1687699 Debora Leal 1 Master of Education by Coursework and Research (Full time) The Prevalence of Neuromyths in Intermediate Phase Education in a South African Context Learner Name: Debora Leal Learner number: 1687699 Supervisor: Dr. Cameron Martin Ethics clearance no.: 2022ECE029M Submitted on: 15 February 2023 A research report submitted to the University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Education Degree (MEd). 1687699 Debora Leal 2 Declaration I declare that this project is my own work. It is being submitted for the Master of Education by Coursework and Research Degree at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other university. I have acknowledged all quotes and paraphrased ideas within my work as well as having provided a complete alphabetised reference list. Signed: Date: 15 February 2023 1687699 Debora Leal 3 Acknowledgements I would firstly like to acknowledge and express my gratitude to my supervisor- Dr. Cameron Martin, who made this work come into fruition. His guidance, advice, continuous support and brilliant recommendations and words of encouragement which carried me through all the writing stages has made this research project a success. I am extremely grateful for your contribution. It was a great privilege and honour to work under your guidance. I cannot express enough thanks to my loving, supportive and caring Mother- Jucelina Brandão, this is for you. Your inspiration and reassurance when times were difficult and imparting the value of a strong work ethic in me is appreciated. I am thankful for your prayers, unconditional love and sacrifices. It means everything to me. I will be eternally grateful for how you have prepared for my future by providing me with the best educational opportunities for me to reach this point. Thank you to my entire family for their understanding and support when undertaking my research and writing my project. Your prayers for me were what kept me going this far. And to my Dad- Gilberto Leal, as always this is dedicated to you. There is not a day that goes by when you are not in my heart and thoughts. You always said that your daughter would become an academic. I promised to make you proud and there are still a lot more prouder moments and achievements yet to come. 1687699 Debora Leal 4 Abstract Teachers still endorse numerous neuroscientific misconceptions and place their instructional practice on so-called neuromyths (Pasquinelli, 2012). This is problematic as it is perpetuating misconceptions in education which can disenable epistemological access in schools. As South African education is mandated to be more inclusive in its educational practices, perpetuating falsehoods in education becomes a problem. The distance between neuroscience and education is still too great and teachers are not aware of it (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). There is little research to the extent of the permeation of neuromyths and the how teachers are utilising neuromyths in the South African context. This study looks is to investigate how widely known is the concept of neuromyths within intermediate phase education, and to get a sense of how neuromyths are permeating pedagogical practices. This study incorporates a design that combines both qualitative and quantitative research methods known as an embedded mixed methods approach (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). A quantitative survey has been used to collect data on the number of teachers who implement neuromyth strategies as a classroom methodology and whether teachers have a prior understanding of neuromyths. A total of 57 teachers took part in the survey and purposeful sampling was employed in this research due to its specific focus on intermediate phase teachers. Qualitative methods by means of semi- structured interviews have been conducted to provide more depth on why teachers utilise these neuromyths, to cast light on how teachers incorporate neuromyths into their teaching practice and to find out about their thoughts on the value neuromyths adds to their practices when confronted with the point that neuromyths are not academically supported. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis is then utilised to analyse the qualitative data to identify, analyse, select codes, construct themes and report repeated patterns. An embedded design is also used to facilitate the merging of qualitative and quantitative data. This is done by taking responses from the interviews and identifying themes and patterns. The survey responses are examined in the context of the interview themes, to find relationships and corroborating evidence. Emotional Intelligence and VAK/VARK learning styles which were the most prominent myths as indicated on the survey. The findings indicate that even when presented with contradictory information on neuromyths, teachers were highly resistant to letting the 1687699 Debora Leal 5 concepts go. EI has made teachers more cognisant and conscientious about managing emotions of themselves and the learners as well as using their discretion in certain situations. Learning styles has been an effective teaching strategy for variation to keep the learners captivated in the lesson and it has been an inclusive tool to support learners with different levels and abilities. So, while academically the concepts are neuromyths and inaccurate, the reality is that Teachers do value the concepts as they use it to improve their pedagogies. 1687699 Debora Leal 6 Table of Contents Declaration .......................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 3 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 4 List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 9 List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... 10 List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter One: Introduction and background to the study .............................................. 11 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 11 1.2 Background to the Study.......................................................................... 11 1.3 Problem Statement ....................................................................................... 15 1.4 Purpose Statement ....................................................................................... 16 1.5 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 17 1.6 Rationale ........................................................................................................ 18 1.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 19 Chapter Two: Conceptual Framework and Review of Literature ................................... 20 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 20 2.2 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 20 2.2.1 Social cognitive theory ................................................................................................. 20 2.2.2 Cognitive theory ............................................................................................................. 21 2.2.3 Sociocultural theory ...................................................................................................... 21 2.3 A history of neuromyths ............................................................................... 21 2.4 Emotional Intelligence .................................................................................. 24 2.4.1 Brief history of Emotional Intelligence: Salovey and Mayer building up to Goleman ..................................................................................................................................... 24 2.4.2 Goleman’s key theory arguments and what these arguments meant to education and schools ........................................................................................................... 26 2.4.3 Arguments against Emotional Intelligence ............................................................. 28 2.4.4 Issues/ Considerations with use of EI in education ............................................. 30 2.5 VAK (visual, audio, and kinaesthetic) Learning styles .............................. 31 2.5.1 What are learning styles- brief history and use in education ............................ 31 2.5.2 Arguments against learning styles........................................................... 33 2.5.3 Issues/ Considerations with the use of Learning styles in education ............. 35 2.6 Multiple Intelligences .................................................................................... 37 2.6.1 What are multiple intelligences and its use in education.................................... 37 1687699 Debora Leal 7 2.6.2 Analysing Multiple Intelligences: A Critical Perspective ........................ 38 2.7 Right brain and left-brain dominance theory .............................................. 39 2.7.1 A brief history and use in education ......................................................................... 39 2.8 Impact of neuromyths in South African education .................................... 40 2.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 41 Chapter Three: Methodology and Research Design ....................................................... 42 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 42 3.2 Research Paradigm ...................................................................................... 42 3.3 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 43 3.4 Philosophical Assumptions of Paradigms ................................................. 44 3.4.1 Axiology ............................................................................................................................ 44 3.4.2 Epistemology .................................................................................................................. 44 3.4.3 Ontology ........................................................................................................................... 45 3.4.4 Interpretivism .................................................................................................................. 45 3.4.5 Subjectivism .................................................................................................................... 45 3.5 Research Design ........................................................................................... 46 3.5.1 Mixed methods research design ................................................................................ 46 3.5.2 Embedded Design .......................................................................................................... 47 3.5.3 Research Site .................................................................................................................. 48 3.5.4 Purposeful Sampling ..................................................................................................... 48 3.6 Data Collection Process ............................................................................... 49 3.7 Data Collection Instruments ........................................................................ 49 3.7.1 Structured survey .......................................................................................................... 49 3.7.2 Semi- structured interview .......................................................................................... 50 3.7.3 Audio recording .............................................................................................................. 51 3.7.4 Thematic analysis .......................................................................................................... 52 3.8 Issues of Trustworthiness for quantitative data ........................................ 54 3.9 Issues of Trustworthiness for qualitative data ........................................... 55 3.10.1 Research Bias ............................................................................................................... 