Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETD)
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This Community hosts a collection of electronic theses and dissertations (ETDs) submitted by doctoral and masters' students of Wits University. Items in this collection are mapped to relevant collections within the Faculties and Schools communities.
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Browsing Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETD) by School "Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences"
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Item A comparative analysis of mining environmental management programme reports following a change to the one environmental system(2022) Mathe, LebogangThe mining fraternity has recently seen a shift in terms of environmental requirements under the ambit of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002 (MPRDA) to the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA). The objective was to ensure a streamlined environmental compliance and to put emphasis on integrated environmental management. The One Environmental System (OES) was introduced which denotes that all environmental related projects or activities, including mining, are regulated through an ambit of one system. NEMA is recognised as an overarching law which provides for co-operative environmental governance; therefore, all environmental related activities are regulated under its ambit and EIA regulations. In this research report, the Environmental Management Programme (EMP) reports and Environmental Authorisations that were issued under the MPRDA and the 2014 NEMA regulations respectively, were analysed using the respective regulations to compare the environmental management measures outlined in the reports to achieve better environmental results. The aim of the research was to assess whether the Environmental Authorisations granted in terms of NEMA reflect better environmental results as compared to those issued under the MPRDA. Better environmental results mean improved management plans with clearer assessment of impacts, more detailed mitigation measures with specific, achievable, relevant and time bound actions that do not pose harmful effects on the environment and communities. A mixed method of analysis was implemented which included a review and comparison of legislation, evaluation and scoring of 20 EMPs (10 submitted under MPRDA and 10 submitted under NEMA) and interviews with key informants, namely competent authorities and the Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs) were conducted to support the findings of the reports. In conclusion, the reports analysed presented a significant improvement and better environmental results under NEMA. The interviews conducted with authorities and the EAPs have also substantiated the observations made in terms of Environmental Management Programme reports and Environmental Authorisations submitted. The findings indicated that there were similarities in the MPRDA and NEMA regulations as 4 | P a g e regards some environmental requirements. However, the MPRDA lacked to outline a detailed description of environmental requirements needed to manage environmental impacts. Thus, applicants provided limited information in terms of the management of impacts. NEMA has provided additional requirements, including baseline environmental information, specialist reports and public participation amongst others; these contributed to improved environmental results. The study revealed that the reports submitted under NEMA provided better environmental management measures as compared to the reports submitted under MPRDA.Item An ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge of the medicinal plants used by traditional healers in the rural communities of Nkomazi Local Municipality, Mpumalanga province(2024) Khoza, NompenduloTraditional medicine continues to significantly impact many people’s lives amid all the advancements in modern medicine. Many rural communities in Mpumalanga province depend on indigenous traditional medicines to manage various ailments. The available research on the traditional usage of medicinal plants among rural communities in Mpumalanga is highly fragmented and under-researched. The decline of medicinal plant populations has led stakeholders to take various initiatives to counteract over-exploitation, including cultivation as a viable conservation approach. However, the scientists' inadequate understanding of the acceptance of cultivated medicinal plants by traditional healers is one of the issues contributing to the failure of medicinal plant cultivation programs. Consequently, this study aimed to document medicinal plants utilised by the Nkomazi Local Municipality's traditional healers and assess opportunities and constraints for medicinal plant conservation in the Nkomazi Local Municipality. The ethnobotanical data was obtained through semi-structured questionnaires and guided field walks with traditional healers. Individual interviews were conducted with ten traditional healers from eight villages across Nkomazi during field visits between July 2021 and February 2022. The study employed qualitative and quantitative approaches to understand traditional healers' perspectives concerning the ethnobotanical significance and medicinal plant conservation. The study found that the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in the Nkomazi Local Municipality is diverse, encompassing 111 species from 59 different families employed to treat 70 ailments. Most of the reported medicinal plants for this study are of Least Concern. Additionally, the top fourteen most reported species in the Nkomazi Local Municipality included commercially valuable plants such as Psidium guajava, Ricinus communis, Sclerocarya birrea, Aloe ferox, Aloe maculata, Leonotis leonurus, and Moringa oleifera. Most of the Nkomazi Local Municipality's traditional healers did not know about protected plant species and the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA). Traditional healers were aware of the decline in wild populations of medicinal plants, which they attributed to various factors such as overharvesting. Diviner’s and herbalist perception of using cultivated plants did not differ significantly (𝜒2=0.4762, df=1, P= 0. 490). The study provided a comprehensive inventory of medicinal plants utilised by Nkomazi traditional healers and essential data for future assessments of the use local use of indigenous medicinal plants.Item Assessing habitat selection of grassland rodents in the Cradle of Humankind(2024) Pinto, Catiuscia-JadeHabitat selection is a decision-making process undertaken by animals to select an appropriate environment suitable for fulfilling their survival and reproductive needs. These decisions are driven by a complex of biotic and abiotic factors. Habitat selection relies on how an animal interacts with its environment and is species-specific. The vegetation structure and composition influence how smaller animals, such as rodents, obtain food and cover, and are thus critical for their survival. The aim of my study was to assess the population demography and habitat selection of nocturnal rodents in two grassland sites located within the Cradle of Humankind Nature Reserve, Krugersdorp, Gauteng Province, South Africa. I obtained rodent data using Capture-Mark-Recapture (CMR) methods, and vegetation data were obtained through randomised quadrate sampling. The following six rodent species were sampled, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, Lemniscomys rosalia, Mastomys coucha, Micaelamys namaquensis, Mus minutoides and Otomys angoniensis. Rodent abundance differed between summer and winter, with winter showing a higher abundance, but richness and diversity indices did not differ significantly between sites or seasons. The three most common species, G. leucogaster, M. coucha and O. angoniensis, were selected for further population demography analyses. The demography of G. leucogaster, was mostly associated with the season since seasonal fluctuations were observed in their population size (higher in summer), reproductive activity (more active in summer) and body condition (higher in winter). Mastomys coucha was the most abundant species in the study, since it had the highest number of sampled individuals in both summer and winter, although its demography was not influenced by external factors (e.g.,, season, vegetation height, vegetation cover) recorded in both summer and winter. Otomys angoniensis had a positive relationship with vegetation height and rodents’ body condition. The three species were able to coexist with