CHALLENGES IN THE 
IMPLEMENTATION OF RETENTION 
POLICY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF 
HOME AFFAIRS  
 
 
    
 
 
By 
 
MAEMO PETER MACHETHE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A research report submitted to the Faculty of Law, Commerce and 
Management, University of Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of 
the requirements for the degree of Masters of Management in 
Public Policy. 
 
 
JUNE 2011 
 
 
i 
 
 
ABSTRACT 
 
 
Retention of personnel should form and remain part of the core 
business of all government institutions which intend to remain 
competitive in the world where swords of war on talent continue to 
erode the public sector. The aim of the research was to unmask and 
understand the challenges on implementation of retention policy within 
the department of Home Affairs. A qualitative study was undertaken 
and literature review on retention, staff turnover, labour turnover, talent 
and manpower was conducted. Relevant secondary data were 
searched and interviews undertaken with senior and middle managers 
of the Department responsible for policy development and 
implementation, constituting the main source of primary data. 
 
The research revealed that most senior and middle managers in the 
Department are not aware of the existence of the Department?s 
retention policy and thus contribute to its non-implementation.  
 
Challenges on implementation of the policy were also found to be 
associated with poor leadership, emotions and lack of defined skills 
needs, lack of communication and a poorly co-ordinated approach 
towards the implementation process. Retention is a critical factor to 
success and each organisation has to develop a systematic approach 
to address turnover challenges based on its unique needs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ii 
 
 
 
 
 
DECLARATION 
 
 
I, Maemo Peter Machethe, declare that this research report is my 
work. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the 
degree of Masters of Management in Public Policy in the University of 
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for 
any degree or examination in this or any other University. 
 
 
----------------------------------------------- 
MAEMO PETER MACHETHE 
 
June 2011 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
iii 
 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 
Special thanks goes to my mother, Linah Machete, a former domestic 
servant who sacrificed her life for the foundation of my education, and 
to my wife, Maggie Forbes, for her understanding and unwavering 
support during my academic journey.  
 
To my three boys, Katlego, Tokelo and Bonolo, the challenge is on and 
I pray that you follow in my footsteps and explore the academic arena 
with zest and determination. Mr Mbobo Mhlahlandlela Mabena, thank 
you for being an inspiration as we undertook our academic journey 
together. 
 
To my younger brother Charles, your editing contribution did not go 
unnoticed. To all scholars at Mahadikana High school in Ga ? Kibi 
village, your rural background should not deter you from achieving 
your dreams. May the grace of the Sovereign Artist (our Lord), 
continue to bless your life and future academic endeavours. 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
iv 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 
 
My devoted vote of appreciation goes to my supervisor and mentor 
through the research report journey, Dr Hor?cio Zandamela. Thank 
you for the vote of confidence in me and your unselfish devotion of 
time after normal working hours. You are indeed a unique Mentor. 
 
 
 
 
v 
 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 
 
ASD Assistant Director 
ASGISA Accelerated Growth Initiative for Southern Africa 
DD  Deputy Director 
DHA Department of Home Affairs 
DPSA  Department of Public Services 
HRD Human Resources Development 
HRM Human Resources Management 
IDP  Individual Development Plan 
IMS  Immigration Services 
JIPSA  Joint Initiative Programme for Skills Acquisition 
MIS  Management Information Systems 
MM  Middle Managers 
SM  Senior Managers 
             
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
vi 
 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS   
 
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ I 
DECLARATION ................................................................................................ II 
DEDICATION ................................................................................................... III 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................... IV 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................. V 
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................. VI 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................ 1 
INTRODUCING THE STUDY ............................................................................ 1 
1.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 
1.2. Study background ............................................................................................... 1 
1.3. Legislative framework ........................................................................................ 3 
1.3.1. Purpose of the White Paper on Human Resource Management of 1997 ............ 4 
1.3.2. Vision and mission .............................................................................................. 4 
1.3.3. Changing the human resource management culture ........................................... 5 
1.3.4. Policies suggested by the White Paper on Human Resource 
Management .................................................................................................................... 5 
1.4. DHA overview .................................................................................................... 7 
1.5. Department structures ......................................................................................... 8 
1.5.1. IMMIGRATION SERVICE ................................................................................................ 8 
1.5.2. CIVIC SERVICES ............................................................................................................ 9 
1.5.3. ASYLUM SEEKERS MANAGEMENT BRANCH ................................................................. 9 
1.5.4. SUPPORT SERVICES, WHICH INCLUDE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND 
DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................................................... 10 
1.5.5. COUNTER CORRUPTION, SECURITY AND VETTING ..................................................... 11 
1.5.6. LEGAL SERVICES ........................................................................................................ 11 
1.6. Problem statement ............................................................................................. 12 
1.7. Purpose statement.............................................................................................. 13 
1.8. Research questions ............................................................................................ 14 
1.9. Significance of the study ................................................................................... 14 
1.10. Delimitations and limitations ............................................................................ 15 
1.11. Assumptions ...................................................................................................... 16 
1.12. Structure of the report ....................................................................................... 16 
 
vii 
 
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................. 18 
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAME WORK ....................... 18 
2.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 18 
2.2. Leadership and management in the policy implementation process ................. 18 
2.3. Retention and related concepts.......................................................................... 19 
2.4. Retention within a South African context ......................................................... 20 
2.5. Retention within a global context ..................................................................... 21 
2.6. Labour turnover drivers..................................................................................... 22 
2.7. Labour turnover costs ........................................................................................ 24 
2.7.1. High financial costs ........................................................................................... 24 
2.7.2. Service quality ................................................................................................... 25 
2.7.3. Loss of expertise ............................................................................................... 25 
2.7.4. Loss of business opportunities .......................................................................... 25 
2.8. Retention management ...................................................................................... 27 
2.9. Obstacles to retention ........................................................................................ 28 
2.10. Turnover factors ................................................................................................ 29 
2.11. Management style ............................................................................................. 30 
2.12. Staffing .............................................................................................................. 32 
2.12.1. Factors which can assist organisations in staff  retention ................................. 32 
2.12.1.1. Employee?s needs........................................................................................ 32 
2.12.1.2. Policy changes ............................................................................................. 35 
2.12.1.3. Modification of human resource systems ................................................... 36 
2.12.1.4. Micro organisational strategies ................................................................... 38 
2.12.1.5. Employees as assets .................................................................................... 39 
2.12.1.6. Corporate strategy priority .......................................................................... 41 
2.12.1.7. Personnel research ....................................................................................... 42 
2.12.1.8. Human capital theory .................................................................................. 44 
2.12.1.9. The practice of exit interviews .................................................................... 45 
2.12.1.10. Human resource strategy ......................................................................... 45 
2.12.1.11. Talent-ship ............................................................................................... 47 
2.12.1.12. Talent management model ...................................................................... 50 
2.12.1.13. Talent retention as a risk ......................................................................... 50 
2.12.1.13.1. The talent challenges ........................................................................... 50 
2.12.1.14. A decision framework ............................................................................. 52 
2.12.1.15. Job satisfaction ........................................................................................ 52 
2.12.1.16. Turnover research .................................................................................... 53 
2.12.1.17. Turnover data .......................................................................................... 54 
2.12.1.18. Retention framework ............................................................................... 56 
2.13. Capacity building and public administration .................................................... 59 
2.14. Conceptual frame work ..................................................................................... 60 
 
 
 
 
 
viii 
 
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................... 67 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 67 
3.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 67 
3.2. RESEARCH APPROACH ................................................................................................ 67 
3.3. DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE APPROACH.......................................................... 70 
3.4. POPULATION AND SAMPLE ......................................................................................... 71 
3.5. DATA COLLECTION AND SAMPLE ............................................................................... 71 
3.6. CASE STUDY METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 71 
3.6.1. DISADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY .............................................................................. 74 
3.6.2. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA OVERVIEW ............................................................ 75 
3.6.3. PRIMARY DATA .......................................................................................................... 76 
3.6.4. ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS ................................................................................... 78 
3.6.5. SECONDARY DATA ..................................................................................................... 80 
3.6.6. SAMPLING .................................................................................................................. 80 
3.6.7. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ..................................................................... 81 
3.6.8. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ...................................................................................... 83 
3.6.9. EXTERNAL VALIDITY ................................................................................................. 84 
3.6.10. INTERNAL VALIDITY ................................................................................................... 85 
3.6.11. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY ............................................................................................... 86 
3.6.12. CONFIDENTIALITY ...................................................................................................... 86 
3.6.13. OBJECTIVITY .............................................................................................................. 86 
3.6.14. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................ 87 
3.6.15. CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ix 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................ 89 
DATA PRESENTATION ................................................................................. 89 
4.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 89 
4.2. Themes of discussion ........................................................................................ 89 
4.3. Responses recorded in respect of themes discussed with senior 
managers (SM) .............................................................................................................. 90 
4.3.1. RETENTION POLICY MANAGEMENT AND CO-ORDINATION ......................................... 90 
4.3.2. RESOURCES ALLOCATION .......................................................................................... 91 
4.3.3. EXISTING TALENT/SKILLS .......................................................................................... 91 
4.3.4. RETENTION POLICY SUCCESSES AND CHALLENGES ................................................... 92 
4.3.5. CAUSES OF RETENTION POLICY CHALLENGES ............................................................ 92 
4.3.6. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................. 92 
4.4. Interviews conducted with middle managers (MM) at the level of 
Deputy Directors (DD) .................................................................................................. 93 
4.4.1. RETENTION POLICY MANAGEMENT AND CO-ORDINATION ......................................... 93 
4.4.2. RESOURCE ALLOCATION ............................................................................................ 94 
4.4.3. EXISTING TALENT/SKILLS .......................................................................................... 94 
4.4.4. RETENTION POLICY SUCCESSES AND CHALLENGES ................................................... 94 
4.4.5. CAUSES OF RETENTION POLICY CHALLENGES ............................................................ 95 
4.4.6. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................. 95 
4.5. Responses elicited from middle managers at the level of Assistant 
Directors (ASD) ............................................................................................................ 95 
4.6. Interviews with recently resigned managers (RM) ........................................... 96 
4.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 98 
 
CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................. 99 
DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 99 
5.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 99 
5.1.1. Talent management ........................................................................................... 99 
5.1.2. Retention policy implementation .................................................................... 100 
5.1.3. Policy co-ordination and communication ....................................................... 101 
5.1.4. Leadership ....................................................................................................... 103 
5.1.5. Resource allocation ......................................................................................... 104 
5.1.6. Policy monitoring and evaluation ................................................................... 104 
5.1.7. Policy stakeholder management ...................................................................... 105 
5.1.8. Organisational structure .................................................................................. 106 
5.1.9. Policy objectives ............................................................................................. 107 
5.1.10. Accountability ................................................................................................. 108 
5.2. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 109 
 
 
 
x 
 
CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................. 110 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................... 110 
6.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 110 
6.2. Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 110 
6.2.1. Leadership ....................................................................................................... 110 
6.2.2. Retention policy management ......................................................................... 111 
6.2.3. Talent management ......................................................................................... 112 
6.3. Recommendations ........................................................................................... 113 
6.3.1. Leadership ....................................................................................................... 113 
6.3.2. Talent management ......................................................................................... 113 
6.3.3. Retention policy management ......................................................................... 113 
6.3.4. Future research ................................................................................................ 114 
 
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 115 
APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 123 
APPENDIX A: LIST OF INTERVIEWEES .................................................... 123 
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW REQUEST LETTER ......................................... 124 
APPENDIX C: RESEARCH THEMES .......................................................... 125 
 
 
 
 
1 
CHAPTER ONE  
INTRODUCING THE STUDY 
 
 
1.1. Introduction 
 
The success of reducing employee turnover in this modern age is 
centred within proper design and efficient implementation of human 
resources policies such as retention. Phillips and Connelle (2003) 
explain that during the last decade employee retention has become a 
serious and perplexing problem for all types of organisations. The 
authors further argue that managing retention and keeping the 
employee turnover rate below target and industry norms is one of the 
most challenging issues facing business. The perplexing high 
employee turnover in the Department of Home Affairs influenced the 
researcher to investigate challenges on implementation of retention 
policy in the Department.  
 
1.2. Study background 
 
The Department of Home Affairs (DHA) is an organ of state 
established in terms of the South African Constitution Act No. 108 of 
1996. Section 195 of the Constitution prescribes the basic values and 
principles governing public administration which are a high standard of 
professional ethics that must be promoted and maintained, a public 
administration which must be accountable with good human resource 
management and career development practices to maximise human 
potential.  
 
Within its mandate as outlined in terms of its strategic document, the 
DHA must contribute towards a safe and secure South Africa where 
 
2 
 
citizens are proud of their identity and immigration is managed in a 
way that contributes towards economic development. In order to 
ensure that all government departments achieve national objectives 
and their mandates, the Department of Public Service (DPSA) was 
established to oversee all other government departments and be a 
custodian of all Government policies. In 2004, the DPSA sanctioned a 
study to investigate the reasons for terminations in the public service 
and the review of, among others, the practice of exit interviews. 
 
The DPSA drew up a policy guide (Levin, 2006) to assist Government 
Departments to manage retention. The guide requires all Government 
institutions to develop their own comprehensive retention strategies in 
the light of their own unique needs and circumstances. In response to 
the DPSA policy guide, the Department of Home Affairs drafted its 
retention policy in 2007 which finally became effective in 2008. 
Regardless of the existence of the policy, employee turnover continues 
to trouble the Department. The research was as such a preliminary 
evaluation to establish the challenges on implementation of the 
retention policy. 
 
Although government departments are by nature not profit-driven, 
employee retention still plays a critical role in service delivery. 
Employee retention forms part of modern business and will compound 
into the future, a point correctly alluded to by Phillips and Connelle 
(2003). Employee turnover continues to be one of the most 
unappreciated and undervalued issues facing business leaders.   
 
Herman (1999) argues that workforce stability is an important 
component of attraction, development and retention of highly skilled 
professionals and that the investment in productive employees 
becomes obsolete if retention of key employees is neglected. 
Employee turnover has serious consequences for any organisation if 
 
3 
 
not correctly managed, and it is on this basis that the researcher 
studied the challenges surrounding the implementation of retention 
policy in the Department of Home Affairs. When an employee of a 
large complex organisation such as the Department of Home Affairs 
departs from the organisation, not only does he/she leave with 
experience, but a wealth of knowledge and organisational or 
institutional memory is lost and this will have negative long term effects 
until an appropriate replacement is recruited, trained and developed. 
 
The study is explanatory where the researcher seeks to understand 
the challenges on implementation of retention policy within the 
Department of Home Affairs. Neuman (2006) explains explanatory 
research as ??research in which the primary purpose is to explain why 
events occur and to build, elaborate, extend or test theory?. He 
maintains that explanatory research builds on exploratory and 
descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons something 
happens. He adds that the researcher in explanatory research goes 
beyond focusing on the topic or providing a picture of it, but looks for 
causes and reasons. When painting the difference between 
explanatory, exploratory and descriptive, the author advises that, 
explanatory research assists in theory or principle testing, elaborates 
and enriches a theory explanation, extends a theory to new issues, 
supports or refutes an explanation of prediction, links topic or issues 
with a general principle and determines which of the difference 
explanations is best. 
 
1.3. Legislative framework 
 
Human resources in government are managed in terms of prescribed 
legislation to enable efficiency and effectiveness. As part of the 
transformation of the public service, the White Paper on Human 
Resource Management (No. 18594 of 1997) was developed and 
 
4 
 
enacted to streamline and set future goals for human resource 
management.  
 
1.3.1. Purpose of the White Paper on Human Resource 
Management of 1997 
 
The purpose of the White Paper on Human Resource Management 
No. 18594 of 1997 is to provide a policy framework that will facilitate 
the development of human resource management practices which 
support an effective and efficient public service geared for economic 
and social transformation. Human resource management is therefore 
regarded as one of the strategic instruments of the transformation 
agenda for the public service. The White Paper was also aimed at 
ensuring that all public servants are treated as valuable assets focused 
on service delivery.  
 
1.3.2. Vision and mission 
 
The vision of the White Paper is that human resource management in 
the public service will result in a diverse, competent and well-managed 
workforce capable of, and committed to, delivering high quality 
services to the people of South Africa. The White Paper further 
outlines its mission as being to ensure that human resource 
management in the public service becomes a model of excellence in 
which service to society stems from individual commitment instead of 
compulsion. The management of people should be regarded as a 
significant task for those who have been charged with the 
responsibility and should be conducted in a professional manner. 
Human resources as assets should, according to the White Paper, be 
managed in terms of values derived from the Constitution and they 
 
5 
 
include fairness, equity, accessibility, transparency, accountability, 
participation and professionalism.  
 
1.3.3. Changing the human resource management culture  
 
The White Paper prescribes that human resource management within 
the public service will need to undergo a fundamental change in order 
to actualise management principles such as the delegation of day-to-
 day management decisions to line managers; the development of a 
service delivery-oriented multi-skilled and multi-cultural workforce; the 
continuing drive for efficiency and effectiveness; and creation of a 
flexible environment that takes into account both the operational needs 
of the organisation and the needs of the employees.   
 
1.3.4. Policies suggested by the White Paper on Human Resource 
Management 
 
Various policies identified in the white paper include: 
1.3.4.1. Human resource planning 
 
According to the White Paper, national and provincial administrators 
should develop human resource strategies which are integrated within 
their strategic and operational plans. Human resource planning is 
essential in order to ensure that an organisation?s human resources 
are capable of meeting its operational objectives. Human resource 
planning ensures that an organisation obtains the quality and quantity 
of staff it requires, makes the optimum use of its human resources, is 
able to anticipate and manage surpluses and shortages of staff, and 
develops a multi-skilled, representative and flexible workforce, which 
enables the organisation to adapt rapidly to a changing operational 
environment. Human resource planning requires an assessment of the 
 
6 
 
human resources which will be required to deliver the operational 
objectives in the organisation's strategic plan, and an assessment of 
the organisation's existing human resource capacity.  
1.3.4.2. A career in public service 
 
The public service should, according to the White Paper, be a career 
service offering opportunities for development and advancement 
through improved performance and career management and the 
removal of unnecessary barriers. 
 
1.3.4.3. Increased competition 
 
Most suitable persons should be identified from the widest pool of 
talent. 
1.3.5. Recommendations in the White Paper on Human Resource 
Management 
 
Among recommendations advanced in the White Paper are policy 
stakeholder management, capacity in national and provincial 
governments in human resource development, policy communication, 
institutional mechanisms, capacity building and the creation of a 
baseline on skills as key in ensuring successful implementation of the 
White Paper objectives. The White Paper further recommended that all 
line managers and human resource practitioners should be fully 
informed of their respective human resource management 
responsibilities, and of how their performance will be assessed in 
relation to these. Employees at every level should be informed about 
how the new approach to human resource management will affect 
them and the roles they are expected to play in establishing the 
baseline. A comprehensive human resources audit should be 
 
7 
 
undertaken to identify the gaps in the current human resource 
management policies and practices.  
 
The audit should cover human resource planning and information 
systems; human resource management organisation and structures; 
human resource management skills; and the development of a human 
resource management strategy that will begin to close the gap 
between existing policies, practices and capacity with regard to the 
future needs of national departments and provincial administrations.  
 
The strategy should include clearly articulated objectives, aligned to 
the organisation's strategic and operational goals; time-bound targets 
for the transformation of individual human resource management 
practices; and assignment of responsibilities and resources for 
implementation. Monitoring and evaluation is essential, and the 
implementation of the strategy should be continuously monitored and 
evaluated in order to ensure that targets are met and that policies and 
practices are improved in the light of past experience.  
 
1.4.  DHA overview 
 
For a researcher to proceed with ease when conducting research 
within any organisation, it is necessary that the researcher knows and 
understands the role, culture, long-term, medium-term and short-term 
goals and the values of the organisation that is being studied.  
 
The Department of Home Affairs is a government organisation 
established under Section 197 of the South African Constitution No. 
108 of 1996. The Department is mandated to establish and maintain a 
population register of citizens in the country and keep and maintain a 
movement control system detailing records of people departing and 
entering South Africa. The Department also has a responsibility to 
 
8 
 
legalise foreign nationals who intend residing in the country, whether 
on a temporary or permanent basis for tourism and employment 
purposes. Clients receiving services from the Department of Home 
Affairs includes established entrepreneurs, potential investors, tourists, 
economic migrants, foreign government representatives and other 
travellers. The data kept and managed by the Department assists 
government in planning for service delivery and resource allocation. 
 
