3. Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETDs) - All submissions
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Item Political contestation and ownership models in Debswana and Sonangol(2015-08-25) Taodzera, Shingirai LExtractive natural resources have always been associated with negative outcomes in sub- Saharan countries. However, it is essential to investigate the extent to which domestic political conditions influence ownership structures, which may or may not subsequently result in adverse outcomes. Through a comparative analysis between the cases of Angola and Botswana, this study finds that, political contestation influences ownership models as hypothesized to an extent. In Angola, the post-independence civil war pitting the ruling MPLA against UNITA resulted in Sonangol being managed as a wholly owned state enterprise, albeit serving the interests of the MPLA elite instead of broad-based developmental interests. In Botswana, however, Debswana was managed as a public-private entity located within a democratic political system, and this ownership structure was more a result of rational policy planning than political contestation. Nevertheless, the cases’ history of colonial rule and political institutions established upon the attainment of political independence are substantially influential factors as well. Non-settler colonialism and non-militarized political transitions to independence facilitated the growth of “organic” political and economic institutions and public-private ownership structures in Botswana, while settler colonialism and pre-independence militarization influenced the growth of centralized post-colonial state structures internal strife in Angola. The timing of resource extraction was also important, with pre-independence oil extraction influencing militarized rivalry in Angola, while postindependence extraction of diamonds in Botswana was a causal factor in the development of strong state institutions. External factors, particularly the Cold War influenced militarised outcomes in Angola, while the nature of the global diamond market had a contributory factor to the establishment of the public-private ownership model in Botswana.Item The implementation of the Botswana Technical Education Programme(2013-08-22) Mhizha, Bose MargaretA new Vocational Educational Policy, Botswana Technical Education Programme policy (BTEP) has been launched by the Department of Vocational Education and Training to enable the learners to acquire the necessary learning experiences and attributes towards effective preparation for the world of work. The nature of the programme is such that facilitation approaches should be learner-centred. The Quality Assurance policies are aimed to support the implementation of the BTEP. However, they were factors which hindered the effective implementation of BTEP in the Technical Colleges. Consequently, the Colleges implemented the policy partially while there was non-implementation in certain programmes at some Colleges and as a result BTEP failed to increase access in the Technical Colleges as initially intended. This was the research problem of the study. The aim of the study was to explore factors that constrained the implementation of BTEP. The related literature was consulted to determine the changes that could be made to enhance policy implementation. Subsequently, document analysis and semi-structured interviews were used to determine the current BTEP delivery practices of lecturers at four Technical Colleges in Botswana, namely, Maun Technical College, Selebi Phikwe Technical College, Francistown College of Vocational Education and Training and Palapye Technical College. Thereafter, the requirements of the policy and the current practices of the lecturers were compared to determine the factors that had hindered the implementation of BTEP. Though the research identified a number of perceived policy successes, perceived policy failures were also identified as follows: Lack of capacity to implement the policy in the Technical Colleges, lack of support for policy implementation from DTVET, lack of commitment to the policy, diverse interpretation of the policy and lastly negative attitude towards the policy was also identified as a constraining factor. Regarding these perceived constraints it was firstly recommended that DTVET should ensure that there are officers who are held accountable for the progress of the implementation of BTEP at DTVET level. Secondly DTVET should develop strategies to guide and support lecturers to implement BTEP effectively. Furthermore DTVET should ensure that messages are communicated to all stakeholders and that feedback about BTEP is clear and consistent. DTVET should also encourage the Colleges to adopt the policy, mitigate resistance and manage the implementation of BTEP. Lastly DTVET should simplify strategies for implementing the BTEP policy and avoid complex initiatives. This study may provide a solution to the problem of BTEP implementation in the Technical Colleges in Botswana. I write this in particular to advice and encourage, the Department of Vocational Education and Training, Programme Design and Development Unit, Quality Assurance Unit, College Management teams and lecturers to make use of the issues raised in this study to help them improve BTEP implementation in the Technical Colleges.Item Men, masculinities and sexual and reproductive health in Botswana.