1 

  COMPOSING IN CRITIQUE OF NOLLYWOOD SCORING PRACTICES 

 

 Adeyemi Solomon, Oladiran 

   0605471W 

 

 

      Supervisors: Dr Cameron Harris and Dr Chris Letcher 

 

         A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 

  for the degree of Master of Music 

in the Wits School of Arts, Faculty of Humanities, 

  University of the Witwatersrand. 

 

      Johannesburg, October 2021 

 



 2 

Declaration 

I declare that this research report is my own unaided work. It is submitted for the degree of 

Master of Music in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been 

submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other university. 

 

________________ 

15 October 2021 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 3 

Acknowledgements 

An extensive work like this could never have been undertaken by the efforts of one individual. 

Even as teachers, we are indebted to others for the knowledge we possess.  

As a person of faith, I first give thanks to the Almighty One who has seen me through this 

journey. I do not know many people who have had the same kind of emotional, financial, and 

health challenges, that were able to pull through difficult times. In fact, I know many who did 

not. That voice that kept on saying ‘you can do it’ can only be God.  

My learning journey is in great debt to my two supervisors for the many inspirational 

discussions that helped me to see the possibilities of what I can do. I hope one day I will amass 

a little percentage of your wealth of knowledge, not just in music, but in life as a person. To Dr 

Harris, your kind-heartedness, your father-like thoughtfulness, and serious attention to detail 

are qualities I admire and hope to grow a little percentage of someday. Our discussion about 

developing a new section of a piece from an old one took things to another level for me (Ipe 

and Village Dance came from that). To Dr Letcher, your wise and compassionate approach to 

supporting me through constant reworking of the compositions and the writing are much 

appreciated. Your email on breaking monotony was a light-bulb moment (WestWorld would 

not have had a chance without that discussion). Thanks for extending the hand of friendship. 

Thanks also to Grant Olwage for preparing the proposal. 

To my friends, Dr Fareo, John Afolabi, Ilke Alexander, Sunday Ogunniyi, Agba Blessing, 

Bunmi Ajibola, Omotade Lepe, Oladele Ayorinde and Mariam Adeoba who kept on asking the 

important questions about my studies and motivating for me to push, thanks for not keeping 

quiet.  

Towards the end of this project, I lost two good friends by indirect cause of the COVID-19 

pandemic: Bheki Hlatshwayo and Chris Lesapo, who are also graduates from Wits. It would 

have been fun to celebrate with you. My close friend Polomi Olushola, and Lulutho Ngcongolo 

who managed Orchestra at Wits, both flute players who also passed away during this time, are 

remembered. May all your gentle souls rest in peace. 

My father and mother, I thank you for your kindness and constant reminder for the need to 

work. My brothers and sisters, thanks for all your encouragements. My brother Olusegun, 

thanks for helping to secure the footage for my research. Thank you all. 

 



 4 

Abstract 

As a point of departure, this work considers the construction and creative choicese found in 

Nollywood film music. This investigation is motivated in part by critique the author has 

witnessed of this music from outside Nigeria during fifteen years of living and working in the 

music industry in South Africa. The works of notable film scholars like Gorbman (1987) and 

Prendergast (1992) profoundly highlight the theoretical and practical functions of music in 

film. Through these theories and principles, the music of selected Nollywood productions is 

considered. 

The compositional commonalities in the style, in the region, and at the period (1930-2015), 

allow for a theorisation of a shared musical identity since the same resources are at the base of 

these styles. Using these resources, I present a model for using musical resources found in 

Nigerian traditional music to compose for Nollywood (as well as cinema more generally) and 

for the concert stage is presented in both composed and written texts. It is argued that Nigerian 

music identity can be theorized through the use of these common compositional resources. My 

accompanying portfolio of compositions for the stage and screen seeks to give practical, 

creative expression to that whilst also serving as a demonstration of the development of my 

own compositional voice.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 5 

Table of Contents 

Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………… 2 

Acknowledgment………………………………………………………………. …………….3 

Abstract………………………………………………………………………...………...…...4 

List of Figures……………………………………………….……...………….…..…….….. 8 

Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………...………………..…..….12 

1.1 Background to study…………………………………...………………..….....…13 

1.1.1 Importance of Film music……….………….………………....….....…15 

1.2 A framework for defining Nigerian music……………………….....…...……....16 

1.3 Aims…………………………………………………………………..…...….....18 

1.3.1 Nollywood Music and Functions………………………..……....…..18 

1.3.2 Composing for Nollywood………………………………..…....……18 

1.3.3 Composing for Concert Stage……………………………..…..…….19 

1.3.4 Contributing to Scholarship……………………………….….…......22 

 1.4 Rationale………………………………………………………………..……. ...23 

 1.5 Statement of Problem…………………………………………….…………......26 

 1.6 Research Questions………………………………………………….…………..26 

 1.7 Methodology…………………………………………………….………………26 

  1.7.1 Qualitative Case Studies………………………………………………26 

  1.7.2 Data Collection and Analysis…………………….……………...……27 

1.7.3 Assessments……………………..……………….……………..……..28 

  1.7.4 Critical Analysis………………………………..……………..………28 

  1.7.5 Reporting………………………………………..………….….……...29 

  1.7.6 Journaling…………………………………….…………..…………..30 

  1.8 Limitations of study………………….……………………..……..…………... 30 

 1.9 Chapter Outline…………………………………………..………..……………31 

Chapter 2: Analysis of Music in Nollywood Movies.………………..…..………………...33 

2.1 Music in the Early Days of Nollywood…………..…………………………….34 



 6 

2.2 Considering music in select Nollywood films through Claudia Gorbman’s 

‘Principles of Film Music’………………………………………………,,,…………35 

2.2.1 Invisibility…………………………………………………,,,………....36 

2.2.2 “Audibility”…………………………………………………,,,,..……...38 

2.2.3 Emotion……………………………………………………,,,……...….41 

2.2.4 Narrative cueing……………….………………….……,,,………..…..44 

2.2.5 Continuity………………………………………….……,,,……...….…47 

2.2.6 Unity……………………………………………….…,,,……..…....…..48 

2.3 Comedy and musical counterpoint………………………….…,,,………..…..….51 

Chapter 3: Analysis of Selected Live Nigerian Traditional Music…….………...…,,,…… ..54 

 3.1 Sakara Music and Its Origins…………………………….……………,,,………. 56 

3.2 Yusuf Olatunji and His Sakara Music…………………….…………...…,,,……. 59 

 3.3 Resources from Olatunji’s Music ………………………….………………,,,.…. 61 

3.4 Apala Music of Haruna Ishola…………………………….………………...…… 69 

3.5 Resources from Haruna Ishola’s Apala Music…………….…………..………….75 

Chapter 4: Compositions…………………………………………..……………………..….. 87 

 4.1 Improvised Resources………………………………………………………..….. 87
  4.1.1 Rhythms………………………………………………………………………..87 

  4.1.2 Ghost Notes……………………………………………………………..88 

  4.1.3 Rhythmic Perception……………………………………………………90 

  4.1.4 Expansions…………………………………………………………...…92 

  4.1.5 Rhythm of rests……………………………………………………….…95 

  4.1.6 Rhythmic displacement……………………………………………….…96 

  4.1.7 Timelines………………………………………………………………..97 

 4.2 Theorisations……………………………………………………………….…… 98 



 7 

 4.3 New Works…………………………………………………………………….. 103 

 4.4 Composing Live Concert Music…………………………………………….…. 104 

 4.5 Composing Film Music…………………………………………….…….…..… 112 

Chapter 5: Reflection……………………………………………………………..………... 117 

 5.1 Listening to traditional music recordings……..…………………….……….......117 

  5.1.1 Transcribing audio recordings……………………...……………...…118 

  5.1.2 Emotional Impact……………………………………..…….…………119 

  5.1.3 Studying the Transcriptions…………..………………….……………120 

 5.2 Film viewing and analysis…………………….…………..….……………........ 120 

 5.3 Composing in retrospect……………………………….….………....………… 122 

  5.3.1 Arrival…………………………………………..……………………. 122 

  5.3.2 Shepherd……………………………………….…………………….  123 

  5.3.3 Jewa Ki O Jade……………………………….……………………… 124 

 5.4 Scores for Portfolio………………………………………………..…………… 125 

  5.4.1 Consultation During Composition……………………...……………..126 

  5.4.2 Personal Development……………………………………………….. 127 

  5.4.3 Rehearsals and feedback…………………….……………………….. 129 

  5.4.4 Performance and Recording………………………………………… 129  

  5.4.5 Spotting Sessions………………….………………………………….. 130 

  5.4.6 Using sample libraries……………………………………………….. 131 

  5.4.7 Mixing and Mastering………………………………………………..  131 

Chapter 6: Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… 133 

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...………136 

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………148 



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List of Figures   

 

Figure 2.1: The Wedding Party, Opening Theme: 00:00:26’…..……………………………...42 

Figure 2.2: Rattle Snake, Happy Theme: 00:26:25’……………………..…………………... 44 

Figure 2.3: Rattle Snake, Sad Theme: 00:31:40’…………………………………………….. 45 

Figure 2.4: Living in Bondage, Village Dance. 03:53:45’……………………........………... 45 

Figure 2.1: The Wedding Party, Bride Snaps:00:17:20’………………………….…………..51 

Figure 3.1: Sakara Drum Family………………………………………………........……….. 57 

Figure 3.2: Yusuf Olatunji…………………………………………………………....………59 

Figure 3.3: Trochaic rhythm from the bell pattern………………………………….,,,,,,,,…...61 

Figure 3.4: Cross rhythms in Oro Loko Laya………………….…………………,,,,,,,…….. 62 

Figure 3.5a: Second Mode of D Pentatonic from Bolowo Bate………………….……,,,,,,,,...62 

Figure 3.5b: Second Mode of B Pentatonic from Ise Agbe…………………….…,,,,,,,……..62 

Figure 3.5c: Second Mode of C Pentatonic from Oro Loko Laya…………………,,,,,,,…….62 

Figure 3.6a: Phrasing in Ise Agbe……………………………………………..………..,,,,,,,. 63 

Figure 3.6b: Phrasing in Bolowo Bate………………………………………..……,,,,,,,…… 63 

Figure 3.7: Tonal Shifts in Oro Loko Laya…………………………………….…,,,,,,,,……. 63 

Figure 3.8: Droning in Oro Loko Laya…………………………….…………..………,,,,,,,,. 64 

Figure 3.9a: Harmonic Implication in Ise Agbe………………………………..………,,,,,,,,..64 

Figure 3.9b: Harmonic Implication in Bolowo Bate……………………………..…,,,,,,,……64 

Figure 3.10: Melodic Sequence in Bolowo Bate………………………………..……,,,,,,,,….65 

Figure 3.11a: Dovetailing in Olatunji’s Ise Agbe………………………………,,,,,,,………..65 

Figure 3.11b: Dovetailing in Oro Loko Laya………………………………………,,,,,,,……65 

Figure 3.12a: Instrumental Interlude from Oro Loko Laya…………………….……,,,,,,,.….66 

Figure 3.12b: Instrumental Interlude from Bolowo Bate……………………………,,,,,,,,.… 66 

Figure 3.13: Portamento in Ise Agbe………………………………………..……….,,,,,,,.….66 

Figure 3.14: Turns in Ise Agbe………………………………………………………,,,,,,,.….66 

Figure 3.15a: Pitch Bend and Chromaticism in Ise Agbe………………..………….,,,,,,,,,…66 

Figure 3.15b: Pitch Bend and Chromaticism in Ise Agbe…………………..…………,,,,,,,,..67 

Figure 3.15c: Pitch Bend and Chromaticism in Ise Agbe…………………………………….67 

Figure 3.16: Hemiola Effect from Bolowo Bate…………………..……………….……….…67 

Figure 3.17: Heterophony from Oro Loko Laya……………………………………………..68 

Figure 3.18: Call and Response Type A and B from Ise Agbe………….………..………… .68 



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Figure 3.19: Haruna Ishola ……………………………………………………..…………..69 