one another due to differences in foraging strategies, reproductive strategies, spatial and dietary partitioning, which help to facilitate habitat selection and illustrate that habitat selection is species specific. Key words: Rodents, habitat selection, Gerbilliscus leucogaster, Mastomys couchItem Cognition in urban-dwelling yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata(2024) Muller, MijkeCognition involves perceiving and processing environmental cues and devising appropriate behavioural responses to act on the acquired information. Studying animal cognition in an urban setting provides insight into the occurrence of behavioural changes in urban-adapted animals. This thesis aimed to investigate the cognitive abilities of a population of yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata, inhabiting locations with differing extents of urbanisation in South Africa. First, I investigated whether mongooses could learn to solve a puzzle box problem of increasing complexity. The mongooses were able to solve the problem at each stage of complexity, but took longer in a residential ecological estate than those frequently visiting a residential garden. These results indicated that mongooses were capable of innovation, but their problem-solving abilities were influenced by the level of disturbance in their environment. Secondly, I investigated whether mongooses exhibited cognitive flexibility. The mongooses were able to inhibit a non-rewarding behaviour, even when it was previously rewarded, in favour of a newly rewarded behaviour during the puzzle box task. Additionally, they could solve the puzzle box problem during distraction, but took longer with the most distraction, likely splitting their attention between solving the problem and remaining vigilant. Combined, the mongooses were capable of reversal learning and divided/alternating attention, providing evidence of cognitive flexibility in this mongoose population. Thirdly, I investigated the effects of a direct human approach on the problemsolving ability of mongooses. In areas of heightened human disturbances, the mongooses had reduced tolerance to humans, but were equally efficient at solving the puzzle box problem following human disturbance than those in areas of reduced human disturbance. Those more tolerant of humans improved their problem-solving efficiency, likely adapting to the disturbance. Finally, I investigated whether mongooses experienced a paradox of choice (i.e. whether too much choice can be cognitively challenging). The mongooses in my study appeared to experience cognitive difficulties when presented with extensive choice, providing support for a paradox of choice. These results provide evidence that urban-living yellow mongooses’ successful adaptation to an urban habitat may be attributed to their cognitive abilities, allowing them to exploit novel resources and flexibly adapt to the rapid environmental changes associated with urbanisation. However, the disturbance associated with urbanisation may negatively affect problem-solving efficiency, which may impact successful food acquisition, and the increased availability of resources may be cognitively challenging for urban-living yellow mongooses.Item Concurrent effects of elevated carbon dioxide and temperatures on the polyphenolics profile, in-vitro selected antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in Carpobrotus edulis (L.) leaves(2022) Sebothoma, LethaboAnthropogenic activities have led to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and consequently the elevation of temperature. Carbon dioxide and temperature influence the physiological and biochemical activities in plants and thus, are important for plant survival, growth, and development. The sessile nature of plants prevents them from physically avoiding environmental factors such as high CO2 and temperatures, as a result they have developed a physiological response mechanism for protection. This mechanism involves the production of secondary metabolites, which in return have human-health benefits. How then is the production of secondary metabolites impacted by rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations and temperatures? Moreover, is the pharmaceutical efficacy of medicinal plants impacted as the atmospheric CO2 concentrations and temperature conditions rise due to climate change? This study therefore, aimed to investigate the possible modifications in the composition of polyphenolic compounds, antioxidant and antibacterial activities in Carpobrotus edulis leaves under controlled concurrent elevated atmospheric CO2 and temperatures. A total of 36 C. edulis potted plant samples, constituting 12 pots, divided into 3 pots per treatments were exposed to combined 600 ppm and 35/30°C (day/night), 600 ppm and 45/35°C (day/night), 800 ppm and 35/30°C (day/night), 800 ppm and 45/35 °C (day/night), respectively. The control samples were kept at ambient conditions of combined 400 ppm and 28/25°C (day/night). The plant samples were exposed to these conditions for up to 192 hours, and leave samples were harvested episodically every 48 hours (48, 96, 144 and 192 hours) during the exposure period. All harvested leave samples were air-dried under 40°C and crude extracts were obtained using methanol. Preliminary phytochemical screening was performed to test the presence of tannins, phenolics, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, 6 glycosides, and saponins. The LC-MS/MS method was used to profile the polyphenolic compounds and 2,2-diphenyl-1- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) used to measure the antioxidant activity of the plant. The antibacterial activity of C. edulis was determined by the use of two popular bacterial strains, Escherichia coli (Gram-negative) and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), using the Agar well diffusion method. The preliminary phytochemical screening results showed the consistent presence of tannins, phenolics, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, glycosides, and saponins throughout the treatments as compared with the control, however flavonoids were not detected in the samples under combined 800 ppm and 45/35°C, 600 ppm and 35/30°C as well as 800 ppm and 35/30°C. This indicated that combined elevated CO2 and temperatures could have impacted on the production of flavonoids. The LC-MS/MS results showed the presence of 24 polyphenolic compounds in Carpobrotus edulis leaves and of those only 14 (58.83%) were present in C. edulis leaves under ambient/control conditions. Furthermore, the concurrent increment of CO2 concentrations and temperatures prompted the appearance of 10 (41.67%) more compounds. A total of 17 (70.83%) polyphenolic compounds were identified under the 600 ppm and 45/35°C treatment. The presence of these 17 compounds seemed to be influenced by the duration of exposure to these conditions. Polyphenolic compounds profiling showed the disappearance of compounds and appearance of new compounds. The disappearance of some compounds was mainly observed under extreme conditions. Antioxidant activity decreased with increasing combined CO2 concentration and temperature exposure. Antimicrobial activity showed some inhibition of S. aureus and E. coli, and the inhibition activity remained constant in all the climatic conditions. This response maybe attributed to the appearance of new polyphenolic compounds. These results suggested that C. edulis is a strong antioxidant and antimicrobial agent, owing it to the polyphenolic compounds composition. However, these properties could be negatively impacted by elevated CO2 and temperatures, thus influencing the efficacy of C. edulis. Future studies could investigate the influences of elevated CO2 and temperatures independently to assess which factor plays the biggest role in the pharmaceutical efficacy of C. edulisItem Eco-art for a transformative climate culture(2022) Warrington-Coetzee, HannelieHuman”‘development” since the industrial revolution has unequivocally attributed to a code red of climate disasters, according to the recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report (IPCC, 2022a). To selectively unlearn or de-grow the unsustainable industrial culture crisis, humanity needs seriously to consider and act to transform (e.g., through ecocitizenship) in support of governments, scientists, and other civic actions in our journey to sustainable futures. Using a transdisciplinary praxis approach, artists can provide various forms of transformative possibilities, including transgressive interventions at a grassroots level, deliberately designed to provoke and inspire change. This research interrogates