57 3.11 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 58 Chapter 4: Findings .......................................................................................................... 59 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 59 4.2 Background data of survey participants ..................................................... 59 4.3 Results of the survey .................................................................................... 60 4.4 Background data of interviewees ................................................................ 71 1687699 Debora Leal 8 4.5 Semi- structured interview findings ............................................................ 71 4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 81 Chapter 5: Discussion of Findings .................................................................................. 82 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 82 5.2 Discussion of the survey findings ............................................................... 83 5.3 Thematic analysis of the interview .............................................................. 85 5.3.1 Thematic Analysis steps .............................................................................................. 85 5.4 Discussion of Themes .............................................................................. 89 5.4.1 Theme 1: The varying definitions of Emotional Intelligence (EI) ................ 89 5.4.2 Theme 2: The reasons why teachers think that EI is necessary in their pedagogies ................................................................................................................................ 92 5.4.3 Theme 3: The reasons why teachers believe that VAK/VARK is required in their teaching practises .......................................................................................................... 96 5.4.4 Theme 4: The vague interpretations of a neuromyth ......................................... 100 5.4.5 Theme 5: Neuromyths are still valued despite the academic contestations 101 5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 104 Chapter 6: Conclusion of the findings ........................................................................... 105 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 105 6.2 Relating Overall Findings to the Research Question............................... 105 6.3 Significance of the findings ....................................................................... 110 6.4 Recommendations for Future Research ................................................... 111 6.5 Limitations of this Study ............................................................................ 112 6.6 Personal Reflection..................................................................................... 113 6.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 114 Reference list .................................................................................................................. 116 Appendix A ...................................................................................................................... 121 Appendix B ...................................................................................................................... 124 Appendix C ...................................................................................................................... 125 Permission letter to the school principal and SGB ........................................ 125 Appendix D ...................................................................................................................... 128 Participant Information Sheet .......................................................................... 128 Appendix E ...................................................................................................................... 130 Consent form for semi- structured interview participants ............................ 130 Appendix F ...................................................................................................................... 131 Interview transcripts ......................................................................................... 131 1687699 Debora Leal 9 List of Abbreviations CAPS -National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement EI- Emotional Intelligence EQ-Emotional quotient IQ- Intelligence quotient MI- Multiple Intelligences OBE Curriculum- Outcomes Based Education Curriculum SGB- School Governing Body SQ- Spiritual quotient THRASS-Teaching of Handwriting, Reading and Spelling Skills VAK/VARK learning styles- Visual, auditory, kinesthetic & reading/writing learning styles 1687699 Debora Leal 10 List of Tables Table 1 - A table showing numerical data on the grouped definitions of a neuromyth. ........ 61 Table 2 - A table providing the professional background information of the interviewees. ............................................................................................................ 72 Table 3 - Initial codes from all Participants coloured to indicate similar themes. ..... 86 Table 4 - The reviewing, defining and naming process. ........................................... 88 List of Figures Figure 1 - Do you know what a neuromyth is? ........................................................ 60 Figure 2 - Which of the following concepts are you familiar with? (Emotional Intelligence) .............................................................................................................. 63 Figure 3 - Which of the following concepts are you familiar with? (Multiple Intelligences) ............................................................................................................ 64 Figure 4 - Which of the following concepts are you familiar with? (VAK/VARK learning styles) ......................................................................................................... 65 Figure 5 - Which of the following concepts are you familiar with? (Left/Right brain dominance) .............................................................................................................. 66 Figure 6 - How often do you incorporate each of these concepts into your teaching practices? (Emotional Intelligence)........................................................................... 67 Figure 7 - How often do you incorporate each of these concepts into your teaching practices? (Multiple Intelligences) ............................................................................ 68 Figure 8 - How often do you incorporate each of these concepts into your teaching practices? (VAK/VARK learning styles) .................................................................... 69 Figure 9 - How often do you incorporate each of these concepts into your teaching practices? (Left/right brain dominance theory) ......................................................... 70 1687699 Debora Leal 11 Chapter One: Introduction and background to the study 1.1 Introduction The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Brain and Learning project (2002) emphasised that many misconceptions about the brain exist among professionals in the field of education. Although these so-called “neuromyths” are loosely based on scientific facts, they do not hold up to academic scrutiny. Neuromyths are discussed in informal discussions and in popular articles in a simplistic way to help articulate points, and while this may not seem that harmful, it has been argued that they may have an adverse effect on education in more formal contexts when attempting to make a lesson inclusive (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). These common neuromyths include Emotional Intelligence, multiple intelligences, learning styles and differences in hemispheric dominance (left brain, right brain). Chapter One will provide an introduction to the research report and provide brief background information on what neuromyths are and the reasons why it is still prevalent in the education system as well as the relationship it has with the implementation of epistemological access (Dekker, Lee, Howard-Jones & Jolles, 2012). It will also structure the specific problem and purpose of the research, provide the central questions that will guide this research project and include information on my motivations and intentions behind conducting this research. 1.2 Background to the Study A neuromyth is “a misconception generated by a misunderstanding, a misreading, or a misquoting of facts scientifically established (by brain research) to make a case for use of brain research in education and other contexts” (OECD, 2002, p.10). “Neuro” or “neural” signifies the nervous system or the brain, and “myth” denotes a false belief. Inside educational neuroscience (neuroeducation, or mind, brain, education science), misunderstandings about the purpose of the brain and its role in learning and teaching practices are also referred as neuromyths (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). 1687699 Debora Leal 12 Neuromyths are usually spread by miscommunication, misinterpretation of results from a scientific study, oversimplification of a study’s results by popular media, pop psychology, substandard media coverage such as the reporting of irrelevant information, sensationalism, and exclusion of relevant information (Torrijos-Muelas, González-Víllora & Bodoque-Osma, 2021). Some neuromyths are also derived from scientific hypotheses that have been considered true for a long time but are then rejected by the scientific community when new evidence comes out (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). With recent advances in neuroscience, with the growing attraction of brain and mind sciences, neurophilia which is the fascination with everything related to neuro, is thriving, and findings from brain research has become very popular in media (Torrijos- Muelas, et al., 2021). Furthermore, the media has a way of marketing information in a manner that grabs attention and makes money (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). For example, news articles try to simplify information from research papers, and in that process it will either leave important information or utilise diction to distort the context of the findings which can be intentional and unintentional (Torrijos-Muelas, et al., 2021). The reason why news articles are believable is because it tends to include some facts or widely accepted evidence that are not relevant to the point, thus making it seem like their content is credible information (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). For example, the sentence “specific mental processes take place in the brain” is a vague, correct statement that is open to interpretation (Pasquinelli, 2012). The problem is that people who do not have background can construe these statements in many ways, and with limited access to original published peer-reviewed literature or less understanding of the publication process and the topic itself, they can be more resistant to accepting information that contradict their biases and current opinions and beliefs (Pasquinelli, 2012). Another reason why neuromyths continue is because they are generally believable. Various myths come from legitimate scientific discoveries that are later found to be inaccurate, meaning that at some point they were backed up by believable data (Torrijos-Muelas, et al., 2021). We also tend to believe these myths because they have a comforting effect on us (Pasquinelli, 2012). An example of this is the Mozart Effect (White, 2004). The Mozart Effect refers to a popular scientific theory that listening to Mozart’s compositions and other classical music will increase intelligence in terms of https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100213614 1687699 Debora Leal 13 retaining, retrieving, and generating knowledge. If you do not have