Figure 3.20a: Adamo……………………………………………………………….……….71 

Figure 3.20b: Adamo’s rhythmic theme from Egbe Owokoniran……….…………….……71 

Figure 3.21a: Kanango………………………………………………………………….….72 

Figure 3.21b: Kanango interlocking pattern from Egbe Owokoniran……………………..72 

Figure 3.22a: Omele Sakara……………………………………………………..…………72 

Figure 3.22b: Omele Sakara line from Ishola’s Egbe Owokoniran, ………………………72 

Figure 3.23a: Shekere………………………………………………………………………73 

Figure 3.23b: Shekere part from Egbe Owokoniran. ………………………………………73 

Figure 3.24a: Igba………………………………………………………………………….73 

Figure 3.24b: Igba part from Egbe Owokoniran. ……………………………….…………74 

Figure 3.25a: Akuba……………………………………………………………….……….74 

Figure 3.25b: Akuba part from Egbe Owokoniran……………………………….………...74 

Figure 3.26a: Agidigbo………………………………………………………….………….75 

Figure 3.26b: Agidigbo part from Egbe Owokoniran. …………………………….……….75 

Figure 3.26a: Opening Theme from Ninu Ese Meji……………………….………….……75 

Figure 3.26b: Opening Theme from Sule Tapa…………………………………….………75 

Figure 3.26a: Opening Theme from Ti A Ba Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu……….……….76 

Figure 3.27a: Middle-ground texture from Sule Tapa……………………………..……….76 

Figure 3.27b: Middle-ground texture from Ti A Ba Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu……..….76 

Figure 3.28a: Foreground texture from Sule Tapa. ……………………………….…….…77 

Figure 3.28b: Foreground texture from Ti Aba Lowo Ka Jeun. ………………….…….….77 

Figure 3.29: Interjections from Ti Aba Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu. ………………….…78 

Figure 3.30: Mixed Metre from Ninu Ese Meji……………………………………….……79 

Figure 3.31a: Shekere Variation…………………………………………………………....79 

Figure 3.31b: Variation in Sule Tapa……………………………………………………....79 

Figure 3.31c: Popular Rhythmic Patterns in Ninu Ese Meji……………………….…….…80 

Figure 3.31d: Rhythmic pattern variation from Ninu Ese Meji………………………….....80 

Figure 3.31e: Variation from Ti Aba lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu. …………………….…80 

Figure 3.31f: Variation of bell pattern in Ti Aba Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu. ……….….80 

Figure 3.32: Standard Patterns in West African music………………………………….…80 

Figure 3.33a: Mixolydian Mode in Sule Tapa. ……………………………………………81 

Figure 3.33b: Mixolydian Mode from Ninu Ese Meji……………………………………..82 

Figure 3.34a: Dorian Mode from Ti Aba Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu. ………………….82 



 10 

Figure 3.34b: Mixolydian Mode in Ti A Ba Lowo Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu………….83 

Figure 3.35: Apala Disco……………………………………………………………….… 83 

Figure 3.36: G fifth Mode Pentatonic in Abudu Benson…………………………………..83 

Figure 3.37: Ambiguous Tonality from Egbe Owokoniran…………………………….....84 

Figure 3.38: Shifting Centre Tone in Egbe Owokoniran…………………………...……..84 

Figure 3.39a: Tonal Shift in Sule Tapa……………………………………………………85 

Figure 3.39b: Tonal Shift in Abudu Benson……………………………………………....85 

Figure 4.1a: Ghost Notes in Ti Aba Lowo Ka Jeun To Dara Sinu………………………..89 

Figure 4.1b: Ghost Notes in Village Dance bars (9-12)…………………………………..90 

Figure 4.2a: Hemiola Subdivisions………………………………………………………..91 

Figure 4.2b: Hemiola Combinations in Hemis Ground…………………….…………..…92 

Figure 4.3: Upward Expansion at beat level in Ipe ati Idahun……………….………..….93 

Figure 4.4: Upward expansion at the rhythm level. ………………………….………..….93 

Figure 4.5: Downward Expansion at beat level in Konkonkolon Expansion….………..…94 

Figure 4.6: Downward Expansion at the rhythm level in Konkonkolon Expansion…...….94 

Figure 4.7: Rhythms of Rest from TimeTags…………………………………………..….95 

Figure 4.8: Rhythmic Displacement from Ko Sile…………………………………..….…96 

Figure 4.9: Rhythmic Displacement from Sule Tapa. …………………………….…..….97 

Figure 4.10: Madende Rhythm. …………………………………………………….….…97 

Figure 4.11: Timeline from Owokoniran Mines. …………………………………..….….98 

Figure 4.12a: Standard pattern in 4/4………………………………………………..….…99 

Figure 4.12b: Shekere pattern………………………………………………………..…....99 

Figure 4.12c: Kolo pattern from Konkonkolon rhythm…………………………..…….…99 

Figure 4.13: Specific pattern from Konkonkolon Expansion. …………………..………..99 

Figure 4.14a: Hemiola and pulse punctuation………………………………………..….100 

Figure 4.14b: Front Tagging in 12/8……………………………………………….……100 

Figure 4.14c: Front Tagging as rhythm in Village Dance…………………………….…101 

Figure 4.14d: Front Tagging as melody in Village Dance………………………………101 

Figure 4.14e: Bell Pattern………………………………………………………….…….102 

Figure 4.14f: Standard pattern in 4/4…………………………………………….………102 

Figure 4.15a: Hemiola combinations in 12/8……………………………………………102 

Figure 4.15b: Hemiola combinations in 4/4……………………………………………..103 

Figure 4.16a: Type A Call and response from Ipe at Idahun…………………….……...107 



 11 

Figure 4.16b: Type B Call and response from Ipe at Idahun………………..…………..108 

Figure 4.16c: Type C Call and response from Ipe at Idahun……………….….………..108 

Figure 4.16d: Type D Call and response from Ipe at Idahun……………………………109 

Figure 4.16e: Type E Call and response from Ipe at Idahun……………………….……109 

Figure 4.17a: Kenneth Nnebue’s Opening Theme from Living in Bondage………….…112 

Figure 4.17b: Redeveloped Opening Theme from Living in Bondage……………….….112 

Figure 4.18: Bell Pattern in Glamour Girls score…………………………………….….114 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 12 

CHAPTER 1 

Introduction 

 

This thesis, consisting of both written text and composed music, explores the use of 

composition resources found in traditional Nigerian music to compose for both film and concert 

music, as a way of articulating a Nigerian identity. As an academic study in composition, I did 

not aim just to write Nigerian music but, by critiquing the compositional practices in 

Nollywood on the one hand and assessing the dramatic suitability of traditional musical 

resources on the other, I present a model of composition for art and film music. This model is 

not intended to be the rule that all Nollywood and concert stage composers must follow, but as 

a viable choice in grounding such creative work in established knowledge.  

 

Composing music that articulates the cultural identities of any culture, for any medium – live 

performance, say, or as an accompaniment to moving images – presents opportunities for the 

composer to bring to bear and creatively experiment with the cultural resources found in such 

cultures. These could include artistic ideas (musical and extra-musical), language, ideas from 

cultural discourse (considering how roles in society mirror the roles of instrumental parts, for 

example), current composition trends, established musicology techniques, and knowledge from 

personal experience. It is not a new idea, as we shall see further in this thesis, that Nigerian art 

music composers have looked to the traditional to find inspiration for their creative work. 

However, there are debates regarding what makes for authenticity in Nigerian or any traditional 

music, and they can be problematic, as highlighted by Sylvanus (2012b: 185–186). My 

approach in this research is not to find the ‘what’, but ‘how’ resources are used in the case 

studies. 

 

Considering traditional music as one of the subsets of the general category of music genres (i.e. 

Jazz, Pop, Traditional, and Classical), I have chosen to explore the following styles of Nigerian 

traditional music as part of my studies. While these styles can be specific to the artists and their 

musical expression, there are general characteristics for these styles regardless of the artist. The 

styles are: 

• Apala and Sakara of the Yoruba ethnic group, representing the West of Nigeria; 

• Goje music, representing the North; and  

• Egedege music, representing the East.  



 13 

This selection allowed me to acquaint myself with music from the three major ethnic groups in 

the country i.e. Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba (Okoh, 2018: [O]). Through this, I have been able to 

identify certain composition resources that are common to the different groups. The genres I 

have most closely analysed in this thesis are Apala and Sakara music. This selection was not 

random but rather based on access and identity in comparison to the other two genres. By 

identity, I mean I am a Yoruba and these two styles (and more) are identified with Yoruba 

people from the western region of Nigeria at large, and particularly with my ancestral origins, 

that is, the Yoruba people from Ogun State. In my childhood years, I remember watching my 

father dance to Sakara music in our living room and singing along to Apala music on other 

occasions. He also invested a lot in the Juju music of Yoruba musician Sunny Ade by buying 

his video and audio recordings. These experiences were my first encounters with the music in 

the form of listening, miming, and dancing. By access, I mean that the cultural resources (for 

example instruments and language) are understandable to me. This is important not because I 

was an expert in this kind of music-making at the beginning of this research but because I was 

not. However, because I had worked with some of these cultural resources before in the context 

of other styles and genres of music, I considered that researching these two genres would be 

worthwhile. Above all, having been away from home for most of my young and adult life, I 

thought this search would bring me a little closer to home.  