(2011-04-12) Rakgoasi, Serai DanielThis thesis investigates the role of masculinities on men’s sexual and reproductive health in Botswana. Botswana is currently in the throes of a severe heterosexually driven HIV/AIDS epidemic that has eroded some of the developmental gains the country had achieved since independence. A unique feature of Botswana’s HIV epidemic is the rapid and phenomenal increase in infection and prevalence rates in the face of good levels of knowledge of HIV prevention and an early and comprehensive HIV prevention strategy that guaranteed access to free HIV prevention and treatment services, including ARV treatment. The lack of effectiveness of the country’s HIV efforts and subsequent increase in infection rates have been blamed on men’s risky sexual behavior and lack of support of their partners’ decisions to utilize these services. In fact, quantitative studies on men’s sexual behavior and HIV such as the Botswana AIDS Impact Surveys show that men are less likely to use VCT services and more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior that increases risk of HIV infection to themselves and their partners. While studies provide the evidence that implicates men in the rapid growth Botswana’s HIV epidemic, the studies provide little or no explanation of factors that motivate men’s behavior in reproductive health. This lack of insights on factors that motivate men’s behavior leads to stereotypes about male promiscuity and may contribute to the lack of effectiveness of HIV prevention strategies. The current HIV epidemic has thus thrust heterosexual masculinities at the centre of HIV prevention efforts and provides an opportunity for research to interrogate the role of heterosexual masculinities in reproductive health, especially HIV transmission and prevention. The thesis employs qualitative data to provide in-depth appreciation of the prevalent masculine norms and beliefs and to highlight contextual factors and processes that shape and give rise to various masculinities. It further uses quantitative data to provide measures of levels of men’s masculine and gender role beliefs that may influence HIV prevention and transmission and to test the association between masculinities and men’s sexual and reproductive health attitudes and practices. The results show that men’s sense of identity is socially constructed, and revolves around the notion of superiority to women, independence and having and being in control of the family. However, men face many challenges to the realization of this masculine ideal. Men’s perceived difficulty or failure to live up to socially constructed Men, Masculinities and Sexual and Reproductive Health in Botswana vii notions of masculinities affects their experience of sexual and reproductive health programs, especially women’s empowerment and HIV prevention programs. By their nature, these programs tend to challenge men’s dominance of women’s decision on sexuality, and are therefore experienced as a threat to some men’s sense of identity. Quantitative results indicate an association between masculinities and sexual and reproductive health. While men’s sense of masculinities is not the overriding factor determining their sexual and reproductive health attitudes and practices, the results show a strong association traditional masculine beliefs and negative sexual and reproductive health beliefs and practices. However, there is also strong evidence that men and masculinities are responding to contextual factors, such as the HIV epidemic, which has become a specific stress on the local construction of masculinities. In focus group discussions, many men challenged traditional masculine norms, beliefs and practices that increase their vulnerability to HIV infection and those that either encourage or condone violence within intimate relationships. Significantly high proportions of men had positive attitudes towards HIV prevention programs. It is evident that now more than ever (and thanks to the HIV/AIDS epidemic) many men are ready to question the predominant masculine norms, beliefs and practices that increase their vulnerability to infection and disease. These voices of change represent a window of opportunity for research and programs can meaningfully engage with men and masculinities on issues of sexuality, gender roles, sexual and reproductive health and HIV/AIDS prevention and transmission. There is need for future research and interventions to move away from focusing exclusively on individual models of preventive health behaviors to more multilevel, cultural and contextual explanations. Taking account of multilevel, cultural and contextual factors that shape masculinities and men’s sense of identity will ensure increased effectiveness of sexual and reproductive health