how eco-art deeply engages audiences to identify the key characteristics of such potentially radically transformative artworks. Humans have a narrowing window to transform our relationship to the Earth’s resources and reverse or slow temperature rise. The ‘near term’ (2022 – 2030) will determine and define the extent of various climate transformation pathways (IPCC, 2022, p. 7). Relational eco-art creates spaces for meaningful dialogue to design opportunities for transcendence to ecological citizenship. Art also holds a potential revolutionary connection tool that can unite science and society in incidences of immersion and change to spur further creations and change. These works, which visually articulate diverse types of knowledge, are described in the literature as situated in the fecund middle, a hidden third zone in which components are rhizomatically connected. Here I use fecundity to refer to intellectual productivity. The study aimed to establish which characteristics in eco-art can contribute significantly more to sustainable eco-cultural development and what form and opportunities such transformative interventions manifest. The ways in which artists position their work to contribute to cultural climate change adaptation is interrogated in transdisciplinary praxis. In doing so, I interrogate previously published work of a select group of artists. This is not an inquiry into the methodology of transdisciplinary research, but, drawing on the artists’ praxis, I argue and expand on how the value of collaboration of scholars and artists working in these liminal spaces can reach new audiences. Two datasets are interrogated to analyse the approaches in art related to the environment, one eco-art characteristic derived from the author’s public art praxis, and the second, a broader interrogation of 50 international eco-artworks. By comparing and contrasting the two datasets, characteristics of intentionality, often built into the artworks, were identified. Six key characteristics were isolated, described and further interrogated to discover how they may create opportunities for society to build and foster potential cultural climate change solutionsItem Environmental impact assessment performance in an african context: case studies from Southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Malawi, and Tanzania)(2024) Aljareo, AbdulhakimThe Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system is a worldwide environmental policy tool, which has been introduced and adopted both in developed and developing countries. The EIA system is internationally acknowledged as an essential instrument to support sound decision-making in pursuit of sustainable development. Many countries have established the requirement for EIAs in their respective environmental legislative frameworks. However, considerable concerns are often raised about the inadequate performance of the EIA system in developing countries. The African developing countries have introduced EIA as an environmental policy implementation tool to their environmental policy and legal framework for environmental protection and management, as well as sustainable development promotion. However, the EIA system performance in the African developing country context is regarded as limited. The country context of the developing countries has been perceived to influence the performance of the EIA system. Fundamentally, the assessment of EIA system performance focuses on particular key EIA systemic components and EIA report, having limited consideration of the country context influence on the EIA system performance, and so does not provide a thorough understanding of the real causes of the limited EIA performance in the African context. Focusing on the EIA system performance in the African developing country context, an evaluation approach for EIA system performance and country context was developed. The developed approach was applied to four case studies from the southern African context (South Africa, Namibia, Malawi, and Tanzania). This was to evaluate EIA system components, EIA report, and country context. The research findings indicate that EIA system performance is limited due to the influence of the context of the case study countries. It was found that, despite the presence of the EIA legislative frameworks, EIA competent authorities, EIA procedural steps, and EIA reports in the case studies, different shortcomings have been identified such as misinterpretation of EIA provisions, limited EIA timeframes, incomprehensive EIA guidelines, insufficient provisions for conducting EIA follow-up and auditing. A further finding was the insufficient EIA report legal requirement which mirrored in the inadequate quality of the evaluated EIA reports. The most important v finding of this research is that EIA system performance depends on its country context. There is a clear relationship between country context of the case studies and EIA system development, implementation, and enforcement, thereby influencing EIA system performance. The key country context elements that were found to affect EIA system performance are the country legal, political, and socio-economic context, and the EIA stakeholders’ capacity. The consequences of the limited EIA stakeholders ‘capacity coupled with the inadequate country legal context due to insufficient laws to support justice in the administrative decisions, and access to information, had a significant impact on EIA system implementation and enforcement. The developmental state pressure on the EIA administration due to socio-economic challenges associated with political context issues such as interference and pressure also affected EIA system implementation and enforcement. The EIA system development was also influenced by the development state presented by the demand for economic development due to issues such as poverty and unemployment and the lack of political will and commitment to the EIA system. Based on this, a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between EIA system performance and the country context in Africa is required which can be achieved by using the developed evaluation approach in this study, to identify the possible measures for improving EIA system performance.Item Evaluation of the JSE’s environmental reporting requirements of South African listed companies(2024) Hariram, VirathaThrough its mandatory environmental reporting requirements, the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) plays a pivotal role in the private sector to align to Environmental, Social and Governance frameworks and disclose information of a company’s environmental priorities and performance in addressing areas of concern. While there are attempts to safeguard the environment from damage and degradation, it is unclear if this framework is suitable at appropriately addressing the environmental areas of concern facing South Africa. In order to evaluate the JSE’s environmental requirements on listed companies, this study aimed to identify the local and global environmental priorities via the South African State of Environment Outlook Report (local view), National Development Plan (local view) and Sustainable Development Goals (global view) and thereafter determine if the Global Reporting Initiative, the only set of mandatory environmental requirements of the JSE, was adequately addressing the indicators they outlined. Furthermore, using a scoring system from zero to four, the study evaluated the alignment of ten randomly selected JSE listed companies against the requirements of the Global Reporting Initiative to note their level of adherence and alignment to the South African State of Environment Outlook Report, National Development Plan and Sustainable Development Goals. The results indicate that the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) covers 73% of environmental priorities discussed in the South African State of Environment Outlook Report, National Development Plan and Sustainable Development Goals. Of the total 74 indicators of environmental concern identified from the three reports, the GRI did not require disclosure for 20 indicators. Only three indicators that were required to be disclosed by the GRI had scored a four on the rating scale due to it being an integrated disclosure that takes into account one or more other related environmental categories. The evaluation of the sampled listed company’s adherence to the GRI via their sustainability reports and integrated annual reports indicated that none of the companies had provided sufficient disclosures to meet the requirements of the GRI. 80% of the sampled listed companies made a strong alignment to the