  

In the discussion that follows, I present the background to the study of film music in Nollywood 

and how the aim of writing music for Nollywood led me to the path of researching traditional 

music and using these resources to compose for concert stage and screen.  

 

1.1 Background to this study  

As an evolving culture of storytelling, the Nigerian film production industry, Nollywood, 

started out because of necessity – video was a far more accessible and affordable medium than 

celluloid, both in terms of production and consumption (Onuzulike, 2009: 178). Available 

information about the beginnings of Nollywood reveals a dichotomy in opinion between the 

Igbos (typically associated with the eastern regions of the country) and Yorubas (dominant in 

the west). For scholars like Onuzulike (2009) and Ojukwu and Ezenandu (2012), who originate 

from the Eastern region, the birth of Nollywood as a concept is the birth of video-film recording 

on a large scale, beginning with the release of Living in Bondage in 1992. However, according 

to Abiodun (2011: 192), who is from the western region, Yoruba theatres with their long history 



 14 

of performance tradition had already started reworking their stage works for video-film as far 

back as the mid-1980s with the release of Ekun (1986). 

 

Over the past 25 years, Nollywood has experienced an astonishing economic growth in Nigeria 

and internationally, making it the second largest film industry worldwide after Hollywood 

(Igwe, 2015). This growth is attributable to many factors, including West African market size, 

the relatively cheap cost of production, the telling of the everyday stories of the African, 

technological evolution of video-film, and growth of the popular cinema culture (Olayiwola, 

2011; Onuzulike, 2009). This recent growth has been accompanied by an improvement in the 

standard of acting, cinematography, scriptwriting and use of technology as observed in recent 

films like The Wedding Party (2016) and Isoken (2017). However, in Nollywood films, the 

film score is still perceived to lack artistic and technical merit and has failed to keep up with 

the developments in other areas. Joseph argues that Nollywood ‘is still emerging in terms of 

the movie soundtrack and film score’ (2017: 4). Izuzu recorded that ‘not every Nollywood 

soundtrack is crap’ (2016), suggesting nevertheless that the soundtracks to Nollywood films 

are in general not considered highly; a fact widely acknowledged in the public space but hardly 

written about. This creates a gap in the literature on the one hand, and as a direct result on the 

other hand, the lack of reliable data creates a great difficulty in monitoring developments, 

addressing problems and systematically engendering growth within the industry. Sylvanus and 

Eze-Emaeyak also confirm that ‘not much research has been devoted to the study of film music 

in mainstream Nollywood’ (2018: 142). Speaking of the film-score in Nollywood, Onuzulike 

notes that the video recordings (from the early years of Nollywood) showed a lack of ‘the 

inherent human touch that has made filmmaking an intimate experience for the filmmaker’ 

(2015: 26). Sylvanus and Eze-Emaeyak have discussed whether this lack of creativity in 

Nollywood film-scores is because of the ‘one directional film music production structure’, 

which makes the film composer succumb to the demand of the Executive Production Manager 

(2018: 143).  

 

The art of composing film music for Nollywood – through a process that is artistically, 

historically, and poetically grounded – is a craft that exists in an atrophied state, one that is 

barely cultivated by Nigerians. Because of this, according to Joseph, it is also another skill set 

which is frequently “imported” in terms of style and expertise (2017: 3). For example, the film 

score of Ije: The Journey (2010) has a considerable amount of US/European film music. Isoken 

(2017) and The Wedding Party (2016) both have non-diegetic music that seems to imitate a 



 15 

dominant Hollywood scoring style. In other respects, too, both films are derivative of 

US/European forms: in terms of plotting and character, both films (like hundreds of others) 

borrow from the romantic comedy subgenre.  

 

Nollywood film scores also often fail to fulfil the functions of film music. Joseph describes 

them scores as ‘hastily compiled’, which ‘hardly fit snugly into the framework of the movie’. 

They do not…   

efficiently communicate the story, and do not accurately convey emotions of the 

scenes. The existence of this problem is largely identified with the Nollywood 

industry, and as an indirect outcome, there appears to be a significant level of 

inattention to scholarly works on the use of music, and its perceived functions in 

Nollywood movies. (2017: 3-5)  

1.1.1 Importance of Film music 

The importance of having an effective film score cannot be over-emphasised, as has been 

extensively written about in relation to western films, specifically for Hollywood but also for 

the entire history of filmmaking in the west. For example, Neumeyer, surveying the early 

history of film music practices in the US, records that  

the fundamental function of music in the later silent era was to underscore the 

underlying narrative structure of the film by establishing a musical unit of structure, 

the musical cue that extended across individual shots, binding them together into a 

larger unit of narration, the sequence and ‘articulate images’ through 

‘synchronization or musical continuity’. (2014: 20)  

The celebrated film-music composer Max Steiner claimed that at least 25 percent of the success 

of movies from the RKO studio during the 1930s could be credited to the music (Cooke, 2010: 

58). The many ways in which music functions in film has, however, not been explored in terms 

of the workings of Nollywood music.  

 

Film music conventions as we know them are based on a system codified and solidified in the 

films of Hollywood’s ‘golden age’ in the 1930s and 1940s, which had far-reaching influence 

around the world. Much has been written about the multiple functions that music performs in 

the classic Hollywood score. Three functions identified by Copland (quoted in Cooke, 2010:87) 



 16 

are ‘intensifying the emotional impact of any given scene ... creating an illusion of continuity 

... [and] providing a kind of neutral background music’. Gorbman outlines seven principles 

which also help describe the functions of film music. These principles include the invisibility 

of the technical apparatus that produces a film’s underscore, the subordinate position or 

‘inaudibility’ of music in relation to dialogue and image, music as a signifier of emotion itself, 

‘narrative cueing’ that interprets and illustrates the story or indicates a point of view, and a role 

for music to provide formal and rhythmic continuity as well as unity in a film (1987: 73). 

Prendergast also discussed five key functions of film music. They include: evoking time and 

place, creating psychological refinements, providing a background filler, building community 

and providing theatrical build-up (1992: 227-245). Given that the effectiveness of these 

functions of music and the techniques that help to achieve them are well established globally 

(considering their long history in performance and research, which dates to the beginnings of 

the operatic tradition), one can understand why they seem to be ingrained in our thinking and 

as such, have become the ‘norm’. However, with this acceptance of the ‘norm’ seems to have 

come the expectation and uncritical acceptance of a dominant film music style and culture. One 

way to critique this situation is to ask the question ‘are there ways in which we can achieve the 

set functions of music in film by using the music and musical techniques of other cultures, 

including of the people represented in a film?’ So, if we intend to write for Nollywood, the 

question is then, what is Nigerian music and how might it work effectively in a film? An 

additional somewhat provocative question might be: Could Nigerian music be an effective kind 

of film music in a film that does not have a Nigerian setting or feature Nigerian characters? Or, 

how can Nigerian music resources nourish creativity to create something new that is more than 

the sum of its western/Nigerian parts? 

 

1.2 A framework for defining Nigerian music  

For this research, I have coined a simple definition of Nigerian music as music made 

(production) by Nigerians, for Nigerians (consumption) and in Nigeria (location). Music based 

on this definition can be found in different ethnicities across the nation. The simplicity of this 

definition is in the tangibility of the cultural resources that act as frames for the definition. This 

tangible or what one might call the ‘explicit’ aspect of the culture includes: persons (artists and 

audience), location, traditional instruments and traditional costumes that go along with 

performance. The intangible cultural forms include: musical elements (for example specific 

rhythms, metres and tonality), style, language and uses. To this study, a combined use of these 



 17 

different cultural forms helps to create a framework for defining and identifying specific music 

as Nigerian music. 

 

However, this same tangibility that helps to create a framework for our definition and 

identification also creates challenges for the framework because the tangible character of 

cultural resources (for example, a local instrument) allows, for example, for the mobility of 

such instruments beyond a specific geographical boundary and for the instruments that are local 

to other cultures to come into this specific geographical location. Likewise, the intangible 

nature or what one might call the ‘implicit’ of a cultural resource (for example, language and 

tonality) not only allows for it to be used beyond the borders of its origin but also to be modified 

over time, even within its geographical location. To this point, Sylvanus describes our identity 

as ‘plural and to some degree susceptible to re-signification’ (2012b:185). Thus, tangibility is 

a factor that contributes to the evolution of cultural resources and creates a diffusion of strict 

border boundaries (physical and abstract), making these cultural resources less exclusive to a 

geographical location or people. A point I would like to consider here within this framework, 

is the importance of the general populace’s – most, as opposed to a selected few – recognition 

and acceptability. The music within our framework is culturally relatable to the general 

populace who are not actively involved in formal music making but for whom music 

consumption (through passive engagements like singing along, dancing and listening) is part 

of their everyday living at work, home, or social gatherings. Underscoring this point, Forchu 

points out that ‘Nigerian traditional music is completely integrated into the lifestyle of 

Nigerians’ (2012: 211). The content, style, language (artistic and cultural) and themes are not 

devoid of the everyday experiences of the average Nigerian. This description of Nigerian music 

is not all-encompassing of all music in Nigeria, but it provides a framework for traditional 

music. It is on the basis of this framework that I have selected the four styles of traditional 

music given above, which help to geographically cover the North, East and West of the country.  

However, this framework still produces an extensive range of styles within the traditional 

music genres, e.g. ‘Àgídìgbo, Àwúrèbe, Wéré, Àdàmò, Ìjálá, Orin arò, Gùmbe and Kókóma’, 

which are all Yoruba music traditional music styles, and according to Oludare (2018b: 3) they 

have ‘metamorphosed over the years into neo-traditional forms’, which include Apala, Sakara, 

Were, Fuji, etc. However, for pragmatic purposes of further limiting my source material, I 

considered recordings by the following artists who represent specific genres and have personal 

artistic styles. Firstly Haruna Ishola (1919-1983), alias ‘Baba Ngani Agba’, a Yoruba, Apala 



 18 

musician who contributed immensely to the development of Apala music. The style of Apala 

music that Ishola propagated is called ‘apala San-an’ which means ‘cool beat’ (Lasisi, 2012: 

110). Secondly, born in 1909, Yusuf Olatunji, popularly called Babalegba and regarded as the 

icon of sakara music. He played the Goje (one-string fiddle) and sang mostly in the Egba dialect 

of the Yorubas. Before he died in 1978, Olatunji had recorded over 50 albums (Olusoji, 2010: 

20). For these two artists, I studied and made formal analysis of some of their famous 

compositions to be able to understand how compositional resources were used creatively. The 

other artists I listened to for general ideas include: Alhaji Dan Maraya Jos (1946-2015), a Hausa 

solo musician who played the Kuntigi (a small plucked one-stringed instrument) to accompany 

himself while singing (Schuh, 2002:1) and, Queen Theresa Onuorah, who popularised the 

Egedege dance music of the Igbo ethnic group.  