1.5. Department structures 
 
In order to achieve its mandate of servicing both citizens and foreign 
nationals, the Department of Home Affairs is structured as follows: 
1.5.1. Immigration service 
 
The Immigration branch of the Department derives its mandate from 
the Immigration Act No. 13 of 2002. It is responsible for ensuring that 
people leaving and entering the Republic of South Africa through the 
country?s ports of entry are properly documented and have appropriate 
valid travel documents issued by their respective countries of 
nationality. The Immigration services represents the Department at the 
Security and Justice cluster because of the critical role of ensuring that 
fugitives from justice, known terrorists and listed prohibited and 
undesirable people, as defined in terms of the Immigration Act are not 
allowed to depart or enter South Africa and compromise national, or 
international, security.  
 
The branch is also responsible for ensuring that foreign nationals 
intending to invest and open businesses, conduct employment, visit, 
tour and study in the country are issued with appropriates permits. It is 
this branch that is also responsible to assist the private sector and 
government to bring scarce skills to build capacity for the country by 
 
9 
 
consulting and co-ordinating stakeholder relations with the business 
community, non-governmental organisations and other government 
departments which includes Trade and Industry, Labour, and Higher 
Education.  
 
1.5.2. Civic services 
 
The Civic Branch has a responsibility to record, keep and maintain the 
national population register which clearly identifies the total number of 
citizens in the country. All births, marriages and mortality records are 
kept and maintained by the branch. The branch is also responsible for 
issuing of birth certificates, identity documents, death certificates, 
marriage certificates and travel documents to South African citizens. 
This branch operates in terms of the South African Citizenship Act No. 
88 of 1995; the South African Passports and Travellers Documents Act 
No. 4 of 1994; the Birth and Death Registration Act No. 51 of 1992; the 
Marriages Act No. 25 of 1961; the Customary Union Act No. 120 of 
1998; the Identification Act No. 68 of 1997; and the Civil Union Act No. 
17 of 2006. 
 
1.5.3. Asylum seekers management branch   
 
This branch operates in terms of the Refugee Act No. 130 of 1998 and 
is responsible for accepting applications from asylum seekers and 
determining whether the applicants do indeed have  a valid fear of 
persecution in order to qualify as refugees, or whether their cases are 
unfounded. 
 
10 
 
 
1.5.4. Support services, which include human resource 
management and development  
 
This branch is the custodian of policies in the Department as it is 
responsible for ensuring adherence to Government policies regarding 
resources management. This branch is the backbone of any 
organisation because it must manage, co-ordinate and ensure the 
development of policies such as: 
a) Recruitment and Selection Policy 
b) Employee Retention Policy 
c) Employees Remuneration Policy 
d) Employee Performance Management Policy 
e) Employee Development Policy 
f) Bursaries Policy 
g) Leave Policy 
h) Overtime Policy 
i) Performance Appraisal Policy 
j) Employee Code of Conduct Policy and other relevant policies. 
 
The development of the above policies will contribute towards 
personnel retention as the recruitment and selection policy will assist 
Human Resource practitioners in ensuring that the recruitment and 
selection process targets the right employees for the benefit of the 
organisation. Policies which govern remuneration, performance 
appraisals, overtime remuneration, employee development, leave, 
bursaries, and codes of conduct will also assist in enhancing possible 
retention efforts.   
 
11 
 
 
1.5.5. Counter corruption, security and vetting  
 
This branch is responsible for corruption prevention, awareness and 
investigations, and the physical and documents security of the 
Department?s resources. It derives its mandate from legislation which 
includes the Prevention and Combating of Corrupt Activities Act and 
Minimum Information Security Standards (MISS).  
 
The branch is also responsible to ensure that all personnel in the 
Department have security clearances and or are issued with 
appropriate security clearances in order to access sensitive 
information about personal identity, marital status, addresses, parents 
and children?s records, foreign investors, tourists and visitors entering 
and departing from the country.  
 
It is also responsible for co-ordinating and managing stakeholder 
relations with other security departments such as the Security 
Intelligence, the South African Police Services, the Justice Department 
and other relevant stakeholders. 
 
1.5.6. Legal services  
 
The Legal services branch is mandated to draft or initiate the drafting 
of, amend, or initiate the amendment of legislation on behalf of the 
Department. It is further responsible for litigating or initiating litigation, 
defending or co-ordinating the defence of the Department against 
litigation by any party who feels aggrieved or adversely affected by an 
administrative decision, action or inaction by the Department. Although 
the Department has other branches, it is sufficient to mention but a few 
as above that play a critical role in ensuring the functionality of the 
Department.  
 
12 
 
 
1.6. Problem statement 
 
Retention policy implementation in the Department is co-ordinated and 
monitored at head office. Head office as the custodian of the retention 
policy should promote the successful implementation thereof in order 
to ensure that the Department functions at the required skills capacity 
for the purpose of high quality efficient service delivery. According to 
the DHA termination of service database (2010), the Department of 
Home Affairs has in the past financial years (2005/2006, 2006/2007, 
2007/2008, 2008/2009 and 2010) lost its experienced personnel to 
both the private and other government sectors. Some of the more 
seriously affected branches in the department are the Legal Service 
Section which lost more than ten legal experts, Counter Corruption, 
Vetting Services and Investigations branches which lost Vetting 
Officers and Corruption Investigators respectively. The Immigration 
Service of the Department responsible for investigation of identity fraud 
in the country and Immigration law enforcement also continues to lose 
key personnel. All the above mentioned branches complement each 
other in managing immigration in South Africa. With a view to 
understanding the challenges on retention policy implementation, the 
research is conducted at the national level of the Department and 
covers the period 2005 until 2010. 
  
The DHA financial reports (2005-2010) indicate that millions of rand in 
taxpayers? money was used in financing employee development 
through various institutions of higher learning and in-house 
programmes as part of employee career development. Some of these 
developments included in-house programmes presented by different 
institutions in partnership with the Department or the Department?s 
educational practitioners, while bursaries are also awarded as financial 
assistance towards both undergraduate and postgraduate studies. 
 
13 
 
Legally qualified individuals have also, from time to time, been 
seconded to the state attorneys to serve articles for a period of two 
years in order to become eligible to be admitted as qualified attorneys. 
In contrast to personnel development, the Department had up to the 
2009/2010 financial year, more than fifty vacant positions at both 
senior and middle management level, while on other levels, the 
Department had more than 200 vacant positions as a result of labour 
turnover and the inability to fill the vacant positions. In 2009 alone, the 
Department?s turnover reached an overwhelming 250 departures: 55 of 
those who left were permanent employees while 200 were on contract 
as interns and had worked in the Department for periods ranging from 
six months to a year and longer.  
 
Turnover in the Department has negatively affected service delivery 
and resulted in senior management appointing many employees to act 
in the vacant positions for periods varying from one year to five years 
since 2005. Although a lot of research work has been done and written 
on human resources management and policies such as retention, 
recruitment and performance management, there is, however, no 
strong emphasis on retention of general employees other than in the 
case of specialised fields such as Medicine, Mathematics, Science 
Teachers and Engineering. At the time of data collection for the study, 
the Department had just lost more than five permanent employees 
from the Legal Services and Immigration Services due to turnover. A 
significant number of 50 contract workers from the Information 
Technology branch, Immigration branch, Human Resources and Civic 
Services were also lost as their contracts came to an end. 
 
1.7. Purpose statement 
 
The purpose of the research is to investigate and understand the 
challenges surrounding the implementation of the retention policy in 
the Department of Home Affairs from 2005 until 2010. Investigation of 
 
14 
 
these challenges will be conducted at the national level of the 
Department of Home Affairs as a custodian of policies. The 
understanding will be sought through intensive interrogation of 
literature and the conducting of comprehensive interviews with 
managers playing a critical role in both the development and 
implementation of policies within the Department. Empirical data was 
gathered to enable meaningful analysis, interpretation, findings and 
recommendations in respect of the studied phenomenon. The study is 
also intended to contribute towards addressing the knowledge gap, 
encompassing retention of employees, and contributing towards a 
better understanding of issues pertaining to retention of employees. 
Finally, the study makes policy recommendations. 
 
1.8. Research questions 
 
Research questions that will guide the study are as follows: 
 
a) Primary research question 
What are the challenges regarding the implementation of retention 
policy in Home Affairs? 
 
b)  Secondary research questions 
Are managers aware of the existence of the retention policy and 
do they understand their role in the policy implementation 
process?  How is the policy process managed in the department? 
 
1.9. Significance of the study 
 
A lot of material from both a theory base and case studies on retention 
has been written and developed over the years. Although a lot of 
research work has been conducted on human resources policies such 
as retention, recruitment, and performance management, there is no 
 
15 
 
strong emphasis on retention of other general employees other than in 
the case of specialised fields such as Medicine, Mathematics and 
Science Teachers and other fields such as Engineering. 
 
The Department of Home Affairs plays a central and critical role in 
South Africa and the international economy. Other than being 
responsible for citizenship records management, recording all births 
and mortality in the country, the Department plays a critical role in 
economic growth in the Republic as it is mandated by Parliament to 
issue relevant temporary and permanent residents permits to foreign 
nationals who are generally skilled and those with scarce skills 
required for employment by both private and public sector employers 
in the country. The Department?s critical economic role is supported by 
government initiatives such as the Joint initiatives Programme for Skills 
acquisition (JIPSA) and the Accelerated Growth Initiative for Southern 
Africa (ASGISA). The significance of the study is that it will contribute 
to the current dialogue on retention of key personnel within the public 
service and further assist Home Affairs as a Government department 
to interrogate the awareness of its managers about the existing 
policies, their commitment to implementation, and whether they are 
indeed accountable. The study will also encourage the Department to 
review its policy management process, and will guide future policy 
development and the implementation process. It will also renew 
interest in research in personnel retention within Government 
institutions. 
 
1.10. Delimitations and limitations 
 
The research is specifically an investigation of challenges on 
implementation of retention policy in the Department of Home Affairs.  
Being a case study, the focus was on the implementation stage of the 
policy and does not include the investigation of the causes associated 
 
16 
 
with high turnover within the Department.  There was also no attempt 
made to investigate reasons for non-implementation of retention policy 
in other government departments. 
 
1.11. Assumptions 
 
The terms ?retention management?, ?talent management? and ?talent-
 ship? are used interchangeably in the research report and have the 
same meaning. 
 
