky sexual behaviour in South Africa. The risky sexual behaviours explored in this study were multiple sexual behaviours and inconsistent/lack of condom use. Theoretical Framework The study was situated within the confines of the social disorganisation theory. The theory argues that social disorganisation factors such as community poverty, residential instability, family dysfunction and race/ethnic heterogeneity in certain neighbourhoods diminish community attachments, including social norms and social ties, by weakening community-level social control of crime devices. Although the social disorganisation theory was originally applied to crime and delinquency, researchers have applied the theory to different behavioural studies such as risk behaviours among adolescents and youths, sexual and gender-based violence, rape and educational behaviour. The theory identifies places and community structures responsible for the creation of conditions that are favourable or unfavourable to adolescents’ behaviour. Specifically, the study would have been better explored through a concurrent triangulation approach, but due to the terrain of South African communities and available resources to carry out the research, I decided to adopt an analytical cross-sectional method that made use of a quantitative approach to examine the influence of social disorganisation factors that are associated with risky sexual behaviours among youths across genders in South Africa, Data and Methods The data source that was used in this study was the 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS) which provides adequate information on knowledge, perceptions and sexual behaviours of youths aged between 15–24 years in South Africa. Specifically, the SADHS obtained information on the knowledge and perceptions of the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus, sexual debut, patterns and partner characteristics and condom use. The 2016 SADHS was nationally representative and adopted a multistage cluster sampling design. The survey made use of the sampling frame from the Statistics South Africa Master Sample Frame, which was created using census 2011 enumeration areas. Due to the geographical hierarchy structure of the census that linked enumeration areas to administrative boundaries, information was available at the municipal, district and provincial levels in the survey. The surveys involved a multistage cluster sampling design, with clusters selected from the enumeration areas, and households selected from the clusters. For instance, there were 750 clusters also known as primary sampling units (PSUs), selected from the 26 sampling strata, which included 468 urban, 224 traditional and 58 farm areas. The selected sample of youths was 2 621 females and 1 268 males, giving a total of 3 889 youths who had never married aged between 15–24 years of age. Key findings Objective 1: Individual and family-level correlates of risky sexual behaviour The frequency distribution showed that risky sexual behaviours were found to operate at both micro and macro levels. The findings showed that at the micro level, the impact of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics on young people’s involvement in risky sexual behaviour was evident across genders. Although differences were minor, young males were shown to be more exposed to risky sexual behaviour than females. In addition, the independent effect of age on risky sexual behaviour indicates that young people between the ages of 20–24 years were found to engage in risky sexual behaviour more than those between the ages of 15–19 years. The findings showed that becoming older was not a protective factor for engaging in risky sexual behaviour for both male and female youths. Several studies have documented the relationship between peoples’ age and their exposure to risky sexual behaviour. The possible explanations for the results could be attributed to the fact that older youth tend to have more confidence as well as better knowledge and experience about risks in a sexual relationship, which might influence their action to engage in risky sexual behaviour. They are also capable of withstanding any sociocultural norms and values preventing them from engaging in risky sexual behaviour that exists in the environment in which they live. Objective 2: Effects of community social disorganisation-level factors and risky sexual behaviour among young people Overall, the findings supported the social disorganisation theory (model) based on explaining variations that exist across neighbourhoods where young people live. The theory identifies neighbourhood poverty, residential mobility due to migration, family dysfunction, race/ethnic diversity and community literacy level as the main structural factors that reduce communities’ ability to regulate themselves, most especially the activities of young people, which in turn leads to risky sexual behaviour. For instance, individuals who reside in disadvantaged communities may experience these specific elements to the degree that they may influence them to engage in risky sexual behaviour. Previous studies have consistently found that some factors such as family dysfunction, residential mobility, neighbourhood poverty and ethnic and racial diversities in disorganised communities can influence an individual to engage in risky sexual behaviour. This study found that female adolescents living in a community with a high proportion of literate parents, tend to engage in RSB, unlike male youths that have fewer chances of engaging in risky sexual behaviour. This indicates that residing in a community with a high proportion of literate parents does not prevent RSB among female youths in South Africa. Objective 3: Pathways through which social disorganisation factors influence RSB among young people in South Africa What is noteworthy in this study was the investigation of the independent association between social disorganisation-related factors and the outcome variables (multiple sexual partnerships and inconsistent condom use) to see how other variables (individual and family-level factors) influence this relationship. In each of the social disorganisation models, age, educational attainments, employment status and household size were the highly significant influences of RSB among youths. The study indicates that adolescent sexual risk behaviours in South Africa may worsen because of the link between family dysfunction, neighbourhood poverty and community literacy levels. Such a pattern of associations could be explained by the probability of adolescents from intact families (presence of father and mother) living in a low-poverty neighbourhood and also engaging in RSB even with the presence of both parents. Despite the high literacy level