1.3 Aims  

The primary aims of this thesis are to: 

1. Establish the style(s) of composition employed and to identify the functions of music 

in Nollywood films. 

2. Present an alternative creative vision to the existing music practices that dominate 

Nollywood through compositions based on the use of Nigerian traditional music 

composition resources.  

3. Compose concert music using compositional resources from Nigerian traditional music.  

4. Contribute to scholarship on Nigerian music composition and Nollywood film scoring.  

 

1.3.1 Nollywood Music and Functions 

For this part of my aims, I listened to all the music from a selection of Nollywood movies. This 

selection covered the period from 1992 to 2017, giving me some latitude in terms of the 

evolution of styles in film music writing. During this process it was important for me to keep 

my focus on what was written rather than my perception of what was written. This helped 

support objectivity and allowed me to hear the music for what it was.  

I approached the discussion about functionalities through the principles of film music 

composition, mixing and editing described by Claudia Gorbman (1987).   

 

1.3.2 Composing for Nollywood  

Using resources found in the analysed music – for example, timeline development and front-

tagging to write art music for live performance – helps to creatively break away from the 



 19 

confines of the utilitarian functions of traditional music imposed by words or images. It allows 

the composer to creatively explore the capabilities of these resources, imaginatively breaking 

the boundaries of their limitations, freeing the composer to write as s/he desires. This then 

allows for a creative exploration of their narrative potential for storytelling for moving images 

in Nollywood and beyond with the motivation of fulfilling the set functions of film music. It 

allows me, furthermore, to advocate for film scoring processes and compositions that develop 

out of creative intellectual engagement with resources and ideas from Nigerian music culture, 

and to explore the suitability of this material for screen music. I thus aim to present an 

alternative creative vision to the existing music practices that dominate Nollywood. 

 

Even though Nollywood has made significant strides since its inception in the areas of 

storyline, cinematography, costume design, picture quality, sound quality and narration, the 

Nollywood film score still leaves much to be desired. Perceived failings in the use of music in 

Nollywood films, as I have discussed above, centre mainly around artistic and technical issues. 

To then address the concern of how to create effective nondiegetic music for Nollywood, I 

analysed a selection of movies from the beginnings of Nollywood to explore how film scores 

were written, how they functioned and evolved. I also looked at the challenges from technical 

and artistic points of view. I did this to establish the style(s) of composition employed, to 

identify the functions of music in Nollywood films, and to assess the effectiveness of these in 

relation to each other. A framework for the selection of films for this research was: the films 

had to be produced in Nigeria by Nigerian directors and cast living in Nigeria, for the Nigerian 

public and under the umbrella of the Nollywood industry. The films that I consider include 

examples from the early Nollywood period and more recent films: Living in Bondage (1992) 

by Kenneth Nnebue, Glamour Girls (1994) by Chika Onukwufor, Rattlesnake (1995) by 

Amaka Igwe, Ije: The Journey (2010) by Chineze Anyaene, October 1 (2015) by Kunle 

Afoloyan The Wedding Party (2016) by Kemi Adetiba, and Isoken (2017) by Jade Osiberu, 

 

1.3.3 Composing for concert stage  

To explore the creative potential of compositional resources from Nigerian traditional music 

for concert music, I had to identify and to characterise the natures of Nigerian music under 

study. One way to classify Nigerian music is to use the ‘tripartite scheme’ common in 

musicology; that is, folk (for example, Apala and Egedege), popular (for example, Afrobeat 

and Juju) and art music (including western-style choral and instrumental) (Agawu, 2003: xv 

and 2016: 49). Alternatively, one could speak about artist-specific styles as they relate to the 



 20 

larger category of style. For example, Salawa Abeni and Batile Alake both sing Waka but there 

are stylistic differences in their performances (Olusoji, 2010). As stated by Mogaji (2015) it is, 

however, more consistent with everyday practice in Nigeria to provide…’.  On the one hand, 

this classification caters for differences within the same genre practised across different ethnic 

groups, and on the other hand it caters for genres that have no specific names but are associated 

with an ethnic group. Examples of such rubrics are: Tiv music (Lane, 1954), Hausa music 

(Adamu, 2014) and Ibibio music (Akpabot, 1975). It is also quite common to name genres of 

music with the name of an instrument. For example, Sakara, a music of the Yorubas, is named 

after the membranophone instrument called the sakara (Lasisi, 2012).  

 

Recognising and identifying with any cultural form (for example, art, fashion, and music) 

within a culture is based on familiarity with the cultural resources in that culture. In the case of 

music, our knowledge of cultural resources as insiders or outsiders with initiated or uninitiated 

ears and level of understanding gained through engagement with these resources will play an 

important role in being able to recognise Nigerian music at its core. Experiencing music 

through intentional listening, analysis (theoretical and practical), performance and reading 

(about the music and its culture) plays a very important role in developing a good understanding 

of the music.   

 

To capture the essence of Nigerian music in a composition, I transcribed recordings of music 

from Haruna Ishola and Yusuf Olatunji on staff notation and this enabled me to see from an 

analytical point of view how their music worked theoretically and practically. This kind of 

analysis from transcription allows us to examine the textual relationship between the multiple 

voices in the music, and this helps with understanding the structural details in a composition. I 

embarked on this composition project equipped with this detailed analysis of the inner 

workings of the music of these artists, and with the knowledge of tools and trends in the 

academic study of music composition. This helps to envision, create, and develop art music for 

different purposes (for example, moving images, sound installation, and storytelling). I 

embarked on this composition endeavour experimenting, and creating music for live 

performance. I contextualised the music I composed by grounding my compositions in 

resources identified from Nigerian traditional music. In this process, I sought to answer 

questions such as: in what creative ways can the standard bell rhythm as identified by Akpabot 

(1986: 32) and King (1960: 51), and common in Nigerian music, or the dundun drum ensemble 

function as the basis for effective music?  



 21 

 

This composition project will suggest ways in which Nigerian music as an example of an 

African music culture can provide inspiration and content for African music compositions for 

concert and film music. In this, my work follows in a well-established tradition of Nigerian art 

composition that draws on traditional African music. The beginning of art music in Nigeria 

dates to the turn of the 20th century with the musical output of Dr. Ekundayo T.K. Phillips, who 

is regarded as the foremost art music composer in Nigeria (Sadoh, 2010: 488, and Sylvanus 

2012b: 184). In an article about Nigerian art music composers, Sadoh (2010: 488-492), 

categorised Nigerian art music composers according to their styles of composition, which 

conveniently delineates their period of active production as well. These categories are: 

i. The Golden Age of Church Music (1900-1950): These were mostly 

indigenous church musicians who wrote sacred music, the foremost of them 

being Dr. Ekundayo Phillips (1884-1969). Others include: Rev. J.J. 

Ransome-Kuti (1855-1930), Rev. T.A. Olude (1908-1980), T.A. Bankole 

(1900-1978), Dayo Dedeke (1921-1994), etc. They wrote tonal music for 

western musical instruments such as piano, harmonium or organ, and the 

form, harmony, and style were European too.  

ii. The Age of Concert Music (1950-1960): The foremost composer of this era 

was Fela Sowande (1905-1987) whose expansive musical output extended 

into instrumental and sacred music. He also introduced the European 

chromatic style into the lexicon of Nigerian traditional music. 

iii. The Age of Atonality (1960s-to present):  These are musicians who were 

trained at institutions in London and America and can be described as 

‘composer-ethnomusicologists’ because of their extensive training in these 

areas. With the focus on ‘cultural renaissance and the search for nationalistic 

identity’, these musicians researched Nigerian traditional music for 

inspiration for their compositions and scholarly works. The music in this 

period has employed atonality in different ways and incorporated more 

indigenous instruments than the earlier periods. Musicians in this category 

include: Samuel Akpabot (1932-2000), Ayo Bankole (1935-1936), Akin 

Euba (1935-2020), Joshua Uzoigwe (1946-2005), Godwin Sadoh (b. 1965). 

The unavailability in the public domain of the recorded music (for example on Youtube) or the 

sheet music of the atonal works of the third-generation composers discussed above poses a 



 22 

little challenge to engage with Sadoh’s meaning of atonality within the context of Nigerian art 

music with profundity. For example, I would have loved to know what kinds of atonal resources 

were used, how it was received by the community of art music enthusiasts, and what the music 

meant for scholarship in Nigeria. 

 

1.3.4 Contributing to Scholarship  

At the stage of proposing this research and up to the point of completion, there is still a 

considerable gap to be filled in scholarly work on Nigerian music composition techniques and 

on Nollywood. Of course, there are practical compositions in art music, and traditional music 

exists all over the country, and some notable scholars/composers have written ‘about’ the art 

of music composition, analysis of Nigerian music, techniques of composing in these styles of 

Nigerian music. These include Euba (1967), Multiple Pitch Lines in Yoruba Choral Music. 

Using examples of songs from the ‘Ijesha’ people of Yoruba ethnic group, Euba discussed how 

polyphonic structures work in selected music and what the possible sources of polyphonic 

influences may be. In Cross-Cultural Expressions in the Music of Joshua Uzoigwe, Sadoh 

(2016) discussed the European and African influences on Uzoigwe’s compositions. He 

specifically highlighted the use of anhemitonic scales like pentatonic, hexatonic and heptatonic, 

and the use of short melodic intervals to ‘evoke melodic and harmonic nuances in Igbo music’. 

(2016: 101). For his dissertation titled, Polyrhythm as Integral Feature in African Pianism: 

Analysis of Piano Works by Akin Euba, Georg Ligeti and Joshua Izoigwe, Oluranti (2004) 

explored the polyrhythmic nature of African music. His summation was that polyrhythms are 

not exclusive to African music but the way this feature is being used extensively and constantly 

is the identifying factor in African music. He described rhythmic structures in African music 

as having the elements of ‘ostinato, repetition of rhythmic patterns, the use of the isochronous 

pulse temporal system, absence of measure system based on an accentual matrix etc.’ and the 

polyrhythms occur within this structure. (Oluranti, 2004: 63).  

While many scholars and writers have written for concert hall and other media, not much has 

been written for or about Nollywood film music composition. This is partly because Nollywood 

– as an established industry – is still relatively new. Merging interest between musicology and 

Nollywood’s aesthetics will still take some time. This research work intends to contribute to 

filling this gap in literature.    