resources or access to quality educational materials for children but do have a music player and a classical music CD, it would be encouraging to read that listening to classical music may help develop or improve a child’s intelligence although this is not true (White, 2004). The left and right brain dominance theory is based on the idea that people are either left-brained or right-brained, meaning that one side of their brain is dominant. If you are mostly analytical and systematic in your thinking, the theory states that you are left-brained. If you are more creative or artistic, you are right brained. Therefore, it may be uplifting to read that if you have developed artistic skills, but were not great at mathematics, one of your brain’s hemispheres is dominant over the other, which is a sensationalised assertion (White, 2004). The human mind tends to favour confirmation bias. This is a type of cognitive bias that involves favouring information that confirms previously existing beliefs or biases. (Pasquinelli, 2012). This confirmation tends to comfort us in our own opinions and validate our opinions (White, 2004). If something is meaningful to you, it will hold your attention and make you contemplate information more. For example, if someone holds a belief that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people, whenever this person encounters a person that is both left-handed and creative, they place greater importance on this evidence supporting their already existing belief. Our personal biases and believing what we want to believe, are what prevents us from critically evaluating new information and changing our opinions because it upholds an existing belief that reinforces previous attitudes (White 2004). According to Dekker, Lee, Howard-Jones & Jolles (2012), these false beliefs spread through social media, news articles, movies, popular media, forums, brain games, the educational setting and so on spread these beliefs. Studies have shown that putting a cover image with a brain MRI scan, or including the words such as “brain, brain-based, neuro- “, in titles and educational products, increases the interest of consumers and strengthens their belief in the value of a false product (Torrijos-Muelas, et al., 2021). Various studies have also shown that neuromyths are widespread and persistent among the public, among teachers of all levels, trainees, and recent graduates to award winning teachers and individuals who have formal tertiary and graduate training 1687699 Debora Leal 14 in neuroscience which is the reason why neuromyths persist worldwide (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). If neuromyths permeate the education system, there are two schools of thought in terms of the consequences (Pasquinelli, 2012). Some researchers suggest that neuromyth beliefs leads to wasteful, less productive practices, and less effective teaching. For example, teachers may spend time and resources developing activities for learners that are based on false science and have no real benefits to learning, or schools may invest in commercial programs that have no scientific grounding (Torrijos- Muelas, et al., 2021). Others suggest that unless the teachers are teaching neuroscience courses, their belief in neuromyths does not make them worse teachers (Pasquinelli, 2012). Evidence suggests that exercise is not linked to reading outcomes, but teachers often use physical activity in primary school curriculums as a teaching practice. This will not help children read better, physical activity has profound effects on human wellbeing, including positive effects on child development to stimulate learning (Pasquinelli, 2012). This is one example why some authors argue that belief in neuromyths is irrelevant to whether teachers are good teachers in general (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). From a purely academic perspective, the perpetuation of neuromyths is incoherent, flawed, and can negatively impact teaching and learning. Since neuromyths still contain an element of truth which may have either been misinterpreted or become distorted over time (Pasquinelli, 2012), the permeation into educational practices can be easy and yet have very negative consequences. There are gaps in research regarding the prevalence of neuromyths in South African education, specifically within the intermediate phase. While there have been studies conducted on neuromyths in education globally, the specific context of South African education in these grade levels is understudied. This study provides information on the common neuromyths that are prevalent in South African education, specifically in Johannesburg, in intermediate phase. There is a need for studies that examine the extent to which these neuromyths impact teaching practices. This research aims to investigate the relationship between belief in neuromyths and actual instructional practices in order gain insights into the implications for teaching and learning in schools based in Johannesburg. Furthermore, there is a shortage of research that explores the factors contributing to the persistence of neuromyths in South African 1687699 Debora Leal 15 education. This research looks at how neuromyths are viewed within the educational community can shed light on the mechanisms that perpetuate their prevalence. 1.3 Problem Statement Teachers and university instructors, the alleged experts on learning, still endorse numerous neuroscientific misconceptions and orient their instructional practice on so- called neuromyths (Pasquinelli, 2012). It has persisted because neuromyths are often rooted in scientific research, but are derived from distortions, oversimplifications, and overgeneralisations of research findings. This is problematic as it is perpetuating misconceptions and untruths in education which can disenable epistemological access in schools. As South African education is mandated to be more inclusive in its educational practices by eliminating exclusionary practices (White Paper 6), then perpetuating falsehoods in education becomes a real problem. White Paper 6 acknowledges that all children and youth can learn and that all children and youth need support by enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs of all learners (Department of Education, 2001). The distance between neuroscience and education is still too great and people are not aware of it (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). The gap between neuroscience and education has enabled many misconceptions about scientific findings to occur (White, 2019). In addition, official communications, and instructions for teachers to incorporate common neuromyths is stated in the National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) document. The CAPS document encourages teachers to make use of visual and audio aids in the classroom to accommodate the various learning styles which has entrenched neuromyths even further which goes against the notion of an all- encompassing, inclusive education (Department of Basic Education, 2011). It is difficult for people who lack neuroscientific expertise to recognise misconceptions about brain research in the popular media. Information provided by the popular media is usually over-simplified or over-interpreted, as it aims to reach many people which creates misconceptions (Waterhouse, 2011). The simplicity of these popular articles has led to the inconsistent assumption that complex neuroscience is easily applicable in the classroom. When people lack a general understanding of the brain and do not critically reflect on their readings which results in the beliefs of these falsehoods and 1687699 Debora Leal 16 limits epistemological access (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Thus, a lack of neuroscience literacy and reading popular media uncritically are factors that result in the number of misconceptions teachers have about the brain as well as the perpetuation of neuromyths (White, 2019). There is little research to the extent of the permeation of neuromyths and the how teachers are utilising neuromyths in the South African context in the intermediate phase. Therefore, the objective of this study is to explore and to investigate how widely known is the concept of neuromyths within intermediate phase education, and to get a sense of how widely known/common neuromyths are permeating pedagogical practices. By being aware of common neuromyths, teachers can avoid incorporating ineffective strategies or approaches based on these misconceptions into their classrooms. Instead, they can align their teaching methods with evidence-based practices, ensuring that their instruction is grounded in scientifically supported principles. Keeping up to date with information of these neuromyths can inform teacher practices in the classroom in the form of understanding learners and the ability to design and execute lessons that are effective to implement inclusion successfully. This knowledge empowers teachers to make more informed decisions about instructional strategies, classroom environments, and student support, ultimately enhancing the quality of education provided to South African learners. In addition, it would enhance our understanding of the presence and impact of neuromyths in South African education, enabling teachers, policymakers, and researchers to develop targeted interventions and educational strategies to promote accurate understanding of the brain and effective teaching practices. 1.4 Purpose Statement The problem this study looks to explore is how widely known the concept of neuromyths is within intermediate phase teachers in suburban public and private schools based in Johannesburg. It also aims to investigate how some of the more widely known neuromyths are permeating pedagogical practices in the intermediate phase. Furthermore, this research project seeks to explore what teachers make of neuromyths despite the scientific conception that it may be detrimental to inclusive education. 1687699 Debora Leal 17 In order to do this, the study will provide an exposition of the various schools of thoughts of neuroscience literacy including common neuromyths such as Emotional Intelligence, multiple intelligences, VAK learning styles and left/right brain dominance. I will be using a survey to establish the extent to which intermediate phase teachers in Johannesburg are aware of the concepts of neuromyths. I will then conduct interviews with 5 intermediate phase teachers to gain insight into their current understanding of the most common neuromyths, how they apply them in their lessons, how neuromyths may affect their pedagogical decisions to make their lessons inclusive as well as what they make of neuromyths despite scientific research that contends that it can be detrimental to epistemological access. These interviews will only focus on the 2 commonly known neuromyths which are EI and VAK/VARK learning styles. 1.5 Research Questions This study aims to examine the level of familiarity of neuromyths and the common neuromyths in suburban public and private schools in Johannesburg. It looks to explore how these common neuromyths are influencing teaching practices in intermediate phase. Additionally, it looks at understanding the perspectives of teachers on neuromyths, despite the academic concern that it may negatively impact inclusive education. The following question is the main research question of the study. There are also 3 sub-questions that are used to guide the study towards answering the main research question. Main question: 1. To what extent have Neuromyths permeated pedagogical practices of intermediate phase teachers in Johannesburg? Sub questions: • What percentage of teachers are aware of the concept of neuromyths in Johannesburg? 