1.12. Structure of the report 
 
The research report is structured as follows: 
 
 Chapter One: Introduction: Introduces the study and background 
details, the study context and an overview of the Department of 
Home Affairs. The chapter further highlights the challenges and 
constraints the DHA faces regarding high labour turnover, and this 
provides the problem statement and purpose of the research. It 
also includes questions driving the research. 
 
 Chapter Two: Literature Review: This chapter outlines detailed 
existing literature reviewed consisting of books, journals and 
research reports on labour turnover, talent management, 
manpower planning, personnel management and public policy 
management. The chapter further presents the interrelation of 
stakeholders during policy development and implementation. 
 
 Chapter Three: Research Methodology: This chapter discusses 
the research paradigm on which the research is based, the 
approach and techniques employed to sample, collect and present 
data, and how it should be analysed in the completion of the 
research report. 
 
17 
 
 
 Chapter Four: Data Presentation: The chapter takes a close 
concise look at the managers within the Department of Home 
Affairs responsible for retention policy implementation. It also 
examines their understanding of their roles, policy existence 
awareness, implementation challenges, challenges, causes and 
recommendations.  
 
 Chapter Five: Data Analysis: This chapter analyses data 
collected during the study and provides an interface with the 
existing body of knowledge on retention globally. 
 
 Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendations: Only 
conclusion is drawn from the data collected, presented and 
analysed in conjunction with the existing body of knowledge. The 
researcher makes recommendations based on emerging issues 
and the findings of the research. The recommendations are 
advanced to assist policy developers and implementers during the 
policy management process. 
 
 
 
 
18 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAME WORK 
 
2.1.  Introduction 
 
The assets of every organisation are divided into two parts and these 
are its people and everything else. Retention of key personnel is 
widely written about as best performing organisations are believed to 
have the best retention policies and development strategies. This point 
is correctly alluded to in Armstrong and Stephens (2005) who argue 
that policies exist to provide guidance for action and set limits to 
decision-making, outlining what should be done in certain 
circumstances and how particular requirements or issues should be 
dealt with. It notes that all managers have a responsibility to find out 
which policies impact on their work. 
 
2.2. Leadership and management in the policy implementation 
process 
 
Every organisation must have leaders and managers who will steer the 
organisation or corporate strategy through policies designed in 
consideration of the organisation?s unique short-, medium- or long-term 
goals. Kroon (1994) defines a manager as anyone who holds a 
leadership position and who takes the lead in the performance of a 
specific function or group of functions in the enterprise. In order for 
policy objectives of any organisation to be realised, an organisation 
requires leaders and managers who will pursue the vision of the 
organisation with vigour. Armstrong and Stephens (2005) view 
leadership as focusing on people as the most important resource and 
that leadership is a process of developing and communicating a vision 
for the future, motivating people, and gaining their commitment and 
engagement. This view of leadership is shared by Lusthaus, Andriene, 
 
19 
 
Anderson, Carden and Montalvan (2002) who define leadership as the 
process through which leaders influence the attitudes, behaviours and 
values of others towards organisational goals. The authors also define 
management as concerned with achieving results by effectively 
obtaining, deploying, utilising, and controlling all the resources 
required, namely people, money, facilities, plant and equipment, 
information and knowledge. 
 
2.3. Retention and related concepts  
 
Phillips and Connelle (2003, p. 2) define retention as ??the percentage 
of employees remaining in the organisation? and that high levels of 
retention are desired in most job groups. Turnover is defined as ??the 
percentage of employees leaving the organisation for whatever 
reasons, it is the length of time an individual or employee is employed 
by the organisation and is usually related to the concept of employee 
loyalty??. 
 
Sandler (2005) identifies employee turnover as a serious problem and 
that the question on how to retain highly talented and valued people is 
very important. The author indicates that previous research focused on 
individuals rather than the organisation or business. Employee 
turnover is viewed as the common voluntary cessation of membership 
in an organisation by an individual who receives monetary 
compensation for participating in that organisation.  
 
Turnover consists of movement into and out of the boundaries of an 
organisation (Van Der Merwe and Mille, 1976, p. 38).  Rowland, 
London, Ferris and Sherman (1980, p.15) explains Manpower 
Forecasting as the process of collecting and analysing information to 
determine the future supply of, and demand for, any given skill or job 
category. The authors proceed to define Manpower Planning as the 
 
20 
 
process of developing policies and programme to achieve a desired 
balance between the supply of, and demand for, human resources.  
 
2.4. Retention within a South African context 
 
In his report on executive mobility within the manufacturing industry, 
Van As (2001) states that the South African economy has moved 
quickly towards greater openness and competitiveness and that with 
democratic elections in 2004, South African companies are faced with 
having to compete not only in a local environment but also on a global 
scale.  This resulted in increased mobility of highly talented employees 
and consequently, there is both a shortage and a greater demand for 
professional and specialist staff at all levels.  
 
The assertion above not only applies to private organisations but has 
also influenced how government conducts its business in an effort to 
deliver efficient services to South African citizens and non-citizens. 
Van As (2001) further argues that employee turnover has rapidly 
become one of the key organisational focus areas and that many world 
class organisations have learnt that retention of high calibre 
employees cannot be underestimated; they have therefore developed 
innovative ways and means in order to retain talent.  Citing the 
Corporate Leadership Council (1998), Van As (2001) adds that the 
retention of high value knowledge workers is becoming an increasingly 
important problem faced by organisations globally and that the 
financial impact of knowledge worker turnover is vastly under-
 appreciated by most organisations, since the hidden nature of turnover 
costs, such as lost productivity, conceals their true magnitude.   
 
Cappelli (2000, p. 104) in Van As (2001) argues that ??fast moving 
markets require organisations that are continually refreshed??. He goes 
further to indicate that ??the old goal of HR management to minimise 
 
21 
 
overall employee turnover needs to be replaced by a new goal which 
is: to influence who leaves and when. If managing employee retention 
in the past was akin to tending a dam that keeps a reservoir in place, 
today it is more like managing a river. The object is not to prevent 
water from flowing out but to control its direction and speed??.  
 
Rothwell and Fellow (1980) agree that labour turnover proves 
dangerous if one chooses to live with it, and it is damaging when it 
involves losing good people, and that high turnover means skills 
shortage and instability. The authors add that labour turnover should 
be a special concern for personnel managers who should be 
responsible for the operation of agreed action plans, and that 
attracting, developing and retaining highly skilled professionals has 
become a critical concern for organisations around the world 
regardless of the type and size of the organisation or industry. This is 
supported by Cappelli (2000) who argues that employers of choice will 
win the battle to attract and retain highly skilled professionals, and this 
will be done by adopting a far more strategic approach to work force 
management and creating a win-win employment situation where the 
employee and the employer each get what they want. 
 
2.5. Retention within a global context 
 
Talent management is a worldwide challenge for all global industries 
and governments; many developed and developing countries are 
putting measures in place to lure skilled people to their respective 
countries. This is most seen through the relaxation of immigration laws 
aimed at attracting and retaining skilled individuals.  Silzer and Dowell 
(2010) advise that talent is becoming recognised as a core competitive 
asset in business organisation and as the currency of business. 
Organisations are beginning to understand the strategic value of talent 
and the impact that strong talent can have on financial outcomes. The 
 
22 
 
authors argue that there is a major shift in how business executives 
view the value of Human Resources and that the sustaining element in 
organisations through the business cycles is the critical talent an 
organisation has. According to the authors, a paradigm shift in human 
resource planning should be defined by a driven strategy integrated 
with other processes, managed as a core business practice and 
engrained as a talent mind - set. 
 
Silzer and Dowell (2010) proceed to argue that effective talent 
acquisition starts with a sound talent strategy with a conscious 
decision regarding what methods and approaches to use to identify, 
source and secure the best talent in the market. Accordingly, the talent 
strategy starts with an organisation strategy which clearly identifies the 
business competitive position. An organisation needs to identify the 
talent strategy that best supports its business strategy; create a 
compelling employment value proposition that clearly articulates how 
the organisation differs from others; capture the employment value 
proposition in a memorable employment brand; detail the employment 
brand into a talent brand and a leadership brand that articulate the 
calibre of talent and leadership for the organisation; determine the 
most productive channels to the talent and what the organisation 
wants; and continuously measure success. This view is supported by 
Dorrian (2005) who argues that in attempting to attract the right calibre 
of human capital, countries will develop the kind of infrastructure that 
will appeal to the people they want to attract. The author further argues 
that in the fight for human capital, differentiation means not only being 
seen to be different, but also being believed to be better. 
 
2.6. Labour turnover drivers 
 
In order to retain key personnel, human resource management must 
top the agenda of any organisation in order to minimise labour 
 
23 
 
turnover. Lusthaus, et al. (2002) argue that human resource 
management involves the planning, implementation and monitoring of 
the organisation?s labour force and that the human resources of each 
organisation are the most valuable assets and should be linked to the 
organisation? s strategic objectives and mission. An organisation will 
not be able to successfully understand and manage employee turnover 
if turnover push and pull factors are not identified and understood. 
Push factors are those factors which act to repel the individuals from a 
location, they often mirror pull factors and might include loss of 
employment opportunity, low wages, and poor living conditions. 
According to most researchers, both push and pull factors impact on 
the individual who makes a decision about moving to, leaving or 
staying in a job. 
 
The following have been identified as internal drivers for employee 
turnover (Phillip, 2002, p. 11)  
 
 Career growth in all directions ? in addition to obtaining new skills, 
employees want the opportunities to advance within an 
organisation as they grow and develop these skills. 
 Desire to be on the leading edge ? employees are interested in an 
organisation with a strong reputation, considers being on the 
leading edge of technology or product development, or the best at 
what they do. 
 The need to learn new skills, desire for all types of benefits, desire 
for competitive compensation, need for caring, supportive 
environment, the need for performance-based rewards and the 
need for recognition for participation, accomplishment and 
contribution. 
 
Travaglione and Marshall (2000) also identified employee personal 
characteristics which includes kingship responsibilities such as number 
 
24 
 
of children, job related factors which includes lack of best HR policies 
in reducing turnover, job content which includes overall job stress and 
alternative employment available to an employee as push factors for 
labour turnover. Herman (1999) identified five principal reasons why 
people leave one organisation for the other as being inadequate 
opportunities for growth; incompatible corporate culture and insufficient 
support relationship with co-workers; insufficient support to get tasks 
accomplished; and dissatisfaction with compensation offered. 
Hesselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard (1997) contributes by identifying 
some of the causes of employees walking out of the organisation as 
workplace tensions, lack of commitment and recognition as people are 
not prepared to invest their talents without recognition; and lack of 
adequate returns. 
 