 



 23 

1.4 Rationale 

During my undergraduate studies at Unisa, I was introduced to an African art music 

composition titled White Man Sleeps by Kevin Volans, performed by the Kronos Quartet. The 

music was so captivating that it created in me the desire to know more about this way of 

composing, and possibly to write this kind of music. I soon got to know the Amadinda music 

from Uganda, Mbira music from Zimbabwe and the works of several composers from South 

Africa, including Mzilikazi Khumalo and Lebo M. In the cadet group of the Johannesburg 

Philharmonic Orchestra, we played the music of Paul Hanmer and other African composers. 

These experiences were my initiation into African art music, and they continued to whet my 

appetite for knowledge about how this kind of music is written.  

Put simply, the rationale for embarking on this research is to open awareness of the latent 

possibilities in traditional Nigerian music resources for new film and concert music, and to do 

this by critiquing the identity of the music and the composition practices in Nollywood. There 

is a popular belief that in order to depict a place and time in film music all we need to do is to 

use associated instruments, style and maybe tonality. However, this can be superficial, 

considering that there is more to music composition and cultural identity than its tangibility. 

For example, west African music is not just about playing the talking drum, Zimbabwean music 

is not just about playing the Imbira and Scottish music is not just about playing the bagpipes. 

To create music that is based on Nigerian culture at an intellectually satisfying depth, one must 

answer the question of what Nigerian music is practically and how it is put together in 

composition and in performance.   

In the overarching rationale for embarking on this project, the idea of musical identity surfaces 

as a theme. According to Poder and Kiilu, music- making is a ‘social activity’ and an important 

factor in the development of an individual’s sense of identity. It is an important ‘channel of 

communication that gives opportunities to share emotions, intentions and meanings’ (2015: 

1705). Frith argues that the concept of musical identity idealises one’s self and the social world 

one inhabits but that it is always real and enacted in musical activities (1996: 123). It is thus 

well established that musical identity is a shared social ideology, a common musical 

denominator within a group of people, however that group is defined.  

Having observed the kind of music played in youth and non- professional orchestras that I have 

been involved with, and listened to the film scores of Nollywood productions, it seems to me 

that leaders of these orchestras and film directors in Nollywood are not critically engaging the 



 24 

wealth of musical resources available in Nigerian traditional music to articulate the possible 

Nigerian musical identities. However, Nigeria has rich musical traditions that can be harnessed 

to produce new art musical forms. Olusoji, for example, suggests that the folk and traditional 

dances of Nigeria can play important roles in the development of art music (2010: x). For this 

project I take my lead from this suggestion. The importance of considering identity matters 

within the context of composition is also an important aspect of my rationale: to engage with 

Nigerian traditional music in order to create film scores for Nollywood so that Nigerian musical 

identities are effectively articulated.  

Except for Emaeyak Sylvanus’s numerous publications (2012a, 2012b, 2017; and Sylvanus 

and Eze-Emaeyak, 2018), and that of Joseph (2017), there have been only a few general 

commentaries about music in Nollywood by writers – mostly from outside the film-

composition field. For example, Onuzulike (2009), Ajiwe and Chukwu-Okoronkwo (2015), 

and Madichie (2010) all talk about music in Nollywood, but these writers have mostly made 

peripheral comments about the sound in Nollywood, probably because they are not film 

composers. As a musician and music researcher, I hope to provide the kind of analyses of and 

insight into the film-scores that commentators who are not trained in film-scoring practices 

cannot. The films that I have selected for analysis represent the time span of the evolution of 

Nollywood. For example, Living in Bondage (1992) is regarded as the beginning of Nollywood 

and Isoken (2017) can be considered as typical of recent films, considering its quality standard. 

Because the scores in these films have over the years defined Nollywood musical practice, I 

will be able to trace developments in film-scoring practices through appraising their music.  

I intend to subject the compositional resources I have identified in the recordings of and the 

literature on Nigerian music to art music and film-music composition analysis. This will allow 

me to create a model for film-scoring for Nollywood that is not only grounded in Nigerian 

musical traditions, but that grows out of it. The Nigerian musicians that I selected for this study 

represent the foremost proponents of the genres within which they work. For example, Haruna 

Ishola received a national honorary award as the ‘ambassador of apala music’ in recognition of 

his efforts in developing the genre (Olusoji, 2010: 3). As at the time of this writing, there is 

very little scholarly work on these musicians available internationally.  

The other component of the creative work for this project, that is using the same composition 

resources for concert music, is grounded in the following rationale. Having performed with 

youth orchestras and non-professional orchestra groups for roughly a decade in Johannesburg 



 25 

and leading the Music Enlightenment Project (MEP) (a community project that has its own 

youth orchestra ensemble), I have observed the response of participants at rehearsals and the 

audience members to orchestra music performances. I have noticed that audiences react more 

enthusiastically or contemplatively when pieces that articulate their identities are performed, 

and that both children and young adult performers have more emotional involvement in these 

kinds of pieces. Thus, this kind of music played in ensembles can serve as a source of 

motivation for the participants involved. Additionally, through my work with youth ensemble 

projects, I have seen that there is not much focus on composing music for these groups (at least 

in South Africa), and where there are re-arrangements of popular western orchestra works for 

youth ensembles, most of the repertoire still does not articulate the musical identities of the 

participants and audience (in this case, mostly black South Africans).  

This idea of music and identity became more real for me in 2012 as I got to know more about 

the El Sistema programme from Venezuela which was established in 1975 by Jose Abreu 

(Baker, 2014: 15). As I followed this programme and met people who had been trained under 

it, one point that became clear to me is how it harnesses local musical traditions and applies 

these to orchestral music compositions alongside popular western classical music for the 

training of children in orchestra practice. The impact of this strategy is evident in the way the 

children, youth and audiences respond to the live performances and to the El Sistema 

programme in general. In an article for The Guardian, Marshall Marcus describes an 

experience he had in 2006 watching an El Sistema orchestra of about 600 children aged 10-14 

playing a Tchaikovsky Symphony and Second Danzon by Arturo Marquez. Concerning the 

latter, Marcus commented that the orchestra ‘swayed together to the music, utterly comfortable 

in a discipline that was completely foreign to their parent’s generation’. This piece, says 

Marcus, ‘has become a party piece for most Venezuelan youth orchestras’ (2009). I have had 

similar experiences, for example of youth orchestras performing an arrangement of a West 

African popular tune imbued with ‘standard patterns’ as discussed by Akpabot (1986: 32) and 

King (1960: 51), which resulted in a party-like euphoria when the piece was played.  

The El Sistema example and my experience with working with youth orchestras in 

Johannesburg provide another reason for pursuing a project like this in the hope that through 

my compositions, I can encourage African composers to harness local musical resources, not 

just for professional orchestras in the concert hall but for non-professional and youth 

ensembles, which are in abundance. If these compositions are conceived in ways that articulate 



 26 

the cultural identities of the participants, there is the probability of encouraging and sustaining 

the participation of the community as well. This is because music making – as a cultural 

phenomenon – can articulate the stories that depict the lives of the performers, audience, and 

the way of life of the people, their values and belief systems. Garfias supports this claim saying 

that music ‘grows out of culture, based on whatever tradition has been inherited along with all 

the modifications that have taken place’. In addition, music ‘adds to the culture and is an 

important form and avenue for personal and group expression in it’ (2004: 7).  

 

1.5 Statement of Problem 

As discussed above, film music should perform certain functions in its service to the narrative. 

Film itself as a medium transcends cultural boundaries, and regardless of the culture, film 

music needs to adhere to certain standards. The aesthetics of achieving these standards is where 

Nollywood film music is lacking, and as I have discussed above, this can be quite unsettling. 

 

1.6 Research Questions 

1. What are the perceived problems in Nollywood film music writing?  

2. How can I develop my composition skills and voice, drawing on a selection of 

Nigerian and western music approaches to compose music for screen and for 

concert stage?  

 

1.7 Methodology  

As planned, I critiqued existing music traditions in Nollywood to propose creative models for 

composing music for Nollywood and concert music. To achieve this, my first step in the data 

collection process was to study a select number of Nollywood films that represent the time 

span from 1992, when Nollywood started, to the present. The films in this selection were 

popular around their time of release, they were directed by famous directors, and they 

employed renowned actors. Considering the expertise that was already available in academic 

and commercial music (as evident in the musical productions of the time), there is no doubt 

that expertise would have been available for Nollywood if resources had been channelled to 

them.  

 

1.7.1 Qualitative Case Studies  

Qualitative study also supports the listening to and analysis of traditional music, as discussed 

in Aims, above. The use of case studies allows me to focus on the main subject matter: the 



 27 

composition of music and how it functions within the context of Nollywood, with depth of 

analysis. In general, according to Zaidah Zainal, a case studies approach allows for the 

examination of data ‘within context of its use’ and describes ‘data in real-life environment’ 

(2007: 4). An example from film music studies that used a qualitative case study approach is 

Chris Letcher’s study of the film-music in Goodbye Bafana. Here Letcher reveals how a 

composer pursued the search for a ‘pure South African music’ for a South African movie (2013: 

165).  

 

1.7.2 Data collection and analysis 

I used several methods to collect and analyse data for the purpose of description and criticism 

before deciding on their usefulness for my own compositions. The first step involved close 

watching and listening. According to James Buhler this involves viewing the entire film at least 

twice, viewing specific scenes numerous times, taking written notes of observations, and 

making comments or observations (2010: 116). At this stage, even though my most important 

concern was the non-diegetic music, I observed the diegetic music as well. I paid close attention 

to the musical cues, first to observe how they functioned in the film world, and second to 

analyse the music compositions on their own to see how they had been put together.  

 

The need to answer the question of how the music worked allowed me to take the music itself 

within its context as the starting-point of my analysis, as suggested by Bent and Pople (2001). 

According to Kerman, ‘analysis must be directed to the explication of the work of art as an 

individual entity, not to the demonstration of general principles,’ and, he emphasises, ‘must 

always reflect a critical attitude towards the piece’ (1985: 68). Through descriptive analysis, I 

have provided written explanation of certain musical moments in the film scenes I analysed 

and support this with a table of columns that shows times and events on screen. An example of 

this tool can be found in Buhler’s analysis of the music for Catch Me if You Can (2010: 118-

120). In reporting the analysis, Buhler recommends extra musical information that may help to 

contextualise the music in the film. This may include background and general information for 

context, plot synopsis, a table of cues, a general description of sound elements, a general 

evaluation of the soundtrack, and a description of the music’s narrative functions (2010: 116). 

For the traditional music recordings, I undertook critical listening to, and analysis of, how the 

different elements of the music worked on their own and with other elements in the music. 