1687699 Debora Leal 18 • In what ways are the 4 common neuromyths (Emotional Intelligence, Multiple Intelligences, VAK/VARK (Visual, auditory, kinaesthetic & reading & writing) learning styles and Left/ right brain dominance are permeating/influencing intermediate phase education pedagogical choices in Johannesburg? • What are teachers’ opinions and impressions of neuromyths despite the information derived from academic research? 1.6 Rationale I became interested in the topic of neuromyths when I learnt about it in the Psychological Issues in Education Honours course. I did not have any prior knowledge about neuromyths and became very interested and fascinated about this topic. It made me think and reflect on how the vast majority of teachers, including myself accepted these myths uncritically. This topic made me realise that despite concerns regarding the rapid propagation of neuromyths, not much is known about the prevalence of neuromyths among professionals in the field of education because the majority of teachers do not read these academic articles on neuroscience literacy. Therefore, it seems clear that a lack of effective communication exists between the fields of neuroscience and education. I believe that the purpose of my research project is to help advance knowledge to create an awareness of the misconceptions among teachers. Next to examining the prevalence of neuromyths, I also became interested in identifying the factors that predict a high susceptibility to believing in myths as well as what teachers think about these myths, how do they value it despite the academic sources and the impact these myths have had on their teaching efficacy. I am interested in finding out why teachers, learners, teacher training programmes, textbooks and teacher training examiners endorse these myths. Schools and educational departments do not address and create an awareness of the widespread misconceptions on this topic. This shows that neuroscience literacy and research is needed to enable individuals to differentiate science from pseudoscience which is the 1687699 Debora Leal 19 reason why I have decided to focus on this area of research. It is essential to understand why some individuals are more prone to accepting and propagating myths, especially in an academic setting. By investigating these aspects, I believe we can enhance our educational practices by developing evidence-based interventions and curriculum content that debunk myths effectively. This interest stems from a genuine desire to improve teaching efficiency, enhance student learning outcomes, and foster critical thinking skills in our classrooms. The reason why I have chosen the intermediate phase is because I have specialised in this phase, and I am familiar with the curriculum requirements. I believe that the value of neuromyths can be seen at this stage from the age of 9-12 years of age as it is a growth point where learners establish who they are and what they like. This is a good phase to target as neuromyths are prevalent in this phase. Furthermore, it is the age in which they transition into adolescence and Emotional Intelligence is a topic among today’s modern adolescents due to identity development, the path to self- discovery and identity awareness. 1.7 Conclusion This chapter has put forward the reasons for the research and has framed exactly why research in the field of neuromyths and pseudoscience are required. It has provided general information on neuromyths as well as the reasons why these neuromyths are rampant and stubbornly persist in education which has perpetuated falsehoods that are often accepted uncritically and hinder epistemological access. The next chapter which is the literature review will provide an in-depth exposition on the literature of neuromyths including an overview of the theoretical and empirical state of research on neuromyths, a discussion on controversies, fundamental concepts, issues, and problems of neuromyths. 1687699 Debora Leal 20 Chapter Two: Conceptual Framework and Review of Literature 2.1 Introduction While Chapter One has outlined the research report, Chapter Two will explore the concept of neuromyths in more depth. Before that, it is important to discuss the theoretical frameworks that underpin neuromyths and that will guide the exploration of the concept in this study. It also includes a detailed exposition of the origins of neuromyths, how neuroscience became associated to education, the various schools of thought surrounding the 4 common neuromyths as well as how it has been incorporated into the educational context to enable and disable epistemological access. 2.2 Theoretical Framework The frameworks of social cognitive theory, cognitive psychology, and sociocultural theory provide valuable lenses through which we can interpret the understandings, misunderstandings and misuse of neuromyths in the educational context. They provide a basis on which the findings from the research can be analysed which adds stronger validity and trustworthiness. 2.2.1 Social cognitive theory Social cognitive theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasises the significance of social interactions, observational learning, and self-regulation in shaping human behaviour (Schunk, 2012). Bandura’s theory highlights the importance of observational learning where individuals acquire knowledge and behaviour by observing others. Through this process, individuals develop a sense of self-efficacy, influencing their motivation, behaviour and ability to learn and adapt in various social contexts (Schunk, 2012). By applying this perspective to the prevalence of neuromyths in South Africa, we can explore how individuals acquire and perpetuate these misconceptions through social interactions, including from teachers, peers, and media influences. We can also examine the role of self-regulation in addressing and correcting these misconceptions (Schunk, 2012). 1687699 Debora Leal 21 2.2.2 Cognitive theory Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. Within this framework, we can investigate how individuals process and interpret information related to neuromyths and why these misconceptions may seem intuitive or appealing (Piaget, 2000). It can further shed light on the cognitive biases or heuristics which refers to the tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions that contribute to the persistence of these misconceptions despite contradictory evidence from academia (Piaget, 2000). 2.2.3 Sociocultural theory Sociocultural theory, developed by Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes the role of cultural and social factors in cognitive development (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). Applying this lens to the prevalence of neuromyths, we can explore how culture, societal beliefs, and educational practices shape individuals' understanding of the brain and learning. We can examine how broader socio-cultural influences, including the media, educational policies, and societal attitudes, contribute to the perpetuation of neuromyths (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). With these 3 frameworks, researchers can be confident in their analysis and explanation of how neuromyths are understood and interpreted by the participants of the study. This will be further discussed in Chapter 3. This multifaceted approach allows us to explore the individual, social, cognitive, and cultural factors that influence the acquisition, perpetuation, and impact of these misconceptions (Allahyar & Nazari, 2012). It also lays the groundwork for developing interventions and educational approaches that address and correct these misconceptions, promoting a more accurate understanding of the brain and learning (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). 2.3 A history of neuromyths The word “neuromyth” was first devised during the 1980s when the neurosurgeon Alan Crockard used it to describe a misleading concept about the brain function in medicine (Torrijos-Muelas, González-Víllora & Bodoque-Osma, 2021). The term was then utilised on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 1687699 Debora Leal 22 report based on understanding the brain (OECD, 2002). The OECD included information about the propagation of the neuromyths around critical periods which refers to a fixed and crucial time during the early development of an organism when it can learn things which are essential to survival from birth to the age of 3. These influences impact the development of processes such as hearing and vision, social bonding, and language learning. It also included information on left vs. right brain people, and the 10% of the use of our brain, as the most widely spread neuromyths (OECD, 2002). In this report, a neuromyth was described as “a misconception generated by a misunderstanding, a misreading, or a misquoting of facts scientifically established by brain research to make a case for the use of brain research in education and other contexts” (OECD, 2002, p.10). In the early 90s a movement began in education called “brain-based learning” that tried to link neuroscience and education. While early attempts to bridge the fields sparked controversy, it can now be argued that neuroscience does have a role to play in education reform (Howard- Jones, 2010). Brain-based learning was started by teachers to make inferences from findings in neuroscience to classroom practice (Bruer, 1997). Bruer (1997) called this movement a “bridge too far” because the practitioners did not have scientific understanding. Scientists began joining the movement to inform professional development but did not have classroom teaching experience (Howard-Jones, 2010). This was managed with scepticism and competitiveness, as educational psychologists, cognitive psychologists, teachers, neurologists, and neuroscientists debated on who should advise teachers (Bruer, 1997). Debate and discussion continued as the movement gained popularity and started emerging between disciplines. Publications and presentations by scientists to teachers informed teachers in more depth, leading to more credibility, although neuromyths still persisted (Domínguez, 2018). Almost two decades after Bruer's (1997) “bridge too far”, a credible bridge is being made between neuroscience and education, including Master's and PhD programs being offered in Educational Neuroscience. However, these programs are unbalanced in qualifications and training. School systems and universities are not recognising this new field of expertise and seeking input and, instead, get information from those unqualified in either neuroscience or https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591923/full#B58 1687699 Debora Leal 23 school education (Domínguez,2018). Neuroscientists lament that they know how to improve learning, but the field of education is not responding. The so called “Brain” presenters are hired for teachers’ workshops professional development with no experience or credentials in neuroscience which is why neuromyths are still being implemented preventing epistemological access (Howard- Jones, 2010). Scientists believe they are the ones qualified to address teachers about translating the research while teachers believe that they can better make implications for the classroom. Educational psychologists believe they are more qualified. And so, the disagreement continues (Domínguez, 2018). We need perspectives from research and teaching practice to change education. To support this bridge, a specialist with knowledge on each side is needed, with both experience and credentials in neuroscience and education, as one alone is not enough (Howard- Jones, 2010). Scientists have two weaknesses. First, teachers contend that scientists have difficulty speaking to teachers, although some are outstanding speakers. There is a standard method of presenting scientific information at conferences and many use that presentation style with teachers, failing to understand the teachers’ perspectives and needs (Bruer, 1997). Secondly, they have not taught unmotivated or