programs, especially HIV/AIDS prevention programs. On the other hand, failure to account for cultural and contextual factors that shape individuals’ behavior will only ensure that the shortcomings of such intervention program will continue to be blamed on the individual.Item Palynology of a coal seam in Karoo deposits of Botswana and correlation with southern African coal-bearing strata(2010-12-02) Barbolini, NatashaA significant amount of palynological work has been done on southern African coal seams in the Ecca Group, but as yet there is little consensus on how these areas relate to each other. This study investigated the palynology of a coal seam from Mmamantswe (Mmamabula area), Botswana, approximately 70 km north-east of Gaborone. A total of 124 samples were taken from two borehole cores and subjected to acid preparation, oxidation and acetolysis. Coal samples were found to be barren of palynomorphs. Fifty carbonaceous mudstones and siltstone samples yielded twenty-two productive samples. A thermal alteration index of 3.0-3.5 was assigned for the sediments. Palynomorph diversity was high, with 64 genera and 90 species present, dominated by trilete and alete spores. This indicates a parent flora of mostly lower order lycopods, sphenophytes and ferns. Non-taeniate bisaccate and monosaccate pollens were scarce, and striates extremely rare (only two species), suggesting an autochthonous origin for the coal swamp. The Mmamantswe core was sub-divided into five microfloral assemblage zones. A transition from monosaccate dominance in the lower part of the core, to equal numbers of monosaccates and non-taeniate bisaccates in the upper part of the core, was seen. As the Mmamantswe palynoflora possesses elements of both the Late Carboniferous glacial floras and the mid-Permian coal floras, it is thought to represent a cross-over assemblage dating to soon after the Permo-Carboniferous boundary (Sakmarian and Early Artinskian). The Mmamantswe assemblage can be correlated with Assemblage Zones II and III of Falcon (1975a); Biozones B and C of MacRae (1988); and Zones 1, 2 and 3 of Anderson (1977) but does not fit well into any existing biozonation. The Mmamantswe palynoflora was most similar to that of Milorgfjella, Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica (Larrson et al. 1990) and the No. 2 Seam, Witbank, South Africa (Falcon 1989). Taphonomic controls on palynomorph preservation suggest that future studies should also attempt to focus on Permian sediments not containing coal, as microfloral assemblages from coal seams tend to be autochthonous, and subject to local climatic influences. Accordingly they are not as useful for inter-basinal correlation across Gondwana.Item Legal and institutional arrangements for damage caused by wildlife in Kenya and Botswana(2010-03-15T08:25:42Z) Sifuna, Nixon WanyamaIn both Kenya and Botswana, wildlife is a valuable natural resource in terms of its economic value, nutritional value, ecological value, medicinal value, educational and scientific value, as well as recreational and socio-cultural value. Despite this beneficial value, however, wild animals in both countries also cause damage and impose heavy losses on society. They also disrupt peaceful existence in local communities living in close proximity to wildlife areas. The damage they cause includes attacks on people and livestock, destruction of crops and other property as well as infrastructure. This has resulted in a human-wildlife conflict, with people having negative attitudes towards wildlife. Initially people seem to be the victims when wild animals attack them or destroy their property. Later, the animals are the real victims when people in retaliation start attacking, ensnaring or poisoning them. Contrary to the belief that it contributes to poverty alleviation, many people in the local communities in wildlife areas strongly believe wildlife has contributed to their poverty. Unless the governments of both Kenya and Botswana maintain efficient legal and institutional arrangements for wildlife damage, the future of wildlife conservation in both countries is bleak. These arrangements, if effectively enforced, have the potential to: reduce retaliatory killing of wildlife; ensure incidents of wildlife damage are reported; alleviate the losses and suffering associated with wildlife damage; and bolster public support for conservation programmes. It is encouraging that both countries recognize wildlife damage as a major problem and have put in place legal and institutional arrangements to address this problem. This study evaluated the legal and institutional arrangements in Kenya and Botswana on wildlife damage, assessing their suitability, adequacy as well as their effectiveness. While several studies have been conducted on wildlife damage, most of them mainly focus on institutional arrangements and the actual abatement measures adopted, few of them approach the subject from a legal standpoint, in the way this study does. Those studies do not, for instance, discuss the legal basis of the need for legal arrangements for wildlife damage