2.7. Labour turnover costs 
 
Turnover is costly to every organisation and the costs can be either of 
monetary value or non-monetary value. Travaglione and Marshall 
(2000) identified labour turnover costs as the following: replacement 
costs which includes advertisement costs, review r?sum? and 
interview costs, selection costs, orientation costs, low productivity 
costs, training costs which includes technical training costs and 
separation costs which includes exit interviews, administration and lost 
productivity. These costs are also advanced by Phillips and Connell 
(2003) who identify some of the negative impacts of turnover on the 
organisation.  
 
2.7.1. High financial costs  
 
These have a significant economic impact on the organisation, in both 
direct and indirect costs. Sometimes the costs alone become a critical 
strategic issue. In a tight labour market where the success of the 
 
25 
 
company depends on employees with critical skills, recruiting and 
retaining the appropriate talent can determine the success or failure of 
the organisation. 
 
2.7.2. Service quality  
 
With so much emphasis on excellent service to external and internal 
customers, high turnover has a significant negative impact on the 
quality of customer service.  High turnover of front line employees is 
often regarded as the most serious threat to providing external 
customer service.  
 
2.7.3. Loss of expertise  
 
Particularly in knowledge industries, a departing employee may have 
the critical skills needed for working with specific software, completing 
a step in an important process, or carrying out a task for a project. 
 
2.7.4. Loss of business opportunities 
 
Turnover may result in a shortage of staff for a project or leave the 
remaining staff unprepared to take advantage of a new business 
opportunity. Phillips and Connell (2003) are supported by Wanous 
(1982) when he indicates that an individual work group is cohesive and 
that turnover can have negative effects on those remaining that go 
beyond additional workload and possible performance declines. The 
author maintains that turnover has an effect on the organisation 
leading to a decline in morale as the attitude of those remaining is 
affected. He further points out the impact of undifferentiated control of 
strategies and strategic opportunity costs as the organisation may be 
forced to cancel or postpone potential profitable ventures due to labour 
turnover. Although turnover has negative consequences, the author 
 
26 
 
argues that labour turnover may also have positive effects on an 
organisation as it affords an organisation the opportunity of replacing 
the departing employees with high performers. When discussing why 
retention is a serious problem, Phillips and Connelle (2003) and 
Slamet (1999) present three difference costs that result from employee 
turnover, namely the direct expenses incurred for recruiting, 
interviewing and training; indirect costs which includes the impact on 
customers, office moral and other employees who may consider 
leaving as an option; and lastly opportunity costs, which is the loss of 
opportunities as a result of managers and other employees having to 
fill the void until a replacement is hired.  
 
The high costs associated with employee turnover are further 
supported by Gaylard (2004) in his research titled the factors 
influencing the retention of information technology workers. The 
researcher argues that a fundamental issue with high staff turnover is 
cost, as most organisations do not measure the cost of turnover and 
therefore the financial impact of such turnover is vastly under-
 estimated. The researcher presents turnover costs by citing the 
Corporate Leadership Council (1998) that the cost of employees 
leaving includes more than the replacement of the worker and includes 
the cost of loss of talent, productivity, quality shortfall, poor morale and 
customer dissatisfaction. The loss of an employee is also a major 
negative contributor to organisational or institutional knowledge.  
 
From the organisational perspective, employee turnover can represent 
a significant cost in terms of recruiting, training, socialisation and 
disruption, as well as a variety of indirect costs. Frank, Finnegan and 
Taylor (2004) agree that labour turnover is costly to organisations and 
this includes hidden costs such as loss of client relations, reduced 
morale of remaining staff members, increased strain on remaining 
resources, and loss of potential innovations and tacit knowledge which 
 
27 
 
goes with the employee. Reddy (2004) also warns that labour turnover 
has become very costly to organisations when it comes to the cost of 
recruiting and training and the fact that finding talented people is 
tough, the real challenge is retaining them and that it must be clear to 
an organisation that in the knowledge economy, a company?s most 
important assets are its personnel. Lehman, Dieleman and Martineau 
(2008) agree and indicate that literature on health workforce mobility 
relating to both international and internal migration states that factors 
affecting retention have commonly been categorised into pull and push 
factors. Pull factors are identified as those which attract an individual to 
a new destination. These might include improved employment 
opportunities and/or career prospects, higher income, better living 
conditions, or a more stimulating environment. 
 
This view is shared by Mashatola (2003) who conducted research on 
factors that influence turnover and retention of Call Centre Agents. In 
his findings, he argues that the loss of skilled employees through 
turnover has negative implications for organisational effectiveness 
because individuals depart with intangible knowledge about products, 
markets and customers. He goes further to suggest that the loss can 
be either monetary or non-monetary 
 
2.8. Retention management 
 
Phillips and Connell (2003) and Mobley (1982) argue that, given the 
significance of turnover, it is important for the manager and 
prospective manager to be able to analyse, understand and effectively 
manage employee turnover.  Furthermore, employee turnover is not a 
new issue, being as relevant today, and its importance will be even 
greater in the future.  Managing retention is thus a constant challenge 
for any organisation. ?The awareness of the issue has heightened in 
the last decade and from all indications, the problem will be more 
 
28 
 
serious in future decades. Even in slow economic times, most human 
resources (HR) executives find attracting and retaining talent to be a 
big problem?? (Phillips and Connell, 2003, p. 2). 
 
Rowland, London, Ferris and Sherman (1980) argue that although 
sophisticated forecasting techniques are available, they are rarely 
used because of inflexibility and lack of responsiveness to rapidly 
changing conditions, while on the other hand much more attention is 
given to developing manpower planning policies and programmes. 
Phillips and Conelle (2003) support the notion and report that some 
organisations do a superb job of managing retention, whereas others 
fail miserably. The issues are not always externally driven but often lie 
within the organisation, sometimes in the approach to the problem. 
Wanous (1982) on the other hand, argues that from a management 
perspective, every organisation needs a mechanism for evaluating the 
utility to the organisation of turnover, referring to the means of 
integrating the positive and negative costs and consequences of 
turnover for individuals at differing levels of position, performance and 
potential.  Wanous (1982) adds that the process is crucial for collecting 
valid management information on turnover costs and consequences, in 
order to effect changes on causes of turnover such as behavioural 
intentions, job satisfaction, and organisational commitment. Fletcher 
(2002), on the other hand, maintains that bureaucratic delays and a 
failure to co-ordinate the process of implementing a retention strategy 
contribute to high labour turnover rates.  
 
2.9. Obstacles to retention 
 
Managers in all organisations have an inherent responsibility to identify 
and address obstacles to retention. Sandler (2005) identifies obstacles 
to retention of personnel as non-flexible policies, and advances the 
need for flexibility to be built into policies in order to retain workers.  
 
29 
 
 
Flowers and Hughes (1975) state the reasons why employees stay in 
the company as equally important like the reasons why employees 
leave the organisation. In order to reinforce the right reasons for 
employees to stay, the company can do this by providing conditions 
compatible with employee values for working and living. Managers 
must according to the researchers stop the rituals of finding out why 
people leave and start investing resources in the positive management 
of retention.   
 
2.10. Turnover factors 
 
Boshoff, Van Wyk, Hoole and Owen (2002) highlight that employee 
turnover processes in an organisation is still poorly understood in spite 
of the many models that have been built over the years. The 
researchers indicate that excessive turnover can have significant direct 
and indirect costs for corporations. These costs are related to the 
recruiting, selecting, inducting, training, and development of staff to 
replace those who have left the organisation. The researchers further 
argue that it is therefore of practical and significant importance to 
identify the variables that are related to employees? intention to leave 
or to remain with an organisation. The researchers proceed to make 
reference to Steers and Mowday (1981), who also advance that it has 
long been realised that the decision of the intention to quit is probably 
influenced by various factors. According to Brown (1996) intention to 
quit is the strength of an individual?s view that he or she does not want 
to stay with his or he current employer. Mobley (1977) and Steers and 
Mowday (1981) indicate that intention to quit or to stay with an 
employer starts with the evaluation by the individual of his or her 
current situation and then moves through different stages until a firm 
intention to quit is reached and a final outcome is the decision to leave 
the organisation.  
 
30 
 
 
2.11. Management style 
 
Managers who are contained within themselves can also contribute to 
high labour turnover and a change in attitude and people centred 
management style may be required. In Lehman, Dieleman and 
Martineau (2008) the research discovered that management style and 
organisational policy were significant factors in staff retention. Staff 
valued open and transparent communication that included an 
explanation of the larger organisational picture. It was further seen as 
beneficial when communication flowed freely both up and down the 
organisational structure. Staff seemed to remain more positive about 
their job and the organisation if they felt that their ideas were being 
listened to and not simply dismissed. Staff consultation was also raised 
as an issue, and as with communication, staff wanted this to be open 
and transparent. Staff felt that accountability from management was 
important and acknowledgement of staff contributions was raised as 
an organisational and management issue. Staff further identified that 
feeling valued and rewarded for doing a good job was more important 
than singling out an individual staff member, especially as most staff 
work as part of a team. 
 
Staff also needed recognition of their work when performing under 
difficult circumstances and identified a management style that 
promoted staff morale and team cohesion as important for retention. 
The ??ideal?? manager was described as supporting staff and being 
aware of the individual needs of his/her staff. The manager allowed 
staff, especially experienced staff, to assume some responsibility and 
autonomy. According to participants, this type of manager dealt with 
staff fairly and this increased respect and trust in them. Staff wanted to 
ensure that organisational policies and procedures were developed 
through staff consultation, and allowed for some flexibility in their 
 
31 
 
implementation. They further identified family-friendly work policies 
which allow part-time work and flexible working hours as significant for 
retaining staff. 
 
Van Der Merwe and Miller (1976) identified the following as variables 
affecting absence and turnover: 
 
a) The worker - the educational level of the worker, whether 
related to his/her economic background, standards and norms 
of the community he/she comes from;  
b) The job - how secure is an employee within his or her job; 
c) Department - how is communication, planning, organizing and 
human relations; 
d) The company climate - factors such as management style, 
organisational structure, wages and salary administration are 
considered; 
e) Locality of the employer - whether other employment 
opportunities are readily available, and also transport facilities; 
f) The economic climate. 
 