Being able to determine what elements were used, how they were used, and probably why they 

were used in the ways they were used had a bearing on all the compositions for this project.  



 28 

1.7.3 Assessments  

In assessing the effectiveness of the film-music for the images, I relied on technical and 

aesthetic standards that established film composers have suggested to determine how 

Nollywood productions have positioned themselves in relation to standards of film music 

production. Assessing the effectiveness of Nollywood film scores against a global standard is 

important, as Mark Slobin records that there are ‘standard practices and devices that you can 

expect viewers to understand’ when considering filmmaking as storytelling (Slobin, 2008: viii). 

Examples of questions I asked include: Does the music perform an ethnographic function? 

Does the music articulate narrative structures? Does the music perform continuity functions? 

These questions, amongst others, stem from recommendations by acclaimed film composers 

on the functions of film music as mentioned in the literature review. In this assessment process, 

I took into consideration Buhler’s advice to ‘position that music appropriately within the 

context of the film’s mode of presentation,’ suggesting that one of the ‘most important skills 

for film-music and film-sound study is the ability to alternate … between a “normal,” open but 

critical mode of film viewing and biased mode that gives particular attention to music’ (2010: 

126-127).  

 

1.7.4 Critical Analysis  

For a structural understanding of the music itself, I took Buhler’s descriptive analysis further 

to include explanation of the formal compositional ideas of the music. In this undertaking, I 

applied ‘structural listening’ which according to Richard Middleton is ‘based on the 

proposition that understanding is directly proportional to the ability to grasp cognitively all the 

details of a work’s underlying structure and their relationships’ (1993: 187). Possible structures 

that could help with a cognitive or theoretical understanding of the works include form and 

phrasing, harmony, and scale. These can be brought to bear in the practice of the music. The 

kind of analytical method I used – which included note transcription, identifying of structural 

devices like tonal centre, phrase structures, melodic characteristics and rhythmic characteristics 

– falls under the broad rubric of ‘formal analysis’ as defined by Robert Gauldin (2004). This 

type of analysis, according to Kerman, is concerned with ‘structure’ in terms of ‘what makes 

the compositions work, what general principles and individual features assure the music’s 

continuity, coherence, organisation or teleology’ (1985: 61). However, formal analysis only 

provided a portion of the picture here. Some critical interpretation of the relationship between 

music and visuals with an eye to deconstructing implicit narratives that arise because of the 

interaction between these elements was done. Close listening and comparison tools were useful 



 29 

here, and providing transcriptions (where needed) of the relevant musical ideas (structures and 

elements) helped to show theoretical differences in style.  

 

1.7.5 Reporting  

An important step in the compositional process was to study and analyse select examples of 

Nigerian musical traditions to identify musical resources and ideas for the purpose of drawing 

on them as source material for writing music for Nollywood and for concert music. The sources 

that I consulted are the traditional music from specific musicians from three ethnic groups 

working in different genres, Nollywood films, and the established literature on Nigerian music. 

For each of the musicians, I selected albums that spanned their career through sampling. These 

musicians represent the three largest ethnic groupings in Nigeria – Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo. 

They therefore afford considerable distribution in terms of culture coverage; although I am 

aware that my sample did not include music traditions from marginalised cultures. From 

recordings made by these artists, I identified aspects of their personal style. Here too, I used 

close and structural listening – as discussed above – to identify the musical hallmarks of their 

style. Some of this work necessitated transcription – for example, the relationship between 

polyrhythms and phrasal tendencies. The compositional ideas I identified from these 

recordings, for use in my own creative work, were scored in staff notation. However, I am 

aware that standard staff notation is not sufficient to capture the idiosyncratic character of ideas, 

so where needed, I supported the staff notation with explanatory written descriptions.  

 

In a parallel process to the analytical listening, I consulted literature on Nigerian traditional 

music to further identify established compositional ideas such as polyrhythms, melo-rhythm, 

scale construction and instrumental functions in ensembles. I also considered the possibility of 

how these ideas might be collated for use in my compositions. In instances where the 

information from the established literature matched my analytical observations from the audio 

recordings, there was a strong case for me to use this musical idea in my compositions.  

 

After the data was analysed and represented through transcription and written description, I 

began to explore it compositionally for expressive possibilities beyond its regular uses. For the 

development of musical ideas, there are various technical composition possibilities that I used 

in this process. Most of these techniques have been theoretically developed in western art music 

but some are perceptible in African music and music from other cultures in the world. A 

challenge for me was to apply these techniques in ways that meant the outcomes did not sound 



 30 

like conventional western and film music. Keeping the core of the process grounded in African 

musical sensibilities and expressions was vital.  

 

One major source for the compositional resources and ideas was the audio and video recordings 

by established Nigerian musicians who are major proponents of well-known traditional music 

genres.  

 

1.7.6 Journaling  

Throughout this process, I have kept a working journal documenting my activities from data 

collection to analysis, through creative experimentations and compositions. According to 

Bashan and Holsblat, reflective journaling constitutes the point of departure for the ‘writer’s 

experience and a way to return to it’ and is beneficial for ‘developing meta-cognitive abilities’, 

‘self-orientation’ and ‘processes of personal learning’ (2017: 2). In a practical study such as 

this, journaling my feelings and experiences, as per Dyment and O’Connor, helped to ‘make 

the connection between theory and practice’ (2011: 82). Documenting my thoughts, feelings 

and activities provided me with valuable information on the progress, challenges, and 

developments that were needed for further direction, self-criticism, and problem solving even 

while the project was ongoing. Woronchak studied the value of reflective journaling with 

advanced piano students and records its benefits as including ‘developing critical awareness 

and new perspective, problem solving skills and independent learning skills’ (2016: ii). The 

purpose of this journaling was not as an autoethnographic approach to research but to document 

how the research process developed, how problems were addressed and what major changes 

occurred through learning. This was valuable for the reflection at the end of the thesis and for 

further studies.  

 

1.8 Limitations of Study  

A limitation during this research was the unavailability of Nigerian traditional instruments in 

their physical form due to the geographical location from which I conducted my research. Had 

they been available, I could have explored the use of extended techniques, for example, as used 

in contemporary western art music to tap into the unusual expressive possibilities of the 

physical composition of the instruments. Having the dundun ensemble instruments like gangan 

and skilful players together in a workshop over a few days exploring and developing these 

creative extended possibilities would have been an ideal scenario. The implication of not 

having this opportunity during my research is that I had to focus more on the non-physical 



 31 

resources and compositional ideas for the concert music and film music, exploring available 

samples of traditional instruments or ones that sound closest to them. Another barrier was 

language. As a non-speaker of Hausa and Igbo languages, I could not access the deeper 

meanings and use of compositional resources the way I accessed those from the Yoruba 

language culture. For me, the first level of access into the depth into any work of art is language 

(and I say this figuratively and metaphorically).  

 

1.9 Chapter Outline 

 

In Chapter 2, I present a review of selected Nollywood movies as a way of critiquing music 

practices in Nollywood. I base my discussion on Gorbman’s seven principles of film music 

(1987). These principles enabled me to: understand how music was used, how it had developed 

over the years, and appraise the effectiveness of the scoring in performing the established 

functions of music in film. The work of notable film music scholars like Chion, Kassabian and 

Slobin, to name a few, helped me to situate an academic discussion on Nollywood film music 

in established theories.  

 

In Chapter 3, through listening, transcription, and musical analysis, I explore the works of 

selected traditional musicians in my quest for traditional music resources. Through short 

biographical details, I show the historical context of the music genres and through short 

excerpts, I show in text the compositional resources I found in the music. I discuss styles I 

found to be specific to their genres and how musical identity was developed. 

 

In Chapter 4, I discuss the different composition resources I have used in my compositions and 

the thought-process of creating these compositions for art and film music. The compositions 

were created with deliberate use of the resources from the Nigerian tradition music genres that 

I studied in a bid to create a model for identity in composition. 

 

In Chapter 5, I reflect on the trajectory of the compositional project in total, including the 

composition process, the editing process, the recording the mixing and mastering. I reflect, too, 

on my learning and hopes for the application of this learning. 

 

In this chapter, I have given a brief background to this study, as we as an in-depth discussion 

on my aim and rationale for embarking on this research. For effective study, I limited my 



 32 

selection of material to three styles within the framework that I designed to identify Nigerian 

traditional music. While discussing my rationale, I highlighted the importance of music in 

Hollywood and by extension Nollywood. I also shed some light on the background to the 

practice of art music in Nigeria and how my work relates to the established culture of art music. 

I concluded the chapter with details of my methodology in collecting, interpreting, analysing, 

and reporting. 



 33 

CHAPTER 2 

     Analysis of music in Nollywood Movies 

  

As with other film industries, including Hollywood and Bollywood, film music has played a 

vital storytelling role in Nollywood films for over two decades.  

 

One of Hollywood’s leading mid-20th century composers, Bernard Herrmann, neatly described 

some important functions of music in narrative films:  

music on the screen can seek out and intensify the inner thoughts of the characters. 

It can invest a scene with terror, grandeur, gaiety, or misery. It can propel narrative 

swiftly forward or slow it down. It often lifts mere dialogue into the realm of poetry. 

Finally, it is the communicating link between the screen and the audience, reaching 

out and enveloping all into one single experience (Penn, 1990: 47). 

These functions are no less true in Nollywood than in Hollywood.   

 

In this chapter, through an appraisal of select films, I look at the functions of film music in 

Nollywood using Gorbman’s seven principles of composing, mixing, and editing of classical 

Hollywood music as a framework for comparison. Treating the films as texts, and the different 

components, i.e. picture and sound and their constituent parts, as components of the text, I 

provide a brief textual and musical analysis in order to explore the music’s functions in the 

selected films. As Chion reminds us, cinema is a ‘palimpsestic art form’ and ‘you cannot study 

a film’s sound independently of the image’, or vice versa (2009: xi). Through the application 

of some established film music theories drawn from Hollywood film music practices, I explore 

the roles and functions of music in the Nollywood film industry.   

 

Kassabian recognises that films, as a product of culture, do not exist in isolation. For their 

perceivers, they exist ‘within a web of textuality’ of experience beyond the films themselves 

in time and space (2001: 49). This creates a much larger context in which meanings in films, 

and of films can be derived. The perceiver’s experience of a film, and the meanings generated 

from them are more likely to be ‘mobile and intermittent’ than consistent (2001: 86). Indeed, 

films may well generate new meanings when viewed many years after their first release, and 

we may appraise old works with fresh insights. Adding a consideration for context, one can 

include Chion’s (1994) conception of cinema as a system in which music and visuals 



 34 

synergistically situate and re-situate each other in multiple ways. Similarly, Mera and Morcom 

argue that ‘as soundtrack and visuals are matched, each re-contextualises the (de-

contextualised) other’ (2009: 6).  