Sustainable Development Goals in their sustainability reports and / or integrated annual reports. A shortcoming of the JSE that was stated by all four sustainability experts interviewed was the lack of enforcement for listed companies to make quality and comprehensive disclosures or accountability expected from listed companies. There is no formal process of review or consequences for listed companies who do not comply.Item Extreme weather events and human health in South Africa: implications for climate services(2022) Manyuchi, Albert EdgarExtreme weather events (EWEs), defined as ‘weather events that are rare at a particular place and time of the year’, have increasingly been affecting many countries worldwide (IPCC 2014). The increased occurrence and intensity of EWEs, among other factors, has increased public interest and demand for climate information. More detail is needed on EWEs and how they can be more effectively coupled to climate services in Africa. This study brings a compendium of empirical evidence, conceptual clarity and transdisciplinary approaches to policymakers, researchers and practitioners dealing with these crucial issues. The main aim of this study is to explore the human health effects of EWEs, particularly heat and the delivery of climate services for health in Africa. Through a systematic review, the study examines the potential impacts of heat on human health in Africa. Using a case study approach heathealth effects are evaluated including the status of climate services in the Agincourt subdistrict of South Africa. A novel systems theory-based conceptual framework and an inclusive analytical framework are employed to explore climate services delivery within the context of climate change adaptation. The study produces two main findings. First, EWEs particularly heat, potentially affects human health in Africa by changing mortality and morbidity patterns. In the Agincourt sub-district in particular, heat may be associated with adverse health effects on vulnerable populations, including inter alia the elderly, children and outdoor workers. Despite this, Africa-specific heat-health interventions and policy suggestions are scarce. Second, climate services are generally in embryonic stages of development and climate services for health in Agincourt subdistrict are non-existent. Within the South African context, the main barriers to delivery of climate services for health are paucity of interagency coordination and gaps in meteorological data. One of the key conclusions of the study is that African countries can promote development of climate services to adapt to EWEs such as heat. Heat, and heatwaves, for example, are already affecting populations, and are projected to increase in frequency and intensity with concomitant adverse effects on health outcomes on vulnerable population groups. The three key recommendations from this study are as follows. First, African policymakers and practitioners must avoid a reductionist approach to analysis of EWEs, especially heat impacts and start viewing these as harmful to human health. Therefore, governments must prioritise interventions, create institutions and formulate policy measures to deal with the health effects of heat within their national adaptations plans. Second, African countries must prioritise policy mixes that promote climate services in general and climate services for health in particular. And finally, further policy-science research that generates empirical evidence for African policymakers and practitioners engaged in international negotiations and programmes for climate change adaptation and climate services should be encouraged.Item Farming systems in South Africa beyond 2020: a scenario-based study, using systems analysis, of the connectivity between farming systems in the Vhembe district, Limpopo, South Africa(2024) Materechera-Mitochi, FenjiAgriculture is a significant contributor to the South African economy and overall development as it contributes to poverty reduction and food security. It is against this backdrop that agricultural development becomes a focus area for decision making amongst stakeholders, as it is directly linked to food systems. The traditional approach to agricultural production in the country has been one that views farming as mainly based on land ownership and yield in isolation from the broader context of the four drivers of production namely land, labour, capital and enterprise. The concept of farming systems provides a broader perspective on farming and encompasses the entire value chain for a commodity which includes production, management practices, marketing, value addition, financial resources, and policies. The South African agrarian structure is characterised by a dualism in which large-scale commercial farmers co-exist alongside small-scale farmers. This is a legacy of the apartheid system of governance. Large-scale commercial farmers, who are mostly capital intensive, have historically been regarded as the main drivers of national food security while small-scale farmers on the other hand are viewed as significant contributors to food security at a household level. Both farmers are therefore important contributors to the national agricultural economy. Research on the two types of farmers in the South African context is usually focused on the respective farmers’ approaches to production individually and does not consider them as joint ventures. This study was aimed at providing an alternative approach to viewing South Africa’s farming systems by evaluating current farming systems in the Vhembe district of Limpopo, South Africa, using systems analysis as a tool to highlight the connectivity of the interactions within and between them. The study also aimed to conceptualize scenarios for sustainable future farming systems in South Africa. The Vhembe district in the Limpopo province was chosen for the study because both largescale commercial and small-scale farmers occur and due to the favourable sub-tropical climate, the area has become a hub for the farming of numerous high value crops that contribute positively to the country’s agricultural economy. The study made use of a mixed methods approach that combined the analysis of primary data obtained from in-depth interviews and secondary data obtained from an agricultural database to identify and characterize large-scale commercial and small-scale farming systems in the Vhembe district. The study examined the drivers of production for three different commodities, macadamia nuts, mangos and avocado iii pears, the two types of farming systems and their connectivity. The study was grounded on the conceptual framework of systems thinking and used a systems analysis tool i.e., causal loop diagrams to analyse the connectivity between the two farming systems. Lastly, the study developed conceptual scenarios using a deductive scenario method to conceptualise scenarios for the future of the two farming systems and the different commodities. Key findings of the study showed that farming systems need to be understood through the lens of the four drivers of production. Land as a driver of production interacts with multiple other factors in shaping the management of a sustainable farming system. Examples of these factors include the link between land availability, ownership and farm size, decision-making and resource allocation tied to land management practices, and socio-economic considerations including the diversification of livelihoods by incorporating non-farm income and the farmers’ adaptability to uncertainties such as climate change. The findings also revealed that there are interconnections between the two types of farming systems presenting potential for enhanced production and commercial opportunities. The conceptual scenarios developed in the study and the systems thinking tool of causal loop diagrams proved to be valuable tools to inform decision making and policy development. The study’s main conclusion points to the potential of large-scale commercial and small-scale farming systems in South Africa operating as joint ventures in the future and enhancing the sustainability of agricultural production and livelihoods. It also recommends the use of systems thinking that includes social, financial and environmental values and impacts in decision making for agricultural development.Item Functional ecology of afrotropical freshwaters in the Republic of Congo, west-central Africa(2024) Walsh, GinaCharacterising functional freshwater biodiversity patterns and understanding community determinants can aid in predicting changes and prioritising specific conservation management actions. Afrotropical freshwater systems