The worker?s educational level, job security, working environment and 
climate are factors that mostly need to be kept in mind as they are 
normally turnover contributory factors. 
   
Turnover measures may be useful in locating problem areas within an 
organisation and in order to diagnose possible causes. Van Der Merwe 
and Miller (1976) warn that in labour turnover, withdrawal is a final 
event. The authors proceed to add that a certain amount of labour 
turnover is inevitable and in fact desirable for a number of reasons. It 
contributes to industrial efficiency by introducing new blood and also 
provides employees with opportunities for advancement. It enables 
new or expanding industries to obtain labour and without the 
 
32 
 
employment of new workers, an organisation?s labour force would 
become static with the age structure heavily skewed on the side of the 
older workers. 
 
2.12. Staffing 
 
Hilgert, Schoen and Towle (1978) identify staffing as one of the critical 
function of management, as it involves recruiting new workers and 
determining that they are qualified employees to fill all positions in the 
organisation. Staffing includes selecting and training employees, 
appraising their performance and providing for their development and 
advancement within the organisation. For every employee, the 
following needs are vital: security, good compensation, justice and 
mutual trust, good working conditions, a feeling of importance, the 
opportunity for self-expression, sense of belonging to a group, 
opportunity to participate in decision-making, and recognition and 
praise. 
 
2.12.1. Factors which can assist organisations in staff 
 retention 
 
2.12.1.1. Employee?s needs 
 
An organisation which makes an effort to retain key personnel 
regularly identifies factors that can assist in employee?s retention. 
Capelli (2000) suggests that the following will enable success in 
attracting, developing and retaining skilled professionals: 
 
a) Compensation where salary packages are valuable; 
b) A culture where social ties with the colleagues are encouraged 
and employees are made to feel as part of the team; 
 
33 
 
c) Location and flexible arrangements where the individual?s needs 
are met in respect of flexible hours; and 
d) Job design where special tasks and assignments are included 
in job requiring specialist skills.  
 
All of the above points, as correctly pointed out by Capelli (2000), are 
indeed critical in an effort to manage employee turnover as they 
address the question of employee job satisfaction. 
 
Capelli (2000) further argues that retention of employees can be a 
source of competitive advantage with companies seeking to retain 
those employees who have a positive effect. The researcher adds that 
employees leave the organisation as they feel unappreciated and de-
 motivated.  In the analysis of knowledge in an organisation, the 
researcher explains knowledge in an organisation with reference to the 
definition of Despress and Hiltrop (1995), and explains it as the engine 
that transforms economics and the stuff of organisational success. The 
researcher argues that staff retention is critical because of the 
employee?s tactical and business knowledge. 
 
Despress and Hiltrop (1995) concurs with Capelli (2000) that 
employers must indeed ensure that competitive compensation is 
offered; be flexible regarding where and when work can be conducted; 
consider adding lifestyle benefits cost effectively to the organisation; 
offer employees health care benefits; be flexible about how the work 
should be done; take genuine interest in employee?s career aspirations 
and personal lives; permit employees time off for personal and family 
matters if their work can be completed later at home; recognize 
positive contributions; provide feedback or communicate company 
progress and developments; have regular meetings to discuss 
employees? involvement in company plans; and administer exit 
interviews. 
 
34 
 
 
Johnson (1998) also supports Despress and Hilltrop (1995) and 
Capelli (2000) as he asserts that turnover reduction strategies that 
include improved selection, good employee orientation, realistic job 
previews, appropriate training, effective communications, job design, 
supervisory leadership, equitable pay systems, data analysis in 
respect of employee turnover, and opportunities for career 
advancement, can arguably have an impact in minimising high 
employee turnover.  
 
Herman (1999) also suggests that staff development, building 
emotional bonds and working relationship can also positively 
contribute towards employee retention. Herman and Gioia (2000) on 
the other hand, warn that management style can enhance or be 
detrimental to an organisation, because when an employee leaves, he 
or she does not really leave an organisation but the manager. 
   
Gillham and Ristevski (2007) in their research in the health sector 
found that career opportunities were identified as a central factor in 
attracting and retaining allied health professionals to rural practice. 
They argue that in order to retain staff, there is a need to provide 
opportunities for professional development, and also for the 
recognition of advanced skills and performing of extra duties. An 
effective strategy used by some managers was to regularly discuss 
with staff their career aspirations and plan ways to achieve them.  
 
Davidson (2001) indicates that retaining talent is more important than 
acquiring new blood. When citing Long (1951) and Maclachlan (1985) 
he argues that there is no doubt that some mobility of labour is 
inevitable and that turnover cannot be wholly eliminated. The 
researcher proceeds to point out that a certain degree of mobility of 
labour is in fact healthy to an organisation, in that unsuitable persons 
are weeded out. However, the researcher warns that the overall effect 
 
35 
 
of turnover is harmful and it is critical that turnover be properly 
managed in order to reduce its negative effects. 
  
Lehmann, Dielman and Martineau (2008) advise that, for the purposes 
of analysis and strategy development, it is helpful for policy-makers 
and managers to have some way of organising the different factors. 
The report found that the work environment encompasses the push 
and pull factors, such as local labour relations, management styles, 
existence or lack of leadership, opportunities for continuing education, 
availability of infrastructure, equipment and support. 
 
It is further argued in the report that there are a number of individual 
factors which may impact on decisions, such as origin, age, gender 
and marital status and those employers will not have much influence 
beyond the work environment, though in the public sector the 
government can have more influence on both the local and national 
environment. It is further argued in the paper that it is critical to look 
into the location of structures involved in decision-making relating to 
employment and wider issues of attraction and retention.  
 
2.12.1.2. Policy changes 
 
Hesselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard (1997) advise that an 
organisation of the future requires a focus on new human resource 
policies and that such an organisation must help people gain skills and 
self-reliance to master the new environment, and to find security and 
support. The authors suggest that companies or organisations need to 
realize that valuing human capital and team collaboration are the best 
ways to create workplaces capable of addressing the challenges of the 
global economy. They argue that in order to compete effectively, 
businesses must attract, retain, motivate and utilize effectively the 
most talented people they can find. According to the authors, the most 
 
36 
 
critically important resource of every organisation walks out the door 
every day. 
 
Hesselbein, et al. (1997) further hold that assumptions and policies 
that derive from the corporatist model of the twentieth century are an 
inadequate basis for the social contract. Organisations for today will be 
wise to critically evaluate their current systems and practices for 
attracting, developing and retaining human capital. The authors 
emphasize the importance of an organisation having a human strategy 
department and advise that organisations need to periodically survey 
their talent base to determine the appropriate course of action 
necessary for maintaining and building credibility. Human capital is 
built through organisational credibility, the authors maintain.  
 
Demonstrating impeccable character in adhering to core values, 
exercising competence by continuous improvement and innovation in 
products and services, and always demonstrating care for the people 
who make it all happen will be the mark of the organisation of the 
future, the authors reiterate. The new work contract where employees 
take responsibility for their own career enhancement is critical and can 
be as burdensome for organisations to manage as it is for individuals 
concerned. This is supported by Hesselbein, et al. (1997) who 
indicates that some of the burdensome factors leading to high labour 
turnover are the decline in opportunities for promotion, increase in 
workload and decline in support staff, the increasing influence of the 
knowledge worker, and the frequent lack of connection and 
contribution. 
 
2.12.1.3. Modification of human resource systems 
 
Hesselbein, et al. (1997) recommend the following factors to enable 
efficiency of retention strategy and argues that measures aimed at 
 
37 
 
retaining employees must be clearly identified, employees must be 
made aware that the employer wants to keep them, provide 
recognition, provide opportunities for development and involvement, 
challenge the compensation plan, relax the culture by reducing 
bureaucracy, and provide for entrepreneurial opportunities. The 
authors further warn that organisations that are unable to modify their 
human resources systems to match tomorrow?s realities will lose their 
competitive edge, while those that are willing and able to create a 
dynamic new human resource model will retain the high knowledge 
talent needed to succeed in tomorrow?s competitive global economy. 
 
Beach (1980) adds that a discipline of human resource planning has 
developed and it is now being widely used to guide managers in the 
planning and development of human resources management; 
allocation of the required financial resources is also a necessity. The 
author proceeds to argue that tools being used to manage retention do 
not appear to be adequate to meet the needs of management for 
proper evaluation and planning, and additional tools have to be 
developed to ensure effectiveness.  It is only through effective human 
resource planning that management will be prepared to have the right 
people at the right places, at the right time to fulfil both organisational 
and individual objectives.  
 
With proper planning and evaluation, Beach (1980) argues that 
management is able to attract, retain, develop and utilize talent to meet 
organisational challenges of the future. At the same time, the 
organisation is able to provide employees with realistic and satisfying 
career opportunities. The author advises that human resources 
planning must include forecasting which anticipates talent 
requirements, programming which involves plans to meet the needs, 
and lastly evaluation which assesses the effectiveness of the 
forecasting. During evaluation, the author advises that tools and 
 
38 
 
procedures for evaluation must include in-depth review of specific 
policies, systems, programmes and activities.  
 
2.12.1.4. Micro organisational strategies 
 
Thulare (2003) conducted research regarding retention of medical 
doctors in the public service. In her findings, she identified micro-
 organisational strategies as some of the strategies that can contribute 
positively to successful employee retention. The micro-organisational 
strategies include services of a retention manager, regular evaluation 
of employees? feelings and wants, managers with accountability, 
employee recognition programmes, market approach to retention, 
matrix organisations with more flexibility, continuous monitoring, and 
the practice of exit interviews.  
 
Lehmann, Marjolein and Martineau (2008) in their research on staffing 
remote rural areas in middle and low income countries, argue that 
factors regarding attraction and retention are multi-faceted and 
complex but that there are no set answers to the problem. They further 
advance that answers are found through learning about what works in 
terms of fit between problem, strategy and effective navigation through 
the politics of implementation. 
 
Morrell, Clarke and Wilkinson (2001) in their research on the use of 
models in the management of employee turnover, argue that a 
business needs a source of labour to function since labour is one of 
the factors of production.  This is supported by Dibble (1999) who 
suggests that, as the psychological contract between employer and 
employee changes from job security and loyalty to employability where 
individual employees take charge of their own careers, employees who 
find that they are no longer getting what they want from their current 
job will look for alternatives. She proceeds to argue that employees 
 
39 
 
with confidence in their own abilities and competence will leave and 
these are often those employees an organisation would not like to 
lose. 
  