struggling learners – early grades, high school, or college developmental courses because they have not practiced in this field (Howard-Jones, 2010). On the other hand, teachers can obliviously make invalid leaps from research to practice because they do not read the scientific literature, but are getting second and third hand information, they are learning from pop psychology books written for nonprofessional audiences or basic science articles they cannot understand without the broader information (Bruer, 1997). What we need is a hybrid of these specialties to bridge the gap that unites scientific knowledge and practical application in education (Howard-Jones, 2010). I argue that having an understanding of basic neuroscience research on learning and the fundamental constituents of learning is as crucial as the study of child development or educational psychology or other aspects of teacher training. Just as doctors and psychologists attend professional development workshops to stay updated, teachers must be updated on what we are learning about the brain, emotions, motivation, and physiology from scientific research. The most pertinent neuromyths in schools include Emotional Intelligence, Multiple Intelligences, VAK/VARK (visual, auditory, https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/neuroscience-research 1687699 Debora Leal 24 reading/writing and kinaesthetic) and left/right brain dominance. Keeping up to date with information of these neuromyths can inform teacher practices in the classroom in the form of understanding learners and the ability to design and execute lessons that are effective to implement inclusion successfully. What follows next is a detailed exploration of the 2 more common neuromyths (EI and VAK/VARK learning styles) in education in terms of what they are, how they came to be and the reason it is deemed as a neuromyth. There will also be a discussion on how these neuromyths integrate into education. An extensive description of EI and VAK/VARK have been provided as the interview solely focuses on these two neuromyths because by focusing on the 2 most commonly known and understood neuromyths by teachers. Multiple intelligences and left/right brain dominance have garnered less popularity at schools because there is limited scientific evidence to support their claims in comparison to Emotional Intelligence and VAK/VARK learning styles. It is more accurate to promote the development of diverse skills and abilities in learners rather than focusing neatly categorised and distinct types of intelligences promoted by Multiple Intelligences (Howard-Jones, 2010). The left/right brain dominant theory suggests that individuals have a dominant brain hemisphere that influences their learning styles. Scientific evidence has debunked this notion by highlighting that both hemispheres function in an interconnected manner (Howard-Jones, 2010). The next section is then followed by a brief description on multiple intelligences and left/right brain dominance, which is not as prevalent, but is still important in education. 2.4 Emotional Intelligence 2.4.1 Brief history of Emotional Intelligence: Salovey and Mayer building up to Goleman The concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) was introduced by Salovey and Mayer (1990), although related ideas such as “social intelligence” had been introduced earlier by Edward Thorndike (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). Emotional Intelligence was first discussed as Social Intelligence. Emotional Intelligence later became the all- encompassing term of Emotional & Social Intelligence (Dhani & Sharma, 2016). 1687699 Debora Leal 25 Thorndike used the term Social Intelligence in 1920 in an article titled “Intelligence and its uses” in the Harper’s magazine (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). Thorndike, an educational psychology professor at Columbia University, defined it as “the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls—to act wisely in human relations” (Dhani & Sharma, 2016, p190). In essence Thorndike defined social intelligence as the ability to perceive one’s own and others’ internal states, motives, and behaviours, and to act toward them appropriately based on particular information (Cherniss, 2000). In 1983, Howard Gardner spoke about the theory of multiple intelligences in his book titled “Frames of Mind”. In the set of the seven intelligences, Gardner discussed two “personal intelligences” which has very similar features to Emotional and Social intelligence (Boyatzis & Sala, 2004). These two personal intelligences were Intrapersonal Intelligence which is the ability to access and make use of one’s own feelings; and Interpersonal Intelligence defined as the ability to notice and make distinctions about the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of other people (Boyatzis & Sala, 2004). The year 1990 became a significant year for ‘Emotional Intelligence’ when John Mayer, a professor at the University of New Hampshire, and Peter Salovey at Yale published their article “Emotional Intelligence” in the journal “Imagination, Cognition, and Personality” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). It was first serious academic inquiry of the term as they focused attention on a group of abilities instead of traits. Salovey and Mayer (1990, p. 189) defined Emotional Intelligence as, “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions”. Salovey and Mayer (1990) expanded their conceptualisation of Emotional Intelligence. This included the evaluation of emotions in the self, the judgement and identification of emotions in others through empathy; the regulation of emotions in oneself and in others; and the utilisation of emotions to engage in flexible planning, creative thinking, direction of attention, motivation, and self- regulation (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). Dr. Daniel Goleman (1994) then popularised the concept of Emotional Intelligence. According to Goleman (1994), EI entails self-motivation and persistence; skill at 1687699 Debora Leal 26 introspection; the delay of gratification; self-control of impulses, moods, and emotions; empathy; effective leadership and social skills. In this way, Emotional Iintelligence serves as a key factor in addressing the prevalence of neuromyths in a South African context. By promoting evidence-based practices from academia, critical thinking and open dialogue, educators with high Emotional Intelligence contribute to a more accurate understanding of the brain and learning, ultimately benefiting learners in their education. 2.4.2 Goleman’s key theory arguments and what these arguments meant to education and schools Emotional Intelligence (EI) was popularised in 1994 by psychologist and behavioural science journalist Dr. Daniel Goleman in his book, Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1994). Goleman (1994) defined Emotional Intelligence as “a person’s ability to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups” (Goleman, 1994. p. 9). According to Goleman (1994), Emotional Intelligence is the largest indicator of success in the workplace. In school settings teachers are usually told that they need to understand the concept because it can have a great impact on the manner they teach, the lessons they deliver, the relationships they develop with their learners and the results that learners ultimately achieve (Cherniss, 2000). The UK’s White Paper, which are government-issued documents asserts that the government declared its aim of reinforcing the Emotional Intelligence of learners because it would significantly improve learners’ behaviour and increase levels of achievement (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Goleman (2011) stressed that teachers were receiving a false idea of a learner’s general intelligence if they merely trusted intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, which merely tested a particular selection of intelligences including their mathematical, logical, and verbal reasoning skills. Goleman (2011) asserted that a high IQ did not establish later success in life. It is rather a person’s ability to socialise, inspire others and be self-motivated. He highlights that schools that were aware of EI tended not only to produce happier, more rounded individuals, but also to attain better academic results (Goleman, 2011). Many successful Emotional Intelligence programmes have been ongoing resulting in many institutions implementing the Emotional Intelligence philosophy (Cherniss, 2000). This 1687699 Debora Leal 27 includes teacher training organisations that specialise in training teachers to use Emotional Intelligence in the classroom, believe that these programmes not only help decreasing antisocial behaviour, but they can also help with improving results (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). It is generally believed that highly emotionally intelligent teachers tend to motivate their learners better and understand their learners’ behavioural and psychological wellbeing because they felt included. They can also be more sensitive towards their learners’ disruptive behaviours, academic performance, and relationship management (Cherniss, 2000). A good and emotionally intelligent teacher will not only be self-aware but will also show empathy towards children, parents, peers, etc. Empathy shown by the teacher makes a positive and a lasting impact on a learner’s mind (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Goleman (2011) asserts that learners with higher levels of Emotional Intelligence can keep a check on their emotions better and be empathetic to others around them. This can help them develop improved self-motivation and effective communication skills essential to helping learners become more confident learners. On the other hand, learners who lack Emotional Intelligence can become less connected to school, negatively affecting performance in the classroom (Goleman, 2011). An emotionally intelligent learner will have an increased level of self-awareness, making him or her take charge of their learning proactively (Cherniss, 2000). Emotional Intelligence helps learners better analyse situations. It not only helps learners interact with others better but also helps them tackle academic issues with greater confidence (Boyatzis, 2008). A learner who can manage their emotions well is a learner that will not allow stress to rule their academic life. Emotional Intelligence creates a strong barrier for learners which helps them better handle the factors that create stress in the minds of the learner (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Having a strong emotional foundation can help learners deal with their problems successfully making them far more satisfied. It is what teaches learners to set attainable goals, make better decisions, and deal with their problems in a healthier fashion (Goleman, 2011). If one has a low EQ (Emotional Quotient), you may find yourself get caught up with perfectionism which can result in stress, slow productivity resulting in procrastination and make you difficult to work with (Cherniss, 2000). People with high IQs (Intelligence 1687699 Debora Leal 28 Quotient) often report having difficulties in their relationships as they find themselves feeling misunderstood, overlooked and may have a difficult time relating to others. Furthermore, they struggle with empathy, keeping a two-way conversation and maintaining a connection with others (Cherniss, 2000). Emotional Intelligence plays a vital role in promoting inclusive education in any context, including South Africa. Inclusive education aims to ensure that all learners, regardless of their background or abilities, feel valued, respected, and supported in the learning environment (Cherniss, 2000). Emotional Intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions, as well as the emotions of others (Goleman, 2011). In a South African context, where diversity in terms of race, culture, language, and socio-economic backgrounds is prevalent, Emotional Intelligence becomes even more crucial. By developing Emotional Intelligence skills, educators can create a welcoming and inclusive classroom environment (Boyatzis, 2008). This includes being aware of their own biases and prejudices, fostering empathy and understanding among learners, and addressing any instances of discrimination or exclusion (Goleman, 2011). Emotionally intelligent teachers strive to create a safe space where each learner feels seen, heard, and valued (Boyatzis, 2008). They promote open dialogue, encourage active listening, and incorporate diverse perspectives into the curriculum. By embracing the principles of Emotional Intelligence, educators can enhance the overall learning experience for all learners, facilitating a sense of belonging, respect, and equity (Cherniss, 2000). 