in the community (a high proportion can read and write), which should have provided better access to contraceptive information (through radio, the internet, TV etc), inadequate parental control over media use can make it more likely that youths will engage in RSB. These findings may not be entirely surprising given the proportion of youths congregating in the neighbourhood who have adequate media access (internet, radio, TV) without proper control, either from their father or mother, who should provide strong positive support for protection against risky behaviours. The findings showed that a lack of a stable relationship with their parents could affect positive decisions in exercising safer and healthier sexual practices. Therefore, when there is a stable relationship with parents that leads to regulation of media access among children, the odds of engaging in RSB among youths will reduce. Notwithstanding, there is indeed a high level of awareness of sexual and reproductive health safety and preventive actions, such as low condom use and sexual risk partnering. Due to the limited regulation over media content in such a highly literate South African community, this knowledge is not adequate among youths. Conclusions The study is of high value from the academic and programme design perspectives. The findings of the study are critical to making the different relevant responsible bodies in South Africa alert and responsive – at the individual and community levels – to designing flexible programmes to respond to the high risks that youths are exposed to and their vulnerabilities. The study has also indicated potential areas of future interventions for the possible reduction of risks – unemployment, dysfunctional communities and family – and provides some directions on how to reduce RSB among youths in South Africa. Implications of findings The results imply that intervention programmes are needed for young people in South Africa to support them and help them avoid engaging in RSB because of community/neighbourhood defects existing in some of their communities. The findings also showed that existing sexuality programmes/policies are not very effective in addressing HIV prevention. They are also not effective in tackling the interplay between ethnic diversity and cultural norms and values that expose young people to engage in RSB. Therefore, specific programmes should be implemented that address community or neighbourhood factors that have exposed young people to many sexual and reproductive health challenges including sexually transmitted infections such as HIV; unintended pregnancies which could lead to unsafe abortions and consequently, morbidity and even mortality; other non-consensual sexual experiences; unprotected sex; and multiple partnerships. Frontier of future research Future qualitative investigations may be conducted to test the association between social disorganisation factors and youths’ RSBs in South Africa. Also, further qualitative/quantitative studies may explore the effects of extended family members on adolescent engagement in RSB among youths. Future research may also investigate the direct impacts of role models on sexual behaviour among youths. For instance, residing in a community where there are few role models/adult supervisors may not only offer youth sexual opportunities but may also provide them with the resources (eg money, time, energy, etc) by which to do so.Item Train surfing: the Soweto pastime(2016-04-08) Moroke, Mapule SheenaTrain surfing or staff riding has been a part of the South African working-class economic fabric since the initiation of segregation under apartheid. Now within contemporary society the activity has gained great media attention due to the fatalities that are so commonly associated with it. Despite it being a globally and locally longstanding activity it is still an area that is under-researched. The current study was aimed at exploring the growing phenomenon and how it is constructed by youth in Soweto. A total of 32 adolescent boys and girls between the ages of 18 and 21 were recruited from a public secondary school in Orlando West, Soweto, to take part in one of four focus groups. The participants’ responses from the focus group discussions were recorded then analysed using thematic content analysis. Emerging themes, including what it means to be an adolescent living in Soweto postapartheid, what adolescents now consider having fun, and what they consider to be risky behaviour, were explored in the data analysis. In addition, alternative growing phenomena within Soweto were identified, namely biking and drag-racing. Evident from the analysis was the pressure felt and experienced by adolescents, especially by male adolescents within society and the school environment to fit in to popular constructions of a growing adult and the constructions of hegemonic masculinity in contemporary South Africa. It was also found that the train surfing participants used the practice as a means to define their identity as young, black males living in South Africa. However, as much as some of the accounts of the reasons behind risky behaviours were in line with hegemonic constructions of masculinity, also revealed were the alternative and opposing voices which appeared to be tense with emotional, personal and social sacrifices. This fluidity of identity was explored through the various components of identity such as race, class and gender that all interact within the context of Soweto and results in differing adolescent identity constructions, such as, the ambitious and inspired, as well as the risk-taking train surfers who are described as being ‘in limbo’. The research concludes by shifting contemporary understanding of the phenomenon from one of thrill seeking to a performance of identity and masculinity that is influenced by race, class, and gender.Item Academic achievement in ADHD adolescents experiencing barriers to learning : perceptions of parents and learners.(2014-02-25) Kruger, MichalThe aim of this research was to determine the perceptions of parents and learners are surrounding academic achievement and the factors which contribute to it, taking into consideration barriers to learning. The research also aimed to investigate what their perceptions are on the factors which contribute to academic achievement. There were a total of six dyads, six adolescents (middle to late adolescence) and eight parents. All of the adolescents had been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Each of the adolescents took part in an interview and the parents took part in a separate interview. The interviews were semi-structured in nature. The findings of the study indicated that academic achievement was defined as being based on marks or on the ability of the learners to achieve their potential. The factors perceived to influence academic achievement such as peers, educators, school environment and the role of parents were found to be similar between parents and adolescents. The barrier to learning (ADHD) was not perceived as having a greater influence on academic achievement than any other factor.Item Evaluation of a theatre performance for adolescents promoting safer sex behaviour using AIDS risk reduction theories.