Horak (2007) while researching the perceptions of factors influencing 
labour turnover of information technology workers in South Africa, 
indicates that exit interviews are unlikely to yield appropriate results as 
employees leaving an organisation may choose not to burn their 
bridges and decide not to tell the truth about their reasons for leaving. 
While making reference to Harvard Business Essentials (2002) the 
researcher proceeds to emphasize that the success or failure of many 
companies presently depends more on their human capital than on 
their financial or business assets.  This view is supported by Slamet 
(1999) who indicates that job satisfaction comes from knowing that one 
is valued or considered an asset and the best demonstration of 
whether one is regarded as an asset is if the company is willing to 
invest in the person.  
 
2.12.1.5. Employees as assets 
 
Capowski (1997) in an HR Focus journal special report on strategies 
for managing retention, found that in 1990 companies were 
preoccupied with downsizing and very few looked ahead to a 
predictable shortage of talented employees.  Presently, most 
organisations agree that employees are their competitive advantage 
and the question that remains is how to hold on to that competitive 
advantage.  The researcher proceeds to add that 24 per cent of 
participating companies had a coherent personal and career strategy 
for employees and 38 per cent had a formal succession 
planning/career development programme in place.  However, the 
researcher expressed a concern that lack of career development is a 
frequent reason employees choose to discontinue employment.  
 
40 
 
 
These findings are supported by Sandler (2005) where respondents 
advanced the following as tools to retention of employees: innovative 
compensation and benefits package; effective rewards and 
recognition; performance management aligning employee goals with 
business goals; strategies for increasing employee satisfaction; career 
planning and work life strategy; mentoring programme; merger and 
acquisition retention strategy; use of coaching for career development; 
and competency-based strategies. In support of employee retention, 
the researcher emphasised that if employees do not resign it is not 
necessary to hire new employees; and employers should make the 
work place a fun, clean, profitable, ethical and adventurous 
environment. The researcher further indicates that if one says this 
does not sound like business then one has missed the point of how the 
future is going to be.  
 
Capowski (1997) warns of the loss to the employer once a higher 
performing employee leaves, and advises on the conduct of exit 
interviews as these may assist the organisation in alignment of its 
policies to suit the workforce. Sandler (2005) based on the HR Focus 
journal, states that once an organisation is hiring diverse numbers of 
employees, the challenge shifts to retaining them. Employee turnover 
is expensive, as replacing each worker, no matter how diverse, is 
expensive.  The researcher advises that it benefits an organisation to 
consider every possible way to retain workers. The researcher 
highlights that it will be damaging for the organisation when high 
turnover of diverse employees is experienced. 
 
Employees remain an organisation?s competitive edge. Gaylard (2004) 
argues, citing Drucker (1994) that although most organisations say that 
people are their greatest assets, few practice what they preach, let 
alone truly believe it. Employee loyalty, as correctly pointed out in 
 
41 
 
Manchester Consulting (2000) no longer exists. Employees no longer 
expect to remain at a corporation until retirement and thus change jobs 
when presented with a compelling offer or when they are not receiving 
what they want from the company. An employer should therefore 
brand the organisation in a way that it remains an employer of choice. 
 
2.12.1.6. Corporate strategy priority 
 
Gruber (2008) highlights that the inability to retain knowledge workers 
with specialized skills as well as tacit knowledge and expertise that is 
difficult to transfer, has brought about a loss of knowledge and 
productivity for the organisation. The researcher argues that the war 
for talent can be won by first elevating talent management to a 
corporate priority and subsequently perpetually refining the employee 
value proposition. He further indicates that companies need to 
continuously communicate with their employees as this will result in 
sought-after employees being attracted and retained within the 
organisation. In order for companies to gain a competitive advantage, 
they will need to develop a firm understanding of knowledge workers, 
their development and their motivations so that appropriate retention 
policies can be implemented. 
 
Gaylard (2004) notes that employee turnover is a serious problem and 
the question of how to retain highly talented and valued people is very 
important. Previous research focused on individuals rather than the 
organisation or business. Employee turnover is defined as the 
common voluntary cessation of membership in an organisation by an 
individual who receives monetary compensation for participating in that 
organisation. Employee turnover contributes to the potential benefits 
and disadvantages for organisations.  Some of the negative effects of 
turnover are identified as economic costs, productivity losses, impaired 
service quality, loss of business opportunities, increased administrative 
 
42 
 
burden, and loss of morale among the remaining staff. The author 
further points out positive ramifications such as displacement of poor 
performance, infusion of new knowledge and technology, reducing 
labour costs when facing stiffer competition, maintaining ties with 
existing employees, and providing new business ventures. 
 
Gillham and Ristevski (2007) in their research on recruitment and 
retention of allied health workers found that factors such as 
management style and organisational policy were significant factors in 
staff retention. Staff valued open and transparent communication that 
included an explanation of the larger organisational picture. Staff 
appreciated a two-way communication and their ideas being valued 
and not simply dismissed. The researchers further established that 
staff identified a management style that promoted staff morale and 
team cohesion as important for retention, and identified an ideal 
manager as one supporting staff and being aware of the individual 
needs of his/her staff. The manager is, according to the research 
findings, allowing staff especially experienced staff to assume some 
responsibility and autonomy. This kind of manager deals with staff 
fairly, which increased respect and trust in them. 
 
2.12.1.7. Personnel research 
 
Mobley (1982) indicates that, with the shortage of skilled manpower in 
South Africa and the emphasis which is nowadays placed on Human 
Resources, their development and better utilisation, one would expect 
personnel research to feature prominently in South African personnel 
departments. All fields of management could benefit from systematic 
and purposeful research on personnel management. The author 
further highlights a critical key activity that must always be kept in mind 
by all managers in order to sustain organisational growth. This critical 
activity is the regular review of the entire personnel management 
 
43 
 
function, its effectiveness and efficiency in fulfilling its role of assisting 
managers with their staffing challenges.  An emphasis should be put 
on the determination of the need for results of costs involved in, and 
justification for, the usage of personnel management policies, 
procedures, practices, techniques, labour problems like absenteeism, 
labour turnover, productivity, and morale. It is argued in the journal that 
these factors should be continuously investigated in an effort to 
improve labour utilisation.  
 
Ekman (1990) on the other hand, argues that, because management 
has been perceived as a set of tools and techniques, this inflexible 
mind - set has rendered people unable to change and leads to lack of 
vision.  Where there is a lack of vision, it is hard to accept that the 
techniques and practices currently being applied are failing hopelessly. 
Most South African companies are faced with declining productivity, 
diminishing returns on investment, and poor quality of products and 
services. Yet the same tools are being applied in a continuously 
changing environment. Society in general is changing bringing about 
major shifts in values, yet the old methodology is used, hoping that 
things will come right. It is because of this inflexible mind - set that 
gaps in the market are not identified, key personnel are lost, and 
labour unrest becomes more common. 
 
When citing Cappelli (2000) Reddy (2004) maintains that the flow of 
talent is inevitable and is influenced by labour market forces but that it 
is imperative for organisations to employ a system of talent 
management. The researcher proceed to state the effects of labour 
turnover as, loss of knowledge, negative impact on productivity, 
lowered morale of remaining staff, loss of momentum in the 
organisation, loss of organisational memory, and customer 
dissatisfaction.  Most critically he indicates that the most important 
asset for every institution is the energy and loyalty of its people.   
 
44 
 
 
2.12.1.8. Human capital theory 
 
Sandler (2005) identifies human capital theory which suggests that 
because the knowledge, skills and abilities that people bring to 
organisations have enormous economic value to the organisation; they 
need to be managed in the same strategic manner that other economic 
assets are managed. Barney (1991) emphasises a resource-based 
theory which also suggests that those resources which are rare, 
inimitable and non-substitutable provide sources of competitive 
advantage to the organisation. The author adds that since knowledge 
resides in people, a critical issue for companies operating in the new 
economy is retaining their valued employees. By making reference to 
the Institute of Singapore Labour Studies (2001) the author views 
employee turnover as having critical negative impacts on the 
development of the employee?s technical competence, skills levels, 
morale of the remaining employees, and the image of the organisation. 
 
The author differentiates between voluntary and involuntary turnover. 
With reference from Maetz and Campion (1998) employee voluntary 
turnover is defined as when management agrees that the employee 
has the physical opportunity to continue employment with the company 
at the time of termination, whereas turnover is defined as movement of 
the employee out of the organisation. The primary cost for employee 
turnover is the cost flow of intellectual capital which resides in people 
and that leaves the organisation.  
 
The author identifies employee packages as important, taking into 
consideration the current economic climate in order to reduce 
employee turnover, since employee benefits constitute an indirect form 
of compensation intended to improve the quality of the work and 
personal lives of the employees. He maintains that benefits are no 
 
45 
 
longer peripheral, but are seen as part of the integral package that 
employers offer them voluntarily.  They have become a significant cost 
and an employment advantage to employers, while providing the 
needed psychological and physical assistance to employees.  
 
2.12.1.9. The practice of exit interviews 
 
Lee and Whitford (2007) argue with reference to Cotton and Tuttle 
(1986), Selden and Moynihan (2000), and Tett and Meyer (1993) that 
relatively few studies examine the intent to leave in the public sector. 
The researchers argue that turnover is a conscious and deliberate 
intention to leave the organisation. In the research, it is argued that a 
large number of workers already move regularly between jobs in the 
public organisations and turnover affects organisational performance in 
the long term.  The researchers further argue in the paper that his 
article fills the gap in the literature on public sector turnover by 
reaching back to the argument about exit, voice and loyalty. In the 
article, the researchers discuss a theory from Hirschman (1970) where 
it is argued that, a person exits when they leave an organisation and 
can express a voice of dissatisfaction with the organisation directly to 
management.  People are less likely to state an intention to leave 
when satisfaction with the organisation is high. 
 