2.4.3 Arguments against Emotional Intelligence Despite the popularity and usefulness of EI, examination of the literature suggests there is no clear, consensual definition of EI, and the multifaceted features of the concept appears at times is overwhelming (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). Intelligence has been defined in various ways within different fields and typically includes concepts such as logic, understanding, abstract thought, self-awareness, 1687699 Debora Leal 29 ability to learn, problem solving, communication, and so on (Coffield, et al., 2004). Some psychologists recognise a general intelligence factor in Emotional Intelligence (Cherniss, 2000). While most IQ tests will measure certain cognitive functions including pattern recognition and natural language skills, Emotional Intelligence typically measures other cognitive processes, such as memory, rapid decision- making, and ability to retrieve general knowledge linked to general intelligence (Coffield, et al., 2004). Both these concepts relate closely with the idea of Emotional Intelligence, and some psychologists argue that Emotional Intelligence quotients are merely aspects of general intelligence (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Defining intelligence is controversial and leads to some of the challenges with getting EQ recognised as a form of legitimate intelligence (Cherniss, 2000). There are several other problems with this definition. The ability to monitor one’s emotions does not require any special degree or type of intelligence. Monitoring one’s emotions is a matter of where one chooses to focus one’s attention, outwards at the external world or inward at the contents and processes of one’s own consciousness (Matthews, et al., 2002). Focusing inwards involves introspection. Similarly, the ability to read the emotions of others is not necessarily an issue of intelligence. It could simply be a matter of paying attention to others and being aware of one’s own emotions so that one can empathise with others (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). Discriminating between emotions is a learned skill just as is detecting a given emotion. A highly intelligent person may be better able to make very subtle distinctions between similar emotions (e.g., jealousy and envy), but, for basic emotions (e.g., love, anger, fear, desire), which is just a matter of focusing inwards to develop one’s introspective skill (Coffield, et al., 2004). The definition of EI indicates that it is a combination of assorted habits, skills, and choices rather than an issue of intelligence (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). It is arbitrary to attach the word intelligence to assorted habits or skills, as EI advocates do (Matthews, et al., 2002). The motive is egalitarianism: redefining what it means to be intelligent so that everyone will be equal in intelligence to everyone else which makes the agenda political. However, arbitrary redefinitions do not change reality. Some people are more intelligent, in their ability to grasp concepts, than others, but this ability is not necessarily reflected in every skill that people choose to develop (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). If one wants to group a set of related phenomena into a 1687699 Debora Leal 30 single concept, there must be a conceptually identified, common element among them (Cherniss, 2000). One of the principal views of emotional-intelligence proponents is that awareness leads to behavioural change (Goleman, 2011). If that were the case, people would not need years of therapy, hard work and discipline to change their behaviour. Simple awareness would enable all of us to get out of our self-destructive tendencies and avoid all the pitfalls that make us less happy and successful. But this is not reality (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). The human mind consists of layer upon layer of neural pathways that are formed and reinforced over decades. The brain consists of inner workings of our emotions and behaviours occur mostly in our subconscious (Coffield, et al., 2004). Self-awareness is a positive thing in life, but it cannot be mistaken for what lies on the surface for the feelings buried deep below. That is why the path to achieving meaningful behavioural change is a long, difficult, and often painful experience (Cherniss, 2000). While there may be differing arguments on the concept of EI, its importance in South African schools cannot be overlooked. In a country like South Africa with a history of social divisions and inequality, nurturing Emotional Intelligence can help bridge gaps, foster empathy and create a culture of unity and social cohesion (Goleman, 2011). Furthermore, it allows learners to develop crucial skills for personal growth, social interactions and creating inclusive and compassionate communities. It can better prepare learners to navigate the complexities of life and contribute positively to society. 2.4.4 Issues/ Considerations with use of EI in education Although EI is a vague umbrella term for a variety of different abilities and personality traits, sometimes these neuromyths contain an element of truth (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). EI is still beneficial in raising awareness of emotional issues and motivating teachers and managers to take emotional issues seriously. There is a common link made between having a good mental health which can result in a better academic performance (Cherniss, 2000). Furthermore, training workshops are fostering EI competencies, useful skills in programs which include conflict management, taking the 1687699 Debora Leal 31 perspective of others, verbal communication skills and assertiveness training in the classroom and workplace (Matthews, et al., 2002). In any case, studies of EI may be productive even if the construct proves to be obscure, and these false beliefs may stimulate valuable research and a deeper understanding on a topic (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). However, the teaching that being able to manage your emotions is equitable or the same as intelligence is not true, and learners who believe this to be true may not dedicate enough time to working on their cognitive processes or neglect certain academic concepts as they do not see them as intelligence related (Cherniss, 2000). An incorrect understanding or teaching of Emotional Intelligence can have detrimental effects on inclusive education and learning. It can hinder self-awareness, effective communication, empathy, conflict resolution and social-emotional learning which are essential elements of an inclusive and enriching educational experience (Goleman, 2011). To foster inclusivity, it is crucial for teachers to acquire a comprehensive understanding of Emotional Intelligence and integrate its principles into their teaching practices (Matthews, et al., 2002). 2.5 VAK (visual, audio, and kinaesthetic) Learning styles 2.5.1 What are learning styles- brief history and use in education VAK is an acronym for Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic learning styles which are different approaches and methods for an individuals’ learning based on their preferences (Willis, 2017). Neil Fleming introduced this concept in 1987 that was designed to help learners and others learn more about their individual learning preferences (Willis, 2017). VAK was later on modified to VARK learning styles by Fleming in 2006 but is still commonly known as VAK (Fleming, 2006). The “R” in the acronym refers to reading and writing. Based on Fleming (2006), visual mode learners tend to learn best by seeing graphic displays such as charts, diagrams, illustrations, handouts, and videos which are helpful learning tools for visual learners. Aural mode learners tend to attain information by discussion and listening. For reading and writing modes, these learners interpret printed information and prefer handouts, textbooks, and overheads as a learning resource. They enjoy making lists, reading definitions and take notes in a lesson to retain information. Kinaesthetic mode leans more 1687699 Debora Leal 32 towards hands-on activities that involve directly manipulating objects, materials and doing something to learn (Fleming, 2006). This has resulted in a common conception amongst teachers that people predominantly learn using one style – whether visual, auditory, or kinaesthetic. Though every learner often incorporates elements of the other two styles, they are likely to achieve maximum benefit of inclusion from learning by focusing on their primary style (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Furthermore, “brain-friendly” learning is a new catchphrase in school and university instructional practice. Most presentations of learning styles argue that most people prefer to learn in one of several different ways, a person’s learning preference reflects their learning style, education should match learners’ different learning styles and learners learn better if their education matches their learning style (White, 2004). This idea has been repeatedly tested and there is currently no evidence to support it. Despite this, belief in the use of Learning Styles appears to be widespread amongst schoolteachers and persists in the research literature (Willis, 2017). While we tend to have preferences about how we learn, the evidence shows we learn equally well in all modalities (Lethaby & Harries, 2016). In a South African context, the VAK model suggests that individuals have different learning preferences such as visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic which aligns with the diverse needs and backgrounds of students in South Africa (Willis, 2017). The country has a rich cultural and linguistic diversity, where students may have different language abilities, educational backgrounds, and learning experiences. Using a variety of instructional approaches, including visual aids, verbal explanations, and hands-on activities, can cater to these diverse learning needs and help create a more inclusive classroom environment (Willis, 2017). Additionally, the VAK model continues to be utilized due to its perceived simplicity and ease of implementation by educators. It provides a framework that allows teachers to plan and deliver lessons in different ways to accommodate various learning preferences (White, 2004). 