alleviation and the various approaches and actual forms of legal intervention. This author through the use of semi-structured interviews, self-administered questionnaires, focus group discussions, and literature survey investigated the problem of ii wildlife damage in Kenya and Botswana. A central part of this investigation was on the types of damage, the animals involved, whether and how this problem has influenced public attitudes towards wildlife conservation, and suggestions for solution. Research for this study was conducted in the Laikipia region of Kenya and the Okavango delta region of Botswana between January and December 2006. This researcher interviewed 44 respondents from each country, comprising households from the local communities within wildlife areas, senior ranking government officials, leaders of NGOs that actually work on wildlife issues, experts in natural resource management as well as eminent scholars in environmental and natural resources law and policy. Research for this study established that while the governments of both Kenya and Botswana have established certain legal and institutional frameworks on wildlife damage, there are factors that hamper their efficient operation. These factors include the relevance and suitability of the existing laws, as well as their acceptability to stakeholders; lack of appropriate policy framewoks and dispute resolution mechanisms to support the regulatory regime; institutional problems such as overlapping responsibilities, lack of adequate resources and lack of motivation among staff. These factors together with others have continued to be a major challenge to the quest for appropriate and effective legal and institutional response to the problem of wildlife damage in both countries. The study found that in both countries the law vests in the state the power to manage wildlife wherever it occurs within the national boundaries. Botswana’s community-based wildlife management model, however, offers more incentives for conservation to local communities than Kenya’s state-centered system which largely disregards the role of local communities in wildlife matters. This author has argued that local communities are critical stakeholders and the success of any conservation programmes will depend on their goodwill. Besides, while the state has a duty to protect wildlife from harm by humans, it also has a corresponding duty to protect humans and their property from damage by wild animals and to ensure that wildlife does not undermine the people’s livelihoods and development. This is, however, not usually the case as in practice the state in both countries, and especially in Kenya, iii seems to favour wild animals at the expense of the people. The study has recommended certain reforms which need to be undertaken if Kenya and Botswana have to maintain appropriate and efficient legal and institutional arrangements on wildlife damage.Item The limits of aided self-help in the Botswana self-help housing agency programme(2009-02-16T09:32:36Z) Segopa, Joseph Jo'ABSTRACT Low income housing delivery still remains a challenge in Botswana. The government initiated various programmes to address this problem and the Self Help Housing Agency (SHHA) is one of those programmes. This is an exclusive programme limited only to a prescribed low income group. While SHHA has proved to offer opportunities in sustainable low income housing delivery (due to the complimentary roles played by government and beneficiaries), housing problems still persist especially for the low income households. This, to a certain extent, is due to shortcomings within the programme. Any recommendations to address those shortcomings will enable government to achieve its objectives in low income housing delivery.Item Determinants of health related quality of life (HRQoL) of adults in a public sector HAARTprogram in Botswana(2009-01-29T07:50:11Z) Buliva, Evans MuhavaniABSTRACT Introduction The advent of potent anti-retroviral agents for HIV treatment has resulted in marked decrease in deaths. Health workers now have to ensure that their patient’s physical, social, and psychological well-being is optimized. This study used a validated tool to measure Health Related Quality of Life concepts amongst HIV patients in a public treatment program. The main objective of this research was to establish factors that are associated with poor quality of life of these patients with the purpose of using this information as a basis for determining who would require individualized medical care and attention. Materials and methods The study is set at Bontleng Clinic in Gaborone, Botswana. The study questionnaire consisted of two parts: part one for collecting data on sociodemographic, illness and treatment related factors, and part two was the Medical Outcomes Study – Short Form tool used to obtain data on quality of life concepts. Two groups of participants were interviewed: ART-Naïve (n=90) and ARTExperienced (n=110). The study protocol had ethical approval from both the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg and the Ministry of Health in