 

In any creative work, it is impossible to fully know the intention of the artist/composer, without 

the artist/composer making this public. For this study, my interest is less on working out what 

the authorial intentions were in the production of the case studies than considering how they 

might be perceived by audiences; one of the joys of engaging critically with works of art is for 

perceivers to bring their own meanings to the work. This allows for fresh ideas and an ever-

evolving reception history of the work because, according to Kassabian, these engagements 

between film and perceivers are ‘conditioned’ by the perceivers’ knowledge of, and 

relationship to a ‘wide range of musics’ in and outside film. (2001: 2).   

 

In my position as a perceiver, I recognise my level of competence as ‘growing’ since the idea 

of ‘competence’ as described by Kassabian is a ‘culturally acquired skill’ (2001:20), and as a 

skill, it is possessed in varying degrees even by people from the same culture. This skill of 

competence, according to Kassabian is what is needed for consistency in ‘encodings and 

decodings of film music’ (2001: 20).  

 

 

2.1 Music in the Early Days of Nollywood 

In comparison with Hollywood film music production, film music culture in the early days of 

Nollywood was developed through the practices of informally trained musicians and studio 

engineers (Sylvanus, 2017: 124-134). Like their counterparts in drama, the strategy was to use 

foreign sitcom productions as masters to copy, albeit using local resources for story and music. 

What this means is that the intricate details of composing, mixing, and editing as we know it 

now were not formally learnt or approached from a theoretical point of view but developed out 

of practicalities. One can only imagine that in Nollywood’s beginnings, music was a matter of 

‘plugging the holes’, as was sometimes the case in the early synchronised sound films.  

The films I have selected for analysis in this chapter were widely known in Nigeria at the time 

of their release. These are the films that introduced most of the major characters whose 

personality types shaped the culture of Nollywood. For example, Living in Bondage (1992) 

introduced major actors like Kanyo O. Kanayo, Kenneth Okonkwo and Bob Manuel. Rattle 



 35 

Snake (1995) introduced Nkem Owoh and Francis Duru. An historical quest into the evolution 

of film music in Nollywood must start from a consideration of Living in Bondage, produced 

by Kenneth Nnebue and directed by Chris Obi Rapu, which according to Bada (2019) is the 

first film to have been produced under the Nollywood brand. Other films in my selection 

include: Glamour Girls (1995), Rattle Snake, October 1 (2014), Wedding Party (2016) and 

Isoken (2017). In terms of period, these films were also very important in demarcating the Old 

(1992-2012) and the New (2012 to present) Nollywood. While chronology may be a useful 

divider between Old and New Nollywood, production values and marketing strategies help to 

clarify the difference. As discussed by Passchier (2013: 64-72), Old Nollywood was 

characterised by ‘creative atrocities such as copyright infringement, plagiarism, bad sound, 

melodramatic acting, depreciation, piracy and general barbarism’, New Nollywood 

productions in contrast have ‘well-polished aesthetics as evidenced by the exquisite 

cinematography, compelling and subtle performances from actors, tasteful production design 

and a sophisticated modern twist in the scriptwriting’. In the terms of marketing, while Old 

Nollywood films were produced directly on VCD (video compact disc), New Nollywood 

looked to film festivals and theatre openings before production on DVDs. The films selected 

for this research were so successful that they brought in handsome revenues and promoted the 

careers of the actors and actresses featured in them. For example, according to Bamidele (2007: 

[O]), Living in Bondage is said to have sold over 500, 000 copies, and established the careers 

of actors like Kenneth Okonkwo, Kanayo O. Kanayo and Bob Manuel, who have become the 

veterans of Nollywood. The Wedding Party 2 (the sequel to the of the movie I discuss in this 

chapter) made a staggering 3.5 billion naira (approximately $11.5 million) according to Chutel 

(2018). The overall success of these films makes them good research material for answers about 

how music functions in Nollywood. 

 

2.2 Considering music in select Nollywood films through Gorbman’s ‘Principles of Film 

Music’ 

My approach in this discussion on Nollywood film music is to use themes based on the 

principles of music in film as they were developed in the classical Hollywood period, and that 

have been widely influential on the production of film music in cinema systems around the 

world. In Global Soundtracks, Mark Slobin shows how Max Steiner’s prototypical classical 

Hollywood scores and scoring practice became hegemonic or ‘supercultural’, how this has been 

exported around the world, and how it has exerted enormous influence on ‘subcultural’ cinema 



 36 

systems. Nollywood is no exception to this influence, which has left an indelible mark on the 

ways in which music acts as a controlling narrational force in cinema. Based on an analysis of 

classical Hollywood film scores, and the work of Steiner in particular, foundational film music 

theorist Gorbman in her book Unheard Melodies distilled seven principles of film music as 

they apply to the classical Hollywood film score. For the classical Hollywood film, Steiner’s 

work stands as a model because of the large number of narrative functions it performs. 

According to Gorbman, Steiner’s work ‘explicates, underscores, imitates, emphasizes narrative 

actions and moods wherever possible’ (1987: 7).  

Gorbman describes the principles of composing, mixing, and editing of film music as: 

i. Invisibility 

ii. Inaudibility 

iii. Signifier of emotion 

iv. Narrative Cueing 

v. Continuity 

vi. Unity 

vii. Violation of rules 

I do not intend to discuss each principle in full here; rather, I would like to discuss the areas 

where Nollywood has absorbed these classical Hollywood film music principles and where it 

has departed from them. In doing this, I hope to show how music in Nollywood has worked 

over the years, as I discussed in my aims above. 

 

2.2.1 Invisibility 

It is interesting to see how, through imitating the finished products of different film industries 

(Hollywood and Bollywood) over two decades, Nollywood has matured in the understanding 

and practical application of certain principles of film music. If we take the principle of 

invisibility for example, it requires that the physical apparatus of sound collection to be hidden 

in most circumstances. This principle of invisibility of the sound apparatus, according to 

Gorbman, is in line with other elements of the discourse of narrative, e.g. the image collecting 

devices, which are also hidden (1987: 74). This is no less true of Nollywood productions. In 

all the case studies for this research, the principle of invisibility was applied. As Gorbman 

suggests, transparency or invisibility of discourse (elements of articulating the narrative) is 



 37 

indeed a goal of classical Hollywood film productions, allowing for the perceivers’ full 

involvement in the story (1987: 72). 

In a sense, the principle of invisibility aids the audience’s immersion in a film, blurring the 

boundary between the image and the music, making it seem as if both are coming from the 

same ‘source’ – what Daniel Frampton has called the ‘film mind’ (quoted in Winters, 2010).  

As in the case of nondiegetic music, we hear this music (unconsciously for the most part), we 

do not know where it comes from, but we accept it (as a convention) and it works on us 

psychologically, breaking through the barriers between us and the narrative. During a rape that 

takes place in the opening scene of October 1, we hear a flute played like a bird call and lower 

strings in an aleatory style at 00:00:42, a significant convention in Nollywood for depicting the 

ominous. The camera shots that accompany a chase before the rape and then murder take the 

perceiver through the eyes of the rapist and then the eyes of the observer of the crime. Though 

we do not see the camera, we unconsciously identify this view as a normal cinematic 

convention. In this same manner, we also accept the presence of the music, the invisibility of 

the source and its impact. It is clearly not part of the story, but we can hardly separate our 

experience of the story from the music.  

Looking and relooking at Nollywood film music through the lens of principles like the 

‘invisibility’ principle allows one to draw out the complexities. In the opening scene of Living 

in Bondage (00:03:35) Andy is trying to get a tape player to work but the music does not come 

on because the device is not plugged in. As he plugs in the power plug, there is a knock on the 

door and then the music plays. In this shot, we see the tape player and we hear the music, but 

it creates confusion for two reasons. On one hand, it feels as if it might be nondiegetic, 

operating like an underscore: the opening sustained note of the music is ominous, plus it is the 

same music from the opening theme in the nondiegetic space. (The fact that the message at the 

door was a debt notice builds further on this ominous feeling.) However, on the other hand, 

because the tape player is in view, one might regard it as the source of diegetic music in the 

scene. For a moment, one wonders whether this music is diegetic or nondiegetic. If not for the 

visibility of the tape player, there would be no dilemma as regards to where to place the 

apparent source of the music from the outset. This one example is significant for a few reasons: 

this is the first film made under the Nollywood brand, and as such stands at a structural point 

to show us that music is central to reading Nollywood narrative. This blurring of diegesis, albeit 

for a very short moment shows how visibility or invisibility can contribute to meaning, and it 

sets the tone for how music can be used symbolically or metaphorically. 



 38 

The principle of invisibility can also aid the perceptual move from diegetic to nondiegetic 

space. For example, in Living in Bondage, when Andy enters his house (00:49:07), we hear 

piano music for about five seconds. This music seems nondiegetic until the camera shows the 

playback system, which Andy subsequently turns off, ending the music abruptly. A reversal of 

this case can be found in The Wedding Party. At the chapel, we hear the famous opening of the 

Bridal March by Wagner played on the organ, and the congregation stand up as convention 

demands (implying that they can hear the music). This means we would most likely classify 

this music as diegetic. However, as the music plays on, we can see that no one is playing the 

organ, therefore no one is playing the music live, it seems. Without access to the film’s 

producers one can only speculate that the music is played from another organ somewhere else 

in the chapel, and indeed, this is a norm. However, in the context of film this creates perplexity 

because normally in a diegetic space associated with music, such as the chapel, it is safe to 

assume any music heard is diegetic, even when the source is not visible. However, here, the 

normal source of music is shown but not played. When the normal source is visible, and it is 

not the source of the music heard, does one still consider the music heard as diegetic? 

There is a sense that in these small ways, possibly the result of budget constraints, Nollywood 

challenges classical Hollywood’s use of this principle of invisibility by making the sound 

source visible without its physical use, thereby blurring the line between diegetic and 

nondiegetic sound. 

 

2.2.2 “Audibility” 

The one area where Nollywood productions are greatly challenged – particularly in the case of 

old Nollywood – is regarding Gorbman’s principle of ‘inaudibility’. Of course, for Gorbman, 

film music is not totally inaudible, a word which she uses in inverted commas; her point is that 

music is subordinate to ‘the dramatic and emotional dictates of the film narrative’ (1987: 75). 