1687699 Debora Leal 33 2.5.2 Arguments against learning styles There is no evidence that designing lessons that appeal to different learning styles accelerates learner learning or will improve learning (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Like many misconceptions about learning and the brain, the belief in learning styles stems from an incorrect interpretation of valid research findings and scientifically established facts (Geake, 2008). Yet teacher candidates are consistently directed to keep these pseudoscientific style categories in mind. The idea of “learning styles” is persistent and popular in the field because majority of teachers do not know the science that disproves it (White, 2004). It is important to ensure that teachers are prepared with accurate insights into learning, instead of perpetuating myths that can potentially inhibit inclusion (Geake, 2008). The problem is when teachers do encounter sound science, those messages are blurred by the importance assigned to learning styles in coursework and licensure exams. Furthermore, when teachers study educational psychology, those textbooks, unlike general education materials approach the myths with scepticism, pointing out the lack of evidence and cautioning against the use of unsupported instructional practices (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). Textbooks also align their content with standard licensure exams, leading to incongruent mentions of learning styles. Nearly all those materials advocate for modifying instruction to accommodate learning styles for inclusive lessons (Pasquinelli, 2012). Licensure tests ask aspiring teachers to describe some activities that might help learners with varying learning styles best learn key concepts and to give a specific example from your personal classroom experience of the effects of differences in learning styles on how people understand and express what they know (Geake, 2008). Despite this evidence, a large proportion of people including the general public, teachers and even those with a background in neuroscience still believe in the myth (Geake, 2008). A review published in Frontiers in Education, finds no signs of that changing (van Dijk & Lane, 2020). The team looked at articles that focused on belief in learning styles published between 2009 and April 2020. Articles with participant groups that were not made up of teachers or trainee teachers were excluded from analysis (van Dijk & Lane, 2020). Data from over 15,000 teachers were included in the analysis. Overall, 89.1% of participants believed that people learn better when https://digest.bps.org.uk/2017/07/20/oh-dear-even-people-with-neuroscience-training-believe-an-awful-lot-of-brain-myths/ 1687699 Debora Leal 34 instruction is matched to their learning styles. A total of 95.4% of trainee teachers believed in learning styles, slightly higher than the 87.8% of qualified teachers who showed similar beliefs. And despite more widespread debunking of the myth, both in academic publishing and the mainstream media, there was no significant decrease in belief in studies conducted more recently (van Dijk & Lane, 2020). The popularity of the learning styles mythology may stem in part from the appeal of finding out what “type of person” you are, along with the desire to be treated as an individual within the education system (Bellert & Graham, 2013). There are many other factors that affect a person’s ability to learn, such as their background, interests, and motivation to learn. Both the content (subject matter) and the context (how the subject matter needs to be applied) directly affect the design and delivery of learning, and not a person’s learning style because not all learning happens in the same way, not even in one individual (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). It is crucial to decide which techniques are best for which learning outcomes and not to customise learning provision based on learning style as empirical research shows that there is no correlation between learning styles and successful learning (Coffield, 2004). Despite the criticism, many educators in South Africa still utilise the concept to cater to diverse learning needs and engage students in the learning process. One major impact of the VAK/VARK learning styles in South African education is the recognition of different learning modalities and the promotion of inclusive and student-centred pedagogy. By acknowledging that students have varied learning preferences, educators can design instructional strategies and activities that cater to these preferences. This approach aims to enhance students' understanding and retention of the subject matter by presenting information in ways that align with their preferred learning style. Moreover, the VAK model has influenced instructional practices and teaching methods in South African classrooms. Teachers often incorporate visual aids, such as charts, diagrams, and videos, to support visual learners. They may also utilise auditory strategies such as lectures, discussions, and audio recordings to engage auditory learners. For kinesthetic learners, hands-on activities, experiments, and movement-based tasks are frequently employed. The integration of these diverse teaching methods helps create a dynamic and engaging learning environment that accommodates various learning styles. 1687699 Debora Leal 35 While VAK learning styles may still be used extensively in the South African education context, it is important for educators to critically evaluate its validity and supplement it with evidence-based practices. By employing a range of instructional strategies, teachers can better accommodate the diverse learning needs of students in South Africa, ultimately promoting a more inclusive and effective learning environment. 2.5.3 Issues/ Considerations with the use of Learning styles in education The persistence of learning styles stems from the fact that people have different abilities, talents, goals, life experiences and motivations, including better working memory or persistence, which plays a crucial role in inclusive education (Bozarth, 2018). The idea that people differ in their abilities is almost certainly right, however it does get confused with learning styles. Paying attention to these differences comes from a place of caring for the learners and teachers may misinterpret how to help learners with different abilities flourish by differentiating instruction for inclusion (Bellert & Graham, 2013). Advocates who understand learning styles insist that learning styles represent preferences (Bozarth, 2018). It is not a black-and-white thing, that you are either this or you are that. This often happens by dividing learners into groups (e.g., the kinaesthetic learners) and then providing information only in that modality. Strictly adhering to learning styles may be counterproductive to learners learning. This not only leads learners to depend on that modality for learning but denies them of the opportunity to learn in other modalities (Bellert & Graham, 2013). A good instructor will not heavily overload on one side or the other of any of these dimensions. The idea is balance (Coffield, 2004). What good teachers understand is that the different senses each have their own strengths and weaknesses. We are all visual learners as our vision is the best system to take in data. Likewise, we are all auditory learners- when the material calls for it (Geake, 2008). For example, consider the advantages of hearing a story via audiobook, sequential information is ideal for this “style” of learning. An “auditory learner who wants to get better at soccer will still lace up their cleats, run onto the field and practice their moves and not just listen to podcasts all day. Therefore, we take in information utilising our different senses (Geake, 2008). 1687699 Debora Leal 36 It seems harmless enough, but when teachers work to accommodate learning styles, which have no empirical support, they divert attention and effort away from instructional strategies that are supported by a substantial body of research (Geake, 2008). In addition to the misallocation of teachers’ time and effort, there are other potentially detrimental effects of learning-styles based instruction. Learners may act on their label. If a learner believes s/he has a particular dominant learning style, the learner may avoid effective learning strategies or even entire subjects they believe are a better fit for a learning style they do not think suits them (Bozarth, 2018). Learners who are taught they have a dominant learning style may attempt to process information in their preferred style, even when the method does not fit the task. Teachers who attempt to accommodate multiple learning styles in a lesson, rather than focusing on the most effective methods to present the specific material, can negatively influence learner learning by causing cognitive overload and stagnant mindset (Grospietsch & Mayer, 2020). A recent review of the scientific literature on learning styles found scant evidence to clearly support the idea that outcomes are best when instructional techniques align with individuals’ learning styles (Bozarth, 2018). Akkoyunlu & Yilmaz Soylu (2008) assert that there appears to be a divide between the perspectives of researchers. Researchers who advocate for learning styles point out that anecdotal evidence exists that support their view that learners have a preference for taking in information and that it is based on the learners themselves. The researchers who oppose the notion of learning styles do so because there is no empirical evidence that learners improve their learning based on learning styles (Akkoyunlu & Yilmaz Soylu, 2008). As a result, researchers feel like they have to take sides. When one takes sides that means they have to discredit others who do not agree with them (Gappi, 2013). There is also known evidence that supports the idea that learners do learn better when they are more comfortable with how the information is presented to them (Gokalp, 2013). Teachers should be concerned with improving how their learners learn and if conversing with them about how they like to take in information helps with their ability to better understand themselves, there should not be any harm in that. Therefore, there is no absolute answer to this debate (Akkoyunlu & Yilmaz Soylu, 2008). http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x 1687699 Debora Leal 37 2.6 Multiple Intelligences 2.6.1 What are multiple intelligences and its use in education The following neuromyths including Multiple Intelligences and Left/Right brain dominance are not as popular, but still continue to be relevant neuromyths in education. The theory of Multiple Intelligences was presented in 1983 by Howard Gardiner, a psychologist, when he published his book titled Frames of Mind. Gardiner asserted that learning occurred through types of intelligences and people had various levels of each (Gardiner, 1978). He came to the realisation that intelligence cannot be limited to one group, but rather can be classified into eight separate areas of intelligence. Every human possessed all eight intelligences in various amounts, and everyone is made up of a unique combination of all the intelligences. Learners can experience great success if learning tasks are related to their developed intelligences. These intelligences can be developed, weakened, ignored or strengthened with practice (Gardiner, 1978). The first form of intelligence includes the bodily- kinaesthetic intelligence which entails the ability to manipulate due to a strong mind-body union which is demonstrated in the form of physical skills. This includes dancers, athletes, or precision and steady movements in a craft. Existential intelligence refers to the ability to be able to have deep discussion about the meaning of life and human existence. People with this intelligence rationally address difficult questions. Intrapersonal intelligence is based on the ability to communicate effectively with others and is not limited to verbal interaction. People with this intelligence can read the moods of others, they can access the sentiments and motivations of others, they are able to communicate nonverbally and understand differences in perspectives. These people make good teachers, actors and social workers (Gardiner, 1978). Individuals with intrapersonal intelligence are highly aware of their feelings and can show an appreciation for themselves and other humans. They are self- motivated and use their understanding to direct the course of their own lives. This includes philosophers, psychologists, religious leaders, etc. Verbal- linguistic intelligence is the ability to express oneself using words and language to apply meaning to words and complex phrases such as journalists, poets and public speakers. Logical-mathematical intelligence is based on the ability to 1687699 Debora Leal 38 calculate mathematical equations, demonstrate abstract thought and reasoning, and infer based on patterns (Gardiner, 1978). This includes scientists, mathematicians, and detectives. Musical intelligence is demonstrated by individuals who can distinguish between specific tones, rhythms and is a sensitive listener and can reflect or produce music accurately such as musicians, conductors, and composers. An individual who possesses a naturalist intelligence has a sensitivity to features in the natural word and can distinguish between living and non- living things. This includes chefs, farmers, botanists, etc. Spatial intelligence refers to people who can manipulate images, has graphic skills and spatial reasoning. They can be daydreamers, draw in their free time and show interest in puzzles and mazes. This includes artistic vocations such as architects, sculptors, painters, or careers that requires one to visualise like sailors or pilots (Gardiner, 1978). 