Botswana. iv Results A smaller proportion of ART-experienced participants reported various disease symptoms as compared to those participants who were ART-naïve. Statistically significant differences were noted for: weight loss (25% vs 77%), diarrhoea (3% vs 11%), cough (19% vs 39%), and night sweats (24% vs 43%) for ART experienced and ART Naïve patients respectively. CD4 counts and HB levels were also significantly higher in patients on HAART. The overall QoL summary score was significantly higher (better) in the ART-experienced (mean score 53 out of 100) compared to the ART-naïve group (mean score 47 out of 100). Therefore being on ART favoured a higher QoL score. However, changes in the three laboratory indices of CD4 count, Hb level, and viral load had no statistical significant association with HRQoL scores. Multiple regression identified only five factors as being associated with better QoL scores. These factors were to do with the absence of the following disease symptoms: weight loss, diarrhoea, night sweats, and feet pains; as well as absence of recent hospitalisation. Discussion The study patients do respond well to HAART with significant improvements in all dimensions of QoL. This is in keeping with findings from other populations. In assessing these patients at the initiation of HAART, and at subsequent visits, one must take into account any history of recent hospital admission, history of weight loss, and most importantly presence/absence of various disease symptoms. Conclusions and recommendations Symptoms, regardless of the underlying cause: be it due to HIV disease itself or drug side effects; greatly impact patients’ quality of life. Efforts should be made to include the assessment of symptoms in the continuum of care of HIV patients. The introduction of newer potent anti-retroviral agents with fewer side effects should also favour the beneficial impact of HAART.Item The composition, geographical variation and antimicrobial activity of Mentha longifolia subspecies polyadena (Lamiaceae) leaf essential oils(2008-09-26T08:54:38Z) Petkar, Sahir YusufMentha longifolia subsp. polyadena was collected from seven localities in South Africa and from a single population in Botswana to study the essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of this ethnomedicinal plant. The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and analysed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) and a cluster analysis was performed on the essential oil dataset. From eight samples (representing eight natural populations), two major chemotypes were identified: (i) a menthofuran rich type (51.4% - 61.6%); and (ii) a cis-piperitone epoxide (14.7% – 35.7%) and piperitenone oxide (14.6% - 65.7%) rich type. The constituent analysis showed quantitative variation with higher amounts of oxygencontaining monoterpenes ranging from 56.5% to 89.6% whilst the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons ranged from 4.4% to 16.7%. The essential oil from the different localities mostly showed moderate to good antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus cereus, Moraxella catarrhalis, Yersinia enterocolitica and Enterococcus faecalis. The oils were generally inactive against Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans indicated highest sensitivities for oil samples from Komukwane (3 mg/ml and 0.5 mg/ml respectively) and Prins Albert (0.5 mg/ml and 1.6 mg/ml respectively). The HPLC profiles of the methanol and chloroform (1:1) extracts were more conservative and less variable compared to the essential oils. Two major peaks corresponding to retention times of 22.39 min and 26.47 min were present in all eight samples. Most of the solvent extracts displayed moderate to good antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive pathogens, in particular against S. aureus, S. epidermidis and B. cereus with MIC values ranging from 0.5 mg/ml to 2 mg/ml in most cases. The extracts also demonstrated moderate to good activity against most of the Gram-negative pathogens, in particular against Y. eneterocolitica and M. catarrhalis, with MIC values ranging from 0.5 mg/ml to 2 mg/ml. These results may in part provide scientific evidence for the extensive use of Mentha longifolia in traditional healing.Item Factors contributing to the sexual behavioural patterns and increased risk of HIV infection amongst migrant construction workers in Botswana(2008-05-15T13:05:26Z) Ashby, Clive NormanBackground: HIV/AIDS has been one of the major crises to affect Southern Africa, particularly Botswana where prevalence rates have reached 37.3% of the adult population (2003). Due to the difficult working environment and long periods of separation from their partner, migrant workers have been highly susceptible to HIV infection and one of the main vehicles through which the virus has been transmitted. While much research has been carried out with mine workers, truck drivers, and other migrant groups, few studies have investigated the risk factors of construction workers, which form one of the largest employment groups in Botswana and Southern Africa. The purpose of this study was to determine which factors contributed to construction workers’ engagement in sexual risk behaviours, which have placed them at greater risk of HIV infection. Methods: A cross-sectional analytic study design was used. Structured interviews were carried out with individual migrant workers using a standardised questionnaire. 