(2009-06-19T06:58:14Z) Scott, Michelle MoniqueThere are repeated calls in the literature for the implementation and evaluation of evidence based HIV prevention programmes. This study aimed to evaluate a life-skills theatre performance for adolescents promoting safer sex behaviour against aspects of an established AIDS risk reduction theory. The study used a quasi-experimental research design, and was operationalised through the use of a questionnaire measuring knowledge, attitudes and perceptions conducive to HIV/AIDS risk reduction. Bandura’s (1990) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) provided a conceptual framework for the development of the instrument. A further aim of the study was to establish whether the instrument would yield a factor structure that could be linked to Social Cognitive Theory using a principal components factor analysis. A sample of 392 adolescent high school learners in Grades 10 and 11 at two high schools in Naledi, Soweto completed the evaluation instrument. A sample of 165 learners were exposed to the play prior to completion of the evaluation instrument. A sample of 227 learners completed the questionnaire before the play was scheduled to be performed and were thus considered a control group. The effects of exposure to the play, gender, age, grade and whether the learners reported that they were sexually active formed the independent variables in the analysis, which were examined for their influences on the theoretical constructs measured by the instrument through analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicated that learners at both schools had a reasonably high level of knowledge, attitudes and perceptions conducive to HIV/AIDS risk reduction. However, learners at the control school scored significantly higher on the factors tapped by the questionnaire than learners attending the school exposed to the play. Possible reasons for these differences are discussed in the report. The results also highlighted significant differences between Grade 11 and Grade 10 learners in knowledge, attitudes and perceptions conducive to HIV/AIDS risk reduction. The physical age of the learner did not appear to be as important as educational level and/or possible social peer group norms on responses to the instrument.Item Adolescents' experiences of living with HIV and AIDS.(2009-06-11T08:30:46Z) Black, Linda AnneA growing body of research exists that examines the nature of i n tervent ions aimed at educa ting adolescents in t e rms of HIV and AIDS (Campbell, 2003; Campbell & McPhail, 2002; Van Dyk, 2001). However, there appears to be a grave pauci ty of l i t e rature that explor es the impact of HIV and AIDS on adolescents’ psychological and emotional functioning. Adolescents who live in the af t e rmath following the death of a parent, or parents often have to deal with rejection from thei r community, and are often confronted with significant emo t ional, educa tional and psycho-social challenges. These cha llenges continue to pose enormous threat to the development of a healthy s e lf-concept (Foster & Germann, 2002). These adolescents continue to be marginalized as their voices remain largely s i l e n t in contemporar y research . Using a combination of Art therapy, and narr ative creation, twenty-eight adolescents participated in a group intervention intended to facilitate, empower and encourage meaning making processes, and to f ac i l i t at e both oral and wr i t ten communica tion about the i r exper iences of living wi th HIV and AIDS. Findings suggest that while adolescents living with HIV and AIDS continue to have significant emotional, physiological, and social cha l lenges on a daily basis, their stories espouse great hope, determination and resilience.Item COMPLEX SENTENCE COMPREHENSION WITHIN A SOUTH AFRICAN ADOLESCENT POPULATION(2006-11-14T11:08:15Z) Van Rooyen, Dannielle SharonSouth African Speech-Language Pathologists are assessing and treating many adolescents with varying speech and language difficulties. This task is complicated by the fact that it is currently largely unknown what the language abilities of mainstream adolescents are. Some research has suggested declining language abilities, as well as significant effects of grade, gender and language background on cognitive academic language skills. As individuals grow older, the demands of the classroom environment become greater, forcing adolescents to use complex language skills in order to learn. This research paper aimed to assess the complex sentence comprehension abilities of a sample of South African adolescents, through the use of the Grammar/Listening subtest of the Test of Adolescent Language, developed by Hammill, Brown, Larsen, and Wiederholt (1980). Additionally, the effects of grade, gender, language, time spent reading for school and recreationally each week, number of television programmes watched per week, length of time spent playing computer or video games per day, preferred learning styles (group/alone and auditory/visual/both), most recent English and school report marks, and use of cellular telephones, were used to determine related factors and educational variables which might be linked to each other. Additionally, a working memory measure was included, in order to ascertain that this factor was not having a negative effect upon the comprehension scores. It was found that gender was an over-riding factor throughout the study. Females tended to do better on the complex sentence comprehension test, and also spent more time reading for school each week, obtained better English and school report marks, preferred to learn alone, and sent more sms’s. Males were only inclined to play more computer or video games per week. In opposition to the initial hypothesis that these learners would perform poorly on the TOAL subtest, it was found that participants generally performed within the average limits of the test. Correlations, one-way ANOVA’s, chi squared analyses and t-tests were performed for the secondary aims, in order to determine any relationships between the variables. Overall, though, gender was the key variable in the study, which is in line with other literature in the field. Home language and educational level had minimal effects. Further research has been recommended.