support diverse ecological communities, including many taxonomically undescribed species, yet few studies have been undertaken in this region and they remain poorly understood. Additionally, an overwhelming amount of research on north temperate streams has given rise to widely used lotic conceptual models which are superimposed over freshwaters globally, though the theory governing the structure of Afrotropical lotic communities remains largely unexplored. In this thesis I explored different aspects of the biodiversity, trophic ecology and functional diversity of an Afrotropical system in the Republic of Congo (west Central Africa) through a series of field studies. I formally describe two new to science fish species collected in the region, and use fish functional traitbased approaches to explore the functional diversity of fish assemblages and test selected expectations of riverine conceptual models in this regional setting. Following, I used carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes (δ13C, δ15N) from samples collected along a continuum of a coastal river in the Republic of the Congo to show temporal and spatial patterns of trophic diversity and basal carbon resource use. In addition to uncovering new fish diversity, I established that whilst tenets of certain conceptual models such as the River Continuum Concept and the River Habitat Template were supported by fish trait-environment relationships, unique patterns of functional diversity also exist which are scale dependent and result in different functional strategies driving communities between upper and lower positions in the basin. At sub-basin scale, headwater zones harbour substantial functional diversity in relation to upstream catchment size, and results suggest that historical forest refugia may play a role in the high functional richness at high elevations of the region. Isotopic analysis revealed that river order and season are important drivers in consumer trophic strategies along a river continuum in the wet Afrotropics, and that riparian forest sources are key basal carbon resources supporting consumers. Isotopic work reiterated that headwaters are distinctive in terms of trophic and functional diversity. I discovered potential evidence for methanogenic pathways in lateral swamp forests that may subsidize instream food webs. The outcomes of this work demonstrate that existing river conceptual models only partially explain patterns of richness and functional diversity of river systems in this region, and highlights the importance of understanding mechanisms structuring regional functional diversity (e.g. nestedness and turnover) in efforts to conserve freshwater systems. It also emphasizes the need for swamp forest- and riparian specific policies in central Africa to be incorporated into freshwater conservation plans and strategies for forested regions of the Afrotropics.Item Habitat selection by a threatened lizard, the sungazer (Smaug giganteus): implications for conservation(2024) Stanton-Jones, WadeClimate change and habitat transformation are some of the primary threats that reptiles face as a consequence of persisting in their selected habitats. Some species, such as habitat specialists, may be particularly vulnerable to these threats given their restricted geographic ranges, strict habitat requirements, and limited dispersal abilities. Knowledge of the factors that drive habitat and microhabitat selection by a species, the impact that habitat transformation may have on that species, and how the species is expected to respond to climate change is necessary for informing conservation management strategies. Smaug giganteus (the sungazer) is a threatened (Vulnerable), habitat specialist lizard that is endemic to the Highveld grasslands of South Africa. Unfortunately, suitable habitat exists in a landscape where anthropogenic activities (e.g., agriculture and mining) are prevalent, and a major threat that sungazers face is habitat transformation and fragmentation. Sungazers are unique within their family (Cordylidae) in that they rely on self-constructed burrows in specific microhabitats within the grassland matrix as long-term, often permanent, shelter and refuge sites. Because of this, aspects of their life history, and the current threats that they face, sungazers may be particularly vulnerable to the combined effects of climate change and habitat transformation. The primary aim of this thesis was to assess the consequences of habitat selection and use by sungazers by investigating the potential impact of climate change on habitat suitability for the species, the fine-scale impacts of habitat transformation, and to identify the microhabitat requirements by sungazers such that recommendations for future conservation management of the species could be made. The potential impact of climate change on habitat suitability for sungazers was assessed by projecting their current ecological niche envelope into the future, under different climate change scenarios. The models predicted that sungazers may experience minor range contractions under the moderate case scenario, but vulnerability to climate change increased under the worst-case scenario. At the broadscale level, the models predicted that sungazers would shift their geographic range to the southwest. However, given the species life history traits, limited dispersal capacity, and the fragmented habitat in which subpopulations exist, climate tracking is unlikely, and sungazers may be more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than predicted by niche models. An assessment of the demographics and dynamics of four sungazer subpopulations existing at sites with different habitat conditions revealed that the impact of habitat transformation on sungazers may be more devasting than what was previously reported. In this study, the sungazer subpopulations existing in habitats transformed by mining activities, and severe overgrazing have declined by more than 50% over a 16-year period. This assessment at the subpopulation level (colony level) suggests that the current size of the sungazer population is probably an overestimate. A comparison between the microhabitat characteristics surrounding sungazer burrows and random sites in the landscape revealed that sungazers use microhabitats comprised of low vegetation cover and short grasses in which to construct their burrows. Burrow construction in these microhabitats generally occurs on northerly facing slopes. When constructing their burrows, sungazers tend to orientate burrow entrances in the same direction as the aspect of the slope but northerly directions are preferred. This thesis provides the first insights into the potential effects that climate change may have on sungazers in the future and highlights the severity of impact that habitat transformation has on sungazers at fine spatial scales. The findings not only justify the importance of conservation management for sungazers but provide critical information to assist with future conservation protocols.Item Human-wildlife conflict regarding shark nets in Richards Bay, South Africa: seeking solutions(2024) Atkins, ShananIn the mid-1900s, shark bites in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, impacted bathers and tourism, and the authorities set gillnets to reduce shark numbers. This quintessential human-wildlife conflict was exacerbated by incidental catches of non-target species (bycatch). Sharks are now threatened globally, yet KwaZulu-Natal continues to use lethal bather protection gear (nets and baited hooks) to reduce shark populations. I aimed to map KwaZulu-Natal’s bather-shark conflict, engage stakeholders and work with them in a productive, learning space that bridges research and implementation to improve the conservation status of sharks without compromising bathers. To map the human-wildlife conflict - identify and characterise the social and ecological elements of the system and their interactions - I used various philosophical perspectives and a multifaceted approach. First, I reviewed the ecological impact of KwaZulu-Natal’s lethal gear and found that 88% of the catches were not the three target shark species, many were threatened species and 73% of the animals died. Second, I modelled the numbers of sharks, bycatch and bathers at a high-catch beach to predict temporal overlap between them. The findings yielded trade-offs to consider when striving for a positive impact on biodiversity without impacting the risk to bathers. Third, I characterised the social dimensions of the conflict using interviews, questionnaires and the literature, focussing on stakeholders whose work intersects with the