2.6.2 Analysing Multiple Intelligences: A Critical Perspective The theory of multiple intelligences has been criticised by mainstream psychology for its lack of empirical evidence and its dependence on subjective judgement (Waterhouse, 2006). The major criticism of the theory is that Gardener’s selection and application of criteria for his ‘intelligences’ is subjective and that a different researcher would likely have come up with different criteria. Gardiner has not provided a test of his multiple intelligences and originally defined it as the ability to solve problems that have value in a particular culture or a learner’s point of interest (Waterhouse, 2006). Gardiner also added a disclaimer that he had no fixed definition of multiple intelligences and that it would be impossible to guarantee a definitive list of intelligences. Furthermore, it cages all the heterogeneous forms of human intelligence into a few categories which makes the theory weak (White, 2019). White (2004) asserts that Gardiner’s multiple intelligence theory was funded by the van Leer Foundation. Sponsored studies tend to be biased in favour of the sponsor’s agenda. Funding sources can influence the design, conduct, publication of research and the way in which research questions are chosen and framed. Bias in research agenda can produce results that support the funder’s point of view which restricts the validity of a study and credibility of the evidence (White, 2004). 1687699 Debora Leal 39 2.7 Right brain and left-brain dominance theory 2.7.1 A brief history and use in education The brain is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. Within each half, particular regions control certain functions. The theory is that people are either left-brained or right-brained, meaning that one side of their brain is dominant (White, 2019). People who are mostly analytical and methodical in their thinking are said to be left-brained. The left brain is more verbal, analytical, and orderly than the right brain. It is better at things such as reading, writing, and computations (Oflaz, 2011). The left brain is also connected to logic, sequencing, linear thinking, mathematics, facts and thinking in words. If an individual tends to be more creative or artistic, you are thought to be right- brained. The right brain is more visual and intuitive. It has a more creative and less organised way of thinking which is linked to imagination, holistic thinking, intuition, the arts, rhythm, nonverbal cues, feelings and daydreaming (Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d). Teachers commonly believe that it is not only important for learners to understand what learning styles work best for them according to their brain dominance, but also for teachers to understand their own neurological strengths and weaknesses so they too can successfully reach every learner by using different teaching techniques better suited to their abilities and interests as in inclusive approach in the classroom (White, 2019). In the 1800s, neurologists investigated the notion that each hemisphere of the brain functioned rather independently of the other. Discoveries by scientists such as Pierre Paul Broca strengthened this myth (Chiron, Jambaque, Nabbout, Lounes, Syrota & Dulac, 1997). Broca found that patients with a specific type of language function all shared damage in the left frontal hemisphere and not the right. This was empirical evidence to prove that the brain has specialised regions for processing and producing information (Knecht, Dräger, Deppe, Bobe, Lohmann, Flöel, & Henningsen, 2000). The problem was that the scientific finding was overgeneralised. Although the brains do have asymmetries when processing sensory data, there is no scientific evidence to prove that specific categories of thinking reside in specific hemispheres (Chiron, et al., 1997). This theory came again into light in the 1960s by the research of the psychobiologist and Nobel Prize winner Roger W. Sperry who noticed differences in https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419 1687699 Debora Leal 40 the brain when he studied people whose left and right brains had been surgically disconnected (Knecht, et al., 2000). While it is true that specific hemispheres of the brain are responsible for generating specific functions like speech, creativity and so on, it takes both hemispheres of the brain to process all of these functions and work together in every cognitive task (Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d). 2.8 Impact of neuromyths in South African education The link between the South African CAPS curriculum and neuromyths lies in the potential influence that these neuromyths can have on educational practices and pedagogical approaches. Instructions for teachers to incorporate common neuromyths is implied in the CAPS document (Department of Basic Education, 2011). The CAPS curriculum aims to provide a framework for quality education, guiding teachers in their teaching practices. However, there is a risk that neuromyths may infiltrate the education system and influence the way teachers approach instruction and assessment. Regarding specific neuromyths, it is important to note that the CAPS curriculum does not explicitly endorse or mention VAK learning styles, right-left brain dominance, Emotional Intelligence, or multiple intelligences as valid frameworks for teaching and learning. The CAPS (2011) document encourages teachers to make use of visual, audio and/ or audiovisual aids such as charts, posters, and images in the classroom to accommodate the various learning styles. On the positive side, incorporating visual aids, images and other multimodal strategies can cater to the diverse learning needs of the students. Inclusive education aims to create an environment where all learners can thrive and achieve their full potential. By recognising and utilising various learning styles, teachers can engage students in different ways, making learning accessible and inclusive. It is important to note that VAK/VARK learning styles within the CAPS curriculum has limitations and potential negative consequences. It perpetuates the myth that students have fixed learning preferences that dictate instructional strategies. Furthermore, it overlooks individual strengths and preferences. To ensure genuine inclusivity, it is crucial for teachers to adopt a more holistic and evidence-based approach that goes beyond relying on learning preferences. https://www.britannica.com/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419 1687699 Debora Leal 41 It is evident in the South African context that teachers are endorsing in neuromyth practices because they are not aware of the academic perspective of neuromyths as well as the perpetuation of these neuromythological falsehoods which can be implied in curriculum documents and teacher training courses and workshops. These concepts have received critique and controversy within the field of education and neuroscience due to the lack of empirical evidence supporting their effectiveness (White, 2004). It is crucial for educators and policymakers to critically evaluate and separate neuromyths from evidence-based educational practices to ensure that the CAPS curriculum promotes effective teaching and learning strategies that are supported by research and best practices in education. While it is known that neuromyths have permeated education, there is little research to the extent of the permeation and the how teachers are utilising neuromyths in the South African context. Thus, to restate, the purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence of neuromyths within the intermediate phase of education in order to bring to light the extent by which neuromyths may be impacting teaching and learning. 2.9 Conclusion This chapter has provided a comprehensive explanation on the origins of neuromyths, the issues and debates surrounding the common neuromyths in education as well as the impact these neuromyths have in education in terms of making education all- encompassing and impeding inclusive education. These arguments provided show the need to find out about the prevalence and understanding of neuromyths amongst teachers in a broader space in the intermediate phase. Furthermore, there is a necessity to investigate how the use of these neuromyths are permeating the educational system and the extent of value it holds in teachers’ pedagogical choices. The next chapter will explore how the research will attempt to collect data by means of mixed methods to expand on our understanding on the perverseness of neuromyths and the influence it has on pedagogical efficacy. 1687699 Debora Leal 42 Chapter Three: Methodology and Research Design 3.1 Introduction The purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence of neuromyths in the intermediate phase in the South African context, specifically in suburban public and private schools based in Johannesburg, as well as the ways in which the common neuromyths are permeating in intermediate education pedagogy. This chapter begins by discussing the research paradigms that serve as the foundation of this investigation. It delves into the theoretical frameworks that guide and shed light on the philosophies that shapes the researcher’s analytical approach. It will also include detailed insights into the research design which encompasses the methodology and structure of the study. It extensively discusses the data collection process, including techniques employed and the instruments utilised to gather information. To ensure the reliability and validity of the findings, it addresses the important topic of trustworthiness of both qualitative and quantitative data. Lastly, it incorporates information on the ethical standards by outlining the steps taken to comply with ethical principles throughout the research. 3.2 Research Paradigm This research project is aligned to the critical theory approach in inclusive education which falls under the social model. According to Petriwskyj (2014), critical theory is a philosophy that involves being critical of the prevailing view of society. In most cases, that means looking closer at beliefs and questioning how our educational system can best offer education to all people (Petriwskyj, 2014). In this case, the interviews provided teachers with an opportunity to reflect on the efficacy of their current teaching practices which assisted in understanding how their learners learn and think deeply about the best ways to teach learners f