In essence, for Gorbman, the spectator is too immersed in the film’s action to take much notice 

of the film’s music. Put differently, the music is consciously subordinated so much that it is 

out of the way, allowing the spectator’s full immersion in the image. Gorbman emphasises that 

this conscious subordination of music to narrative, speech, editing and mood of the story is 

what leads to the unconscious hearing of film music, and that it is achieved through four 

practices. They include: elasticity in music, dynamic and musical textural relationship to voice 

texture, sensitivity to entries and exits of cues, and stylistic alignment or counterpoint to the 



 39 

mood (1987: 76-79). Elasticity in the music allows for elements of music (e.g. tempo) to 

expand and contract in order to accommodate the image. 

From the early days of Nollywood until now, there has been a predilection for songs in their 

pure musical structure, i.e. music with regular structure, tempo, rhythm, and that is musically 

independent of dramatic action. These songs are usually composed for the film and have a 

shelf-life outside the film. According to Sylvanus, this predilection is simply because the songs 

can bring in additional income, not unlike the sales of soundtrack albums that Hollywood has 

often sold alongside tickets to the films (2017: 125-126). In all the case studies for this research, 

this kind of music permeates the soundtrack. As a result of this practice, much of Old 

Nollywood film music that used this song form created a disjunct between narrative and music. 

The music continues with regularity in rhythm and tempo regardless of dramatic shifts (making 

itself audible), thus creating points of missed opportunities to explore the kind of elasticity that 

music is capable of. As Gorbman says, using such devices as: sequence, modulation, sostenuto, 

diminution and tempo for example, film music can align itself to express – and even accentuate 

– the dramatic shifts in the narrative and rise beyond pure musical rendition into the poetic 

(1987: 76). For example, at 00:56:35 in Living in Bondage, it is obvious from the picture that 

Ichie Million is experiencing a mood change. However, the ballad instrumental music just 

continues with the same tempo, texture, etc. Nothing in the music is reflecting what the 

character might be feeling or what is about to happen. I was able to address this in one of my 

practical portfolio compositions. Details of how I addressed this problem through my own 

creative work can be found in Chapter Four, where I reflect on my creative processes.  

The ratio of the dynamic level between music and speech contributes to the audibility of the 

music; or, put a different way, it determines the perceivers’ consciousness of the music and 

invariably, the film’s dialogue. The compatibility between the texture of the voice and the 

instruments used in the music also contributes to this symbiotic relationship. Basically, any 

texture or dynamic that infringes on the perceivers’ absorption in the narrative should be 

avoided. Owing to the lack of expertise in composition, subordination to dynamics was also a 

challenge in the early days of Nollywood. Examples of this violation are replete in the non-

diegetic music of Old Nollywood. At 01:16:55 in Glamour Girls, the dialogue between Jane 

and Alex is subsumed by the volume of the music, thereby breaking this principle of 

inaudibility. In this scene, Jane welcomes Alex into her matrimonial home while her husband 

is in the hospital. It is obvious that romantic feeling is developing between Jane and Alex, so 

background music is in order. However, the audibility of the music interferes with the dialogue 



 40 

so much that it distracts from the mood of the scene, creating a perplexing situation where one 

feels either that the dialogue is interrupting one’s attention to a concert or that the music is 

interrupting the dialogue. 

How a musical cue enters and exits can contribute to the ‘audibility’ of the music. In Gorbman’s 

discussion, she explains it as a timing function, i.e. entry before or after the voice, sneaking in 

under dialogue, at moments of dramatic change and entry along with a certain event, e.g. the 

closing of a door. In the same vein, an inappropriate end of a cue can give rise to ‘aesthetic 

perplexity’, a state where we are confused, unable to grapple with and appreciate the full 

aesthetic potential of the narrative at that point (1987: 78). For Nollywood, the exit of cues can 

be quite challenging; for example, when music ends in the middle of a scene, there is a 

perceived emptiness. There are cases of composed music ending abruptly even though it was 

composed for the dramatic action. An example can be found in Glamour Girls at 00:36:29, 

where Desmond holds Jane in his arms after she breaks down at the thought of their break-up. 

As Desmond reaffirms his commitment to their impending marriage, organ music plays, then 

cuts off abruptly when Jane promises to be faithful. This organ music is a series of chords and 

is meant to highlight the intense mood, as the lovers pledge allegiance to each other. The music 

then returns immediately after she speaks, continues as they kiss, and cuts off abruptly again 

just before the scene changes. The abrupt entry and exit of the music creates a jarring feeling. 

A slow and calculated entry with texture that expands as the scene proceeds might have been 

more consistent with the trajectory of the scene. 

However, in matching mood of music to the narrative to aid its ‘inaudibility’, Nollywood has 

done fairly well. Matching the mood in the narrative with the style of the music contributes to 

the inaudibility in film music. In generic terms, a fast-paced action scene, e.g. a chase sequence, 

would most likely be most effective if scored using music with a medium to fast tempo. 

Conversely, scenes with slower action, e.g. a romantic dinner in a penthouse, should be scored 

with slow tempo music. This allows the music to engage with the emotion in the narrative and 

thus creates a kind of continuity with the image so that the music becomes less obvious aurally 

in relation to the image. Music that matches the mood of a scene is likely to aid immersion in 

a scene, compared to music that works in counterpoint to the mood. However, it should be 

noted that when music works contrapuntally with the images, the combination may result in 

interesting higher-level meanings for audiences (Stanley Kubrick and Quentin Tarantino are 

two directors known for working ‘against’ the image in effective ways).  



 41 

2.2.3 Emotion 

Nollywood continues to absorb and exploit the basic principles of film music in classical 

Hollywood films even in the different ways it underscores emotion. The sonic quality and 

evanescent nature of music make it capable of enacting and appealing to the emotions, giving 

humans a kind of responsiveness to the sound of music in ways that nothing else can. Gorbman 

discusses how classical Hollywood uses film music as a ‘subtle representation of the irrational, 

of romantic, and of epic feeling to move spectators more deeply … by signifying emotion, 

depth, and the obverse of logic’ (1987: 79).  

According to Passchier (2013: 13), amongst the approaches that Old Nollywood productions 

are noted and criticised for are included the following: magic, voodoo, and the representation 

of extra-terrestrial activities. Music and sound effects serve as a kind of passage through which 

the perceiver slips into the oneiric world where the illogical can be accepted. Without the music 

and sound effects that would normally accompany these kinds of scenes, the perceiver might 

have a subtle, startled response to its perplexity. At 03:38:15 in Living in Bondage, Andy is 

preparing to leave his mistress in a hotel when we begin to hear a gentle mix of synthesizers 

playing long notes that create a kind of ominous feeling. The ghost of his late wife Merit then 

appears in the mirror in the bedroom, and he runs out of the room. Scenes like this are replete 

in Old Nollywood and scant in New Nollywood.  

In the film Isoken, Osaze and Isoken sit in the lounge having a romantic discussion. Isoken 

then asks whether Osaze feels anything for her. Rather than answering her verbally, there is a 

pause (00:28:03) and we hear some slow-moving chords: C (IV7— III6/4—IV7—III) on an 

electric piano, mixed to the foreground, as Osaze leans in to give her a kiss. This music in effect 

answers the question on behalf of Osaze and communicates an atmosphere of romance. At 

01:44:10 in Living in Bondage, there is a static shot of Andy’s face, and we can see that he is 

preoccupied. Five seconds later we hear Andante Con Moto from Schubert’s Trio, Op. 100. As 

soon as the music starts, the image changes and we can see that Andy is reminiscing about his 

past dates with his wife Merit. The music provides a gateway into Andy’s thoughts and even 

without dialogue, we can tell that he is saddened by the thought of losing his wife. The music 

is the marker between real and imagined, present and past/memory.  

 

Generally, in Nigerian cinemas and much of old Nollywood, feelings of personal pride are 

enacted through the performance of a griot, a skilful praise singer who is knowledgeable in 

personal and cultural history. Griots know how to eulogise eminent people by recounting 



 42 

praiseworthy details about their past and present in such ways as to make them feel like 

extraordinary men and women. Many of Nigeria’s famous traditional musicians are known for 

this ability, e.g. King Sunny Ade. An example can be found at 03:55:53 in Living in Bondage, 

where the MC eulogises Andy for his achievements. However, this kind of emotional feeling 

depends heavily on text, and can be less effective in scenes with narrative dialogue. New 

Nollywood seems to be creatively searching for ways to achieve this kind of emotional feeling 

with instrumental music. An example that points to this is in the opening scene of The Wedding 

Party, where a motorbike speeds along the streets of Lagos to deliver a package. The perceived 

pace of the motorbike, the variation in the sizes and angles of the shots, and the music, suggest 

a thrilling sense of danger. The instrumentation consists of local dance rhythms in the 

percussion and muted guitar (reminiscent of Afrobeat music). There are short melodic motifs 

with harmony moving downwards sequentially in the strings.  

Fig. 2.1. The first nine bars of Adepetun and Ogunlade’s ‘M1 – Opening Theme’ score from 

The Wedding Party  

 



 43 

  

 

However, rather than dance music enacting a celebratory mood, it feels more ominous because 

of the image. These kinds of expressive uses of music show that Nollywood engages with these 

representations of the irrational, romantic and the epic feelings expressively, as in Hollywood, 

albeit drawing on Nigerian approaches and resources. 

 

 



 44 

2.2.4 Narrative cueing 

According to Gorbman, film music performs semiotic functions signalling narrative events at 

two levels: the referential and the connotative (1987: 82). As a referential tool, music has the 

capacity to show certain ‘demarcations and levels of narration’: beginnings and endings of the 

film, the time, place and characterisation, and points of view. Under this function, beginning 

and ending music demarcates the starting and ending of the narrative, it can define the genre 

and mood of the narrative, and musically it can be a sort of exposition, stating certain musical 

materials that will be further explored during the narrative. The one film in the case studies that 

exemplifies this function is Rattle Snake, in which musical ideas are further used during the 

film. For example, at 00:26:25, the following tune in Fig 2.3 below is played in 4/4 time and 

in highlife style at a medium tempo.  

Fig. 2.2. The first four bars of Raphael’s ‘M4 – Happy Theme’ score from Rattle Snake 

 

 

At this point, the music is more celebratory and serves as an introduction to a longer tune. As 

it goes on, it is infused with strings, which make it sound lush. However, by the time we get to 

00:31:40, the tune is now in 12/8, much slower and rearranged for saxophone, marimba, and 

percussion. It takes on a more melancholic role in this second usage. This piece returns to 

accompany many of the gloomy scenes in the film.  

 

 



 45 

Fig. 2.3. The first four bars of Raphael’s ‘M5 – Sad Theme’ score from Rattle Snake 

 

 

To establish a setting in terms of its place, time and character, Nollywood uses certain musical 

codes in the form of genre and sty