bather-shark conflict. There were multiple stakeholders, varying in influence over decisions and interest in the bather protection programme, but communication flows were limited. Publications about the social and policy context describe the complexity of the conflict but studies of the economic impact are lacking. Fourth, I used a qualitative, constructionist approach to understand these stakeholders’ perspectives of changing the lethal gear. Narratives of the obstacles were mostly centred around governance issues whereas opportunities were about technology, research and education. Finally, I used transdisciplinary learning to engage these stakeholders, leveraged their knowledge of different parts of the bather-shark conflict system and together, we designed a preliminary strategy to support the Sharks Board in moving away from lethal methods. My findings have illuminated multiple perspectives of the bather-shark conflict and exposed the stakeholders to these varied perspectives, improving our shared understanding. This should aid change agents in planning to implement change that would allow both humans and sharks to swim safely in KwaZulu-Natal.Item Implementing resource efficient and cleaner production as a tool to reduce carbon tax in the manufacturing industries(2022) Mashau, Phathutshedzo Ndifelani MaggieThe carbon tax came into effect in South Africa in June 2019 to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). With its first phase focusing on scope one carbon emissions, facilities that combust 10 megawatts or more became liable for a carbon tax. Among these are large emitting industries like manufacturing plants. This has placed a greater burden on industries under the current economic status, worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to paying for the scope one tax liabilities, companies must report verified carbon emission and energy consumption patterns (energy plans), which require resources. Implementing resource-efficient and cleaner production (RECP) methodologies in industries have been the mandate of the National Cleaner Production Centre South Africa (NCPCSA), the programme of the national government, to reduce the environmental footprint and improve industry competitiveness. As a result, many industries in South Africa are focused on reducing their resource consumption and environmental footprint by improving efficiencies in production processes. This research evaluated the benefit of the implementation of RECP as a tool to reduce carbon tax in manufacturing industries. Quantitative methods were applied in the data collection and analysis of three manufacturing plants that embarked on RECP implementation. Semistructured interviews were also conducted with expert consultants and company managers who were part of the team for the RECP implementation facilitated by the NCPCSA. Quantitative data were collected during the RECP assessment and the case study phase of RECP implementation. Regression analyses were applied to determine the energy baseline for each plant for further evaluation of the RECP implementation results. The quantitative results of the RECP implementation have shown a reduction in energy consumption, equivalent carbon emissions, and associated costs including equivalent carbon tax savings in all three plants. The interview responses have shown that the perception of RECP expert consultants and company managers support that implementation of the RECP methodologies in industries provides the basis for measurement and verification of energy consumption and equivalent greenhouse gas emissions for reporting purposes as per legislative requirements. They also agreed that RECP is beneficial in reducing energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and associated costs (resource costs and carbon tax). These reductions in GHG emissions and costs can reduce the manufacturing plants’ carbon tax liabilities if the reduced carbon emissions fall under scope one in the current phase of carbon tax implementation (June 2019- December 2022). Nevertheless, the resulting reduction in energy consumption and equivalent carbon emissions were sufficient to draw some conclusions and recommendations.Item Maintaining plant diversity of a species-rich montane grassland system in the face of global change(2022) Gordijn, Paul JanThe rich grassland-plant diversity of the Drakensberg mountain region, which has persisted under heterogeneous fire and herbivory regimes, and significant fluctuations in climate, has come to face its most formidable threat—land transformation, which involves habitat destruction and land use intensification. Over the last ca. 200 years, human settlement in the northern Drakensberg study area, the Mdedelelo-Cathkin landscape in South Africa, has markedly increased, but the influence of human pressure on plant diversity has been largely unexplored, leaving an uncertain future for this biodiversity. This thesis aimed to reduce uncertainty around the influence of socio-ecological systems, represented by communal, private and protected land tenure systems, on grassland habitat and associated plant diversity. Analysis of changes in land use and land cover and field-based sampling of plant diversity revealed a conservation conundrum. Although grassland-plant diversity was maintained at higher levels on private systems, these systems were especially vulnerable to transformation. And while communal systems were less vulnerable to transformation, they were associated with heavy-continuous grazing that transformed grasslands into a novel state depauperate of plant diversity. Protected systems were, however, largely successful in maintaining primary grasslands, and their plant diversity. On these systems, where fire is the principal disturbance agent, the previously unexplored, multidecadal influence of heterogeneous fire regimes, was explored. A novel characterisation of heterogeneity in fire-return intervals and season of burning identified a threat of increasing fire regime homogeneity. The influence of socio-ecological systems, and their particular fire and herbivory disturbance regimes were framed by a construct termed, “socio-ecological disturbance regimes” (S-EDRs), which successfully reflected the interconnected nature of human society, disturbance regimes, and plant diversity. The transformation of a quarter of the landscape’s primary grassland over the 71-year period of assessment should draw urgent attention from conservationists and society. The S-EDR framework highlighted the critical responsibility society has in maintaining plant diversity. For the conservation of grassland-plant diversity a cross-societal approach is necessary, valuable plant diversity was found across the socio-ecological systems evaluated. Moreover, protecting Drakensberg-grassland ecosystems and their plant diversity will contribute to the global effort to mitigate the looming influence of climate change.Item Natural Sciences teachers' views on Indigenous Knowledge and How to use it in teaching and learning in South African Classrooms(2022) Raphothe, Paseka NimrodSouth Africa underwent much curricular change during Apartheid and post-Apartheid. The quality of education provided for black people was the worst during Apartheid; the education they received catered only for menial labour. However, the need to provide quality education to all strata of society took precedence when South Africa became a democratic state in 1994. Moreover, the need to respect different worldviews and knowledge systems from different societies came into focus at this time. Thus, post-Apartheid, revisions to the curriculum led to the current Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), which mandates that teachers include Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in their teaching and learning of Science. Investigations are required to understand the level of guidance teachers receive on integrating IK into their teaching. The following documents were analysed for this study to examine the guidance provided to teachers CAPS, Annual Teaching Plan (ATP), and the Pacesetter. Three teachers were surveyed to explore their views as well. The focus in this study was grades 8 and 9 Natural Sciences teachers. The study aimed to explore ways in which teachers could integrate IK in their teaching and learning of science to make science more accessible to their learners. The research took a qualitative case study approach and used theoretical frameworks as the lens. Aikenhead and Jegede’s border crossing, Vygotsky's Social constructivism, specifically the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and Piaget's Cognitive constructivism (a process of accommodation and assimilation). Data was collected using questionnaires and followed up with semi-structured interviews. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse data and develop themes that helped answer the research questions. Findings in this study indicated some misalignment between the different curriculum documents used by teachers with regards to IK. However, the study indicated 3 that teachers are integrating IK into their teaching, as mandated by the CAPS. Some teachers use their experiences learned in the communities they grew up in and integrated that knowledge in their teaching and learner discussion in a Science classroom. This study documents examples used by teachers in their integration of IK into their classroom practice and, therefore, can provide a resource for teacher development in this area. Moreover, documentation of these practical examples of IK integration into classroom practice can be helpful to teachers who seek to facilitate the students’ access to science concepts taught in Natural Sciences.Item Quantifying drought strategies in C4 perennial Southern African grasses(2024) Marutha, Tebogo RectorPlants have a range of strategies for surviving drought associated with the morphological and physiological traits that govern water use and loss. Most research has been done on woody species and whether the research applies in C4 grasses whose above-ground biomass cures annually over a dry season is not clear. In this study I described and quantified drought strategies and recovery patterns of thirteen perennial C4 grass species found in savanna and grassland ecosystems in South Africa. An experiment was undertaken where the grasses were grown and then exposed to a drought for three months, after which they were watered for one week to simulate a post drought recovery. I monitored stomatal conductance, leaf water potential, osmotic adjustment, leaf senescence and post-drought resprouting to assess whether plants with restricted water availability retained varying proportions of live leaf material or whether a wasteful water strategy during drought was associated with increased leaf death and post-drought recovery. Based on the measurements of the thirteen species, a broad range of strategies emerged related to the trade-offs between being efficient or safe, whereby some grasses control water loss by closing stomata and sacrificing photosynthesis while others continue to lose water while they photosynthesise. Additionally, osmotic adjustment demonstrated in species such Digitaria eriantha and Panicum maximum demonstrated an alternative drought strategy that is not currently recognised in the literature. Grasses with low stomatal control cured faster than those with a high stomatal control, which might have implications for flammability and leaf phenology in seasonal ecosystems with annual drought.Item Quantitative determination of BTEX in groundwater using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction technique and GC-FID.(2022) Gwanyuki, Doreen C.“Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) method was developed and validated for the extraction and analysis of aromatic hydrocarbons BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene) in water samples. DLLME is a miniaturized version of liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) is a fast, efficient, and inexpensive microextraction method for pre-concentrating and extracting hydrocarbons.” “In this study the DLLME technique was used for the determination of BTEX in water samples. BTEX normally exists in trace amounts in environmental samples thus sample preparation plays a vital role. Sample preparation played a significant role in extracting the analytes, preconcentration of the sample and removal of interferences. This is important because GC-FID is a highly sensitive method and uses small volumes in the analysis. Sample preparation techniques such as liquid-liquid extraction are tedious, time-consuming, and insensitive, to counter these disadvantages and using large sample amounts of highly toxic hydrocarbons microextraction methods known as DLLME was used.” The importance of sample preparation is frequently ignored but it is a significant step in the analytical method because accuracy and precision depend largely on this step. Data obtained from this study compared with other microextraction methods from literature show that the extraction method demonstrated good precision, linearity, detection limit and enrichment factor for the extraction of the analysis. Extraction parameters such as the type of extracting solvent, extracting solvent volume, type of dispersion solvent, and the volume of the dispersion volume were optimized. Under optimum conditions, the detection limits for DLLME ranged from 1.8 to 2.6 μg. L−1 , repeatability from 2 to 4% and the extraction efficiency ranged from 60.1 to 95%. The applicability of the DLLME method was studied by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection system. The results demonstrated that the environmental water samples contained trace quantities of BTEX compounds, 2.7, 1.9, 0.3 and 0.4 μg. L−1 , respectively.”Item Range size and dispersal of grasses (Poaceae) in Africa(2024) Mashau, Aluoneswi CarolineGeographic range size is the outcome of both evolutionary and ecological processes. Therefore both historical contingencies, and the ecological characteristics (traits) of particular species, interact to result in observed distribution patterns. These distribution patterns are also changing – expanding as species invade into new ecosystems, and shrinking as species are filtered from ecosystems due to climate change or changing land management. Understanding current distributions and range sizes is therefore important for helping explain biogeographic patterns and processes, for informing conservation action, the management of invasive plants, and interventions to adapt to climate change. The grass family (Poaceae) covers approximately 31– 43% of the land surface globally, and started to spread during the Miocene period (approximately 8–20 Million years ago) to achieve its current dominance. This would have occurred through rapid range expansion as well as speciation and has resulted in some species with almost cosmopolitan (global) distributions, as well as rare grass species found in only a few localities. This study aims to understand the drivers of range size and dispersal traits of grasses in Africa with the purpose of quantifying differences between clades and functional types, and determine the floral traits that likely influence dispersal modes. In Chapter 1 I compiled general introduction of the whole thesis including background, rationale, aims and objectives. In Chapter 2 I aimed to understand the geographical distribution of grasses in sub-Saharan Africa with reference to key plant traits thought to affect range size in this family (Poaceae). Specifically, to test hypotheses on the importance of plant height and lifespan in determining range size and invasion potential in the context of their evolutionary history. The range sizes of 757 grass species native to southern Africa were estimated for the sub-Saharan African region from geo-referenced herbarium records using the alpha hull function. Phylogenetic generalised least squares models and linear mixed effects models were fitted to test whether grass range size was related to plant height and lifespan. Tribe-level relationships between range size and plant height were assessed with linear models. For species introduced to other continents, generalised linear mixed effects models were fitted to test whether invasiveness was related to native range size, plant height and lifespan. Differences in native range size 4 among species in four invasion-related categories were assessed with linear mixed effects models. Geographic range sizes were larger for taller grass species and for species with shorter lifespans. The relationship between plant height and range size varies widely among tribes, with some environmentally-restricted tribes not showing significant responses to plant height. Grasses with larger native range sizes and shorter lifespans are more likely to become invasive after being introduced to other continents. Grass species introduced to other continents have larger native range sizes than those that have not, and native range size increases along the introducednaturalised-invasive continuum. The increased dispersal opportunities of annual-biannual grasses appears to have a greater positive effect on range size than do the longer generation times of perennial grasses. Grass height has and continues to be an important driver of grass biogeography, with implications for understanding the spread of certain grass tribes over the Miocene. Factors that promote large native range sizes are also likely to increase the probability of a species becoming invasive. Grass floral structures vary greatly but we have very little understanding of their functional significance. Due to the varied dispersal mechanisms shown by grasses, certain syndromes of floral traits would likely be associated with particular strategies for dispersal, and consequently, different environments. In particular, effective seed maturation and dispersal in fire-prone tall grasslands would require different floral trait syndromes than in short, frequently grazed ecosystems. In Chapter 3 I quantified floral traits of nearly 200 Poaceae species from savanna and grassland ecosystems in southern Africa and explored how their floral structures co-vary and correlate with other functional characteristics such as grass height. Using field information on the dominance disturbance regime of 163 of these grass species it was tested whether certain floral traits are more associated with fire vs grazing. Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (NMDS) was used to illustrate how floral traits covaried among grass species, and to group them into syndromes based on these traits. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test whether certain floral trait syndromes were more associated with fire vs grazing. I identified four clear floral trait syndromes separated largely by awn length and the presence of hooks/prickles or bristles. Longawned species were more likely to be found in frequently burned environments and were also usually taller than species without awns. Grazer-dominated systems appear to select for two different floral trait syndromes. The study has improved our ecological and taxonomic 5 understanding of how floral traits differ among the range of tribes in one family across African countries. It can help in understanding dispersal limitations in grasses and predicting which species are likely to flourish in particular grassland habitats. The grass family (Poaceae), despite having only emerged and spread in the last 50 million years, is cosmopolitan, and many species have large, almost cosmopolitan distributions. Lineage age and dispersal ability are two factors thought to explain the variation of range size and grasses show a wide range of floral structures and heights associated with different dispersal strategies. In Chapter 4 I aimed to assess how dispersal syndrome (inferred from floral structures and other functional traits) and evolutionary history affect range size in the grass subtribe Eleusininae – a tropical grass clade with variation in floral structures. Global location records for 97 grass species of 29 Eleusininae genera were used to quantify range size, and linear models were used to test the relationship between range size and interaction between plant height, and lemma awn state (absent/present), caryopsis length (mm) and genus age. Taller grass species with awned lemmas were found to have a larger range size, and this supports my hypothesis (developed in Chapter 2) that the importance of grass height in driving range size depends on the dispersal syndrome. It was found that there is no relationship between genus age versus floral and functional traits used in this analysis. The study can help to explain some of the differences in biogeographic history between different lineages and also determine dispersal syndromes. In Chapter 5 I compiled general discuss or overview of the study, including geographical distribution of the southern African grasses, grass clades co-vary according to their floral traits, conservation and management implications, limitations of this study and needs for future research and conclusion.Item Re-assessment of the threat status of three Red Data List plant species: brachystelma gerrardii, senecio triodontiphyllus and streptocarpus fasciatus(2022) Makgopo, KatlegoPlants provide fundamental support systems and resources for life on earth, they serve as the foundation of ecosystems. However, many plant species are rapidly going extinct and will soon disappear. The threat assessments of plants are important as they inform which species are most at risk and call for immediate management attention and conservation. The first step to initiate conservation actions for endangered organisms is identifying species that are in decline or face extinction. A previous study for the management of Pullen Nature Reserve found that there are threatened plant species that occur on the property and in the conservancy. These plants are: (1) Brachystelma gerrardii Harv., (2) Senecio triodontiphyllus C. Jeffrey, and Streptocarpus fasciatus T. J Edwards & Kunhardt. Brachystelma gerrardii has a distribution from KwaZulu-Natal to the Waterberg in Limpopo, and is currently classified as Endangered (EN) according to the IUCN Categories and Criteria,. Senecio triodontiphyllus has a distribution that is restricted to the Mpumalanga province, from Barberton to Kaapmuiden. This species is currently classified as Vulnerable (VU). Streptocarpus fasciatus is endemic to South Africa and occurs in Mpumalanga. Its distribution ranges from Nelspruit to Kaapmuiden. This species has a current threat status of VU. Brachystelma gerrardii, S. triodontiphyllus and S. fasciatus were chosen for this study because they are rare, endangered and have restricted distributional ranges. A re-assessment of their threat status is important as the previous assessments are out of date. Thus, the aim of this project is to re-assess the threat status of three plant species B. gerrardii, S. fasciatus and S. triodontiphyllus; to assess the potential effect of climate change on current and future distributions of these plant species; as well as to investigate aspects of the reproductive ecology of S. fasciatus. The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria were used to perform the assessments; these criteria are objective, quantifiable and have been used over many years. This project was carried out in three stages, (1) an analysis of herbarium specimens as well as fieldwork to collect data on species habitats, range sizes, population sizes, as well as Area of occupancy (AOO) and Extent of occurrence (EOO) among other information to determine the current threat status of the species; (2) an analysis of current and future climate data to determine the impact of climate change on plant species distributions; and lastly, (3) investigating the breeding strategy used by S. fasciatus, to determine whether pollination and germination have implications for the threat status. Results from herbarium records and fieldwork revealed eleven, five and six sub-populations for B. gerrardi, S. fasciatus and S. triodontiphyllus respectively. According to the MaxEnt models for B. gerrardii and S. triodontiphyllus, areas that are currently suitable for the growth of these plants are predicted in the eastern parts of South Africa from East London through KwaZuluNatal and Mpumalanga, towards the northern parts of Limpopo. Current suitable areas for S. fasciatus are predicted as patches along the coast in Western cape, along the border of Lesotho in KwaZulu-Natal, in parts of Gauteng as well as the eastern parts of Mpumalanga. Future iv predictions for 2050 using the A1B and A2 emission scenarios showed a decrease in suitable habitats for B. gerrardi and S. triodontiphyllus, but a significant increase in the suitable habitat for S. fasciatus. Field studies on the pollination of S. fasciatus show that this plant may be pollinated by a nemestrinid fly belonging to the genus Stenobasipteron, and the results also indicate the presence of a mixed breeding system involving self-pollination and cross-pollination. A low seed set was observed in open pollinated flowers, indicating that the species may be pollinator limited, however, this observation may also be as a result of the species’ very specific habitat requirements. This may contribute to its low population size and thus its threatened status. According to the results of the IUCN threat assessment, S. fasciatus was found to be vulnerable (VU) under Criterion D (subcriteria D1 and D2), and S. triodontiphyllus was found to be endangered (EN) under subcriteria D1. Brachystelma gerrardii remains classified as EN as per the threat assessment by Styles and von Staden in 2007. Based on the results of this study further investigations are required with regards to the breeding system of S. fasciatus, and all three of these plant species are in need of immediate conservation actions.