171 male migrant workers were interviewed, involved in skilled, semi-skilled, and supervisory professions. Interviews took place at three construction sites across Botswana, in the capital city of Gaborone and the rural village of Serowe. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis were carried out to determine which contributing factors were significantly associated with respondents’ sexual risk behaviours. Results: Unprotected sex was the most prevalent sexual risk behaviour, practised by 68.1% of construction workers. Significantly more workers engaged in unprotected sex with their long-term partner (70.3%) than with their casual girlfriend (35.1%). The second most common sexual risk behaviour was having multiple sexual partners. 57% of migrant construction workers reported having an extra girlfriend in addition to their long-term partner during the last five years. Transactional sex, involving the exchange of sex and material support, was a key part of most workers’ (76.6%) sexual relations with casual girlfriends. Commercial sex, though, was rarely reported and accounted for only 1.8% of workers. Men having sex with men (MSM) was strongly denied by construction workers, although 9.5% reported its occurrence in the workplace. In the multivariate analysis, migration was one of the most significant factors associated with respondents’ sexual risk behaviours. Compared to those who remained in one location during the last year, workers who migrated between work locations were 3.01 times more likely to have had transactional sex (p=0.013) and 4.42 times more likely to have had an extra girlfriend over the last five years (p=0.005). Workers who were separated from their main partner for a month or more at a time were 3.74 times more likely to have had an extra girlfriend in the last year (p=0.009) and 4.57 times more likely to have had transactional sex in the last five years (p=0.001). Workers who stayed in the construction on-site accommodation when away from home were 3.00 times (p=0.023) more likely to have multiple partners compared to those who stayed in private accommodation, where their partner had more opportunity to visit them. A second major contributing factor was respondents’ gender attitudes, particularly the perception that ‘one woman is not enough to sexually satisfy me as man’. Workers with this attitude were 6.21 times more likely to have currently multiple partners (p<0.001), 9.05 times more likely to have had an extra girlfriend in the last five years (p=0.015), and 3.35 times likely to have had transactional sex (p=0.031). A number of socio-demographic factors were significantly associated with sexual risk behaviours including respondents’ age, number of children, employment position, salary, workplace location, and education level. It is important to note, however, that respondents’ alcohol consumption and level of HIV/AIDS awareness did not significantly influence their sexual risk behaviours. Conclusion: These findings indicate that labour migration plays a central role in determining whether workers engage in sexual risk behaviours. Steps taken by employers to: (i) increase the frequency with which workers can visit their partner, (ii) provide facilities for long-term partners to visit the workplace, and (iii) reduce the frequency with which workers are transferred between sites - could significantly reduce workers’ susceptibility to HIV infection. Alongside migration, though, gender attitudes played a major role, pointing to the need for more education which focuses on gender attitudes and behaviour change rather than solely HIV/AIDS awareness.Item Limitations of the national policy on housing with respect to poverty alleviation in Botswana(2008-05-15T10:05:44Z) Bogorogile, GobusamangABSTRACT This paper describes the limitations of the housing policy in Botswana when dealing with poverty alleviation. Botswana is faced with high levels of poverty that does not conform to the country’s economic success since independence. Very few opportunities exist for the urban poor to earn a living and work themselves out of poverty. Efforts to address poverty in the past yielded mixed results and failed the urban poor more especially that the interventions were biased towards rural areas. Evidence has been provided that housing has a critical role to play in poverty alleviation. The Government of Botswana has put in place housing projects (one of which is used for this enquiry) through which poverty can be addressed alongside other human needs such as shelter. An enabling environment has to be created for the successful exploitation of housing for poverty alleviation. It is therefore imperative that the government ensures the existence of such an environment.