2.12.1.10. Human resource strategy 
 
Boudreau and Ramstad (2007) highlight the importance of Human 
Resources Strategy and Human Resources Framework. According to 
the authors, if one goes through his/her company or organisation?s HR 
strategy, it will contain the same information as that which is contained 
in the company?s competitors and this may include building the 
leadership pipeline, dealing with the brain drain of an aging workforce, 
reducing health care costs, or similar.  On a topic titled: Uncharted 
 
46 
 
Talent Opportunities, the authors argue that in order to find the 
uncharted talent, this cannot only be a question of HR strategy but 
rather how well the entire organisation connects decisions about talent 
and how it is organised in the organisation?s vital strategic interests. It 
is, according to the authors, important to know the following: 
 
a) Where the organisation strategy requires that talent in an 
organisation be better that that of competitors. 
b) Where the organisation talent and systems need to be different 
from those of the competitors. 
c) Where payment of the fifteenth percentile of the salary should 
be paid. 
d) Where more should be spent on pivotal talent programmes and 
practices than competitors and why. 
e) If the organisation?s strategic goal/s was to change or shift, 
which of the organisation?s employees or structures would have 
to change? 
 
The authors put talent-ship at the centre of attention by calling for an 
evolution beyond human resources to talent-ship. A leader can 
continue to navigate his/her strategic territory with inadequate talent 
and organisational tools or embrace and build a new decision science 
that illuminates the hidden opportunities that lie in great decisions 
about talent and how it is organised, where those decisions matter 
most and whether they are made. This, according to Boudreau and 
Ramstad (2007), is an essential evolution. 
 
Whether it is called people, labour, intellectual capital, human capital, 
human resources, talent or some other term, the resource that lies 
within employees and how it is organised is increasingly recognized as 
critical to strategic success and competitive advantage. The authors 
indicate that evidence shows that it is still frustratingly difficult for most 
 
47 
 
business leaders to know precisely where and how investments in 
employee talent in an organisation actually drive strategic success, 
what academics call the ?black box? (Boudreau and Ramstad, 2007). 
 
The authors argue that the Human Resources profession should be 
among the most influential and strategically important, and it is 
expected that there will be significant advancements in the 
sophistication with which HR leaders drive organisational effectiveness 
and create sustainable strategic success. The authors emphasise 
conditions that mark the emergence of a decision science and 
identifies, among others, the following: 
 
a) The resource is important for business success. 
b) The resource is constrained. 
c) There is well-developed professional practice supporting the 
resource, and providing the ability to implement decisions and 
monitor their effects. 
 
2.12.1.11. Talent-ship 
 
Silzer and Dowell (2010, pp. 13-14) also recommend that retention can 
better be managed through a migration from the traditional human 
resource management to a talent-ship approach. The authors describe 
talent as ?referring to a pool of employees who are exceptional in their 
skills and abilities, either in a specific technical skill (such as software 
graphics skills) or a competency (such as consumer marketing talent), 
or a more general area (such as general managers or a high potential 
talent)?. Talent Management, on the other hand, is defined by the 
authors as ?an integrated set of processes, programs and cultural 
norms in an organisation designed and implemented to attract, 
develop, deploy and retain talent to achieve strategic objectives and 
meet future business needs? (Silzer and Dowell, 2010, p.18). 
 
48 
 
 
The advocacy of talent-ship is supported in the New Decision Science 
by Boudreau and Ramstad (2007) who argue that the goal of a talent 
decision science is to increase the organisation?s success by 
improving decisions that impact or depend on talent resources. 
According to the authors, the talent resource includes not just the 
talents that organisation knows about and manages, but all those 
talents that are potentially available and valuable, if only an 
organisation knew about them. It includes not just people an 
organisation has and how they are organised, but also the people an 
organisation can potentially get and what organisational decisions 
should be made. It is argued by the authors that talent-ship is to HR 
what finance is to accounting, and what marketing is to sales. It is 
articulated by the authors that Human Resources (HR) is a less mature 
profession since there is often less consistency in the decision models 
used within the profession when compared to finance. According to the 
authors, if one takes discussion questions for business leaders and 
ask ten controllers to address specific financial challenges and ask ten 
HR professionals to address a specific organisational or talent 
challenge, one is more likely to find non-alignment and inconsistency 
in HR than in Finance.  
 
The cause of the inconsistency and misalignment is, according to the 
authors, normally evident in misalignment between HR professionals 
at headquarters and those that are in Business Units. There is a 
different approach in goal-setting in performance management and 
compensation, different assumptions and models for individual 
development from professionals who drive the design of succession 
planning and development systems. The talent-ship view is supported 
by Goldsmith and Carter (2010) who introduce the six phase system to 
talent management as follows: 
 
 
49 
 
a) Business Diagnosis 
The organisation should continuously focus on its talent needs even if 
it is doing well. There must be internal realignment where innovation is 
promoted, people are not managed like commodities and the 
organisation does not become lethargic. Organisational capacity must 
match organisational growth with the intent to build talent resources for 
the future. The organisation should create consistent internal systems 
to evaluate performance and maintain an efficient hiring system. 
 
b) Assessment 
The organisation should regularly assess its performance and 
processes to enable investment in required skills. 
 
c) Programme Design 
Programmes should be designed to respond to the individual and 
organisational needs. 
 
d) Implementation 
Implementation of any programme or policies must always reflect the 
organisational goals. 
 
e) On-the-job Support  
Organisations support their talents on the job in order to enable 
transformation and successful implement reforms.   
 
f) Evaluation 
Evaluation of programmes such as talent development strategy must 
be regularly conducted against set standards that will serve as 
benchmarks or thresholds. Performance models can be used to 
evaluate individual managers to gauge their commitments and 
progress in attaining organisational goals. 
 
 
50 
 
The six phase system of talent management outlined above draws on 
the core phases in talent management; these are inseparable if an 
organisation is to successfully manage talent to its benefit.    
 
2.12.1.12. Talent management model 
 
Silzer and Dowell (2010) present five talent processes which should be 
applied by organisations which adopt a talent-ship model. The 
organisation should attract and select talent to the organisation, 
assess competencies and skills in talent, review talent and plan talent 
actions, develop and deploy talent, and engage and retain talent. The 
authors advise that the talent management model should, however, be 
driven by business strategy, integrated with other processes, managed 
as a core business practice, and engrained as a talent mindset.   
2.12.1.13. Talent retention as a risk 
 
Retention of talent should be managed as a serious risk factor for any 
organisation. Silzer and Dowell (2010) advises that effective retention 
efforts require examining each strategic talent pool to identify who is at 
risk and why, so that individualized retention plans can be created. 
This, according to the authors, may mean accelerating a career move. 
 
2.12.1.13.1. The talent challenges  
 
Goldsmith and Carter (2010) identified six challenges of talent 
management: 
 
a) Opaque 
This is a fundamental challenge when managers do not know how 
their current talent management works. 
 
b) Egalitarian 
 
51 
 
There must be clear treatment of high performers and low performers 
and the recognition of talent. 
 
c) Complex 
The performance management process must not be complex but 
simplified. 
 
d) Episodic 
Discipline must be maintained where talent reviews, surveys, 
development planning and succession planning must be regularly 
conducted and not at the frequency determined by individual 
managers. 
 
e) Emotional 
Decisions on talent movement, promotions and key talent activities 
must not be influenced by individual knowledge and emotions but must 
be based on facts. 
 
f) Meaningless 
Talent practice must have teeth where human resources must be able 
to guide and respond to basic questions about talent practices. Talent 
practice must be consequential and managers must be held 
accountable where monetary reward can be given to deserving 
managers who are able to nurture and retain talent.  
 
The factors identified by Goldsmith and Carter (2010) seem to factor in 
the Department?s retention policy co-ordination and management. 
From the interviews it is apparent that emotions play some role on the 
decision whether to retain or not to retain, managers are expected to 
implement a policy which they are not always aware of, while human 
resource as the policy custodian lacks influence. The factors are 
 
52 
 
aggravated by lack of discipline in policy implementation where there 
are no policy reviews and a lack of reporting. 
 
2.12.1.14. A decision framework 
 
Boudreau and Ramstad (2007) advise that without a consistent 
decision framework connecting the various elements of the talent 
management systems and decisions, there is lack of consistent 
message to integrate core systems. Because of lack of common 
understanding of the key principles, talent and organisation 
management systems lack context and are seen as administrative or 
bureaucratic. The authors advocate a change in the traditional manner 
of Human Resources conducting its business, and the adoption of 
progressive missions, such as the mission of HR function being to 
increase the success of the organisation by improving decisions that 
depend on or impact people   
 
2.12.1.15. Job satisfaction 
 
Employee retention is, according to Frank, et al. (2004, p.13) ?the effort 
by an employer to keep desirable workers to meet business 
objectives?. Employee engagement and retention represent two 
interlinked challenges facing organisation s in the 21st century. As the 
economic environment has changed, so have the behavioural scientist 
theories of employee motivation and satisfaction. The author observes 
that companies are more likely to be successful in keeping top 
employees if they actively train and develop talent, treat staff fairly, 
build trust, and focus on retention of high performers at all 
organisational levels. This notion of job satisfaction is supported by 
Robbins (1998: 21) as he defines job satisfaction as ?the difference 
between the amount of rewards workers receive and the amount they 
believe they should receive?. Herman (1997) holds the view that 
 
53 
 
people stay in an organisation because they are valued, respected, 
earn legitimate recognition and are appreciated by being allowed to 
make a difference through their work contributions which allows them 
to gain meaning.  Dobbs (2001) believes that staff retention often 
results from an emotional bond formed between management and 
employee and those factors such as compensation and career 
development are important to employees. The overriding factor for 
employees to leave an organisation is bad managers.  
 
Gunsualey (2000) found that improving core benefits, training and 
development opportunities could appreciably improve work place 
loyalty. These findings are correctly supported by Hanay and Northam 
(2000) who also found that employee retention depends on the ability 
of management to carefully listen to employees and deploy resources 
strategically in areas where the greatest benefit was afforded to the 
organisation, and that turnover could be reduced by providing 
employees with realistic job previews, in which they were informed of 
both the positive and negative aspects of the job. The employees also 
needed to be educated about the culture, policies and working 
conditions of the organisation. 
 
2.12.1.16. Turnover research  
 
MorrelI, Loan-Clarke and Wilkinson (2001) argue that research in 
turnover remains critical as every business needs a source of labour, 
since labour is and remains one of the four factors of production. 
According to Mobley (1982) when an employee leaves an 
organisation, his/her leaving can have a variety of effects that not only 
impact on the organisation, but also the individual employee and wider 
society. The author suggests that a greater understanding of labour 
turnover is required as it can increase the degree to which organisation 
s and employees within organisation s can influence these effects.   
 
54 
 
 
Turnover is widely taken to mean voluntary cessation of membership 
of an organisation by an employee of that organisation. MorrelI, Loan-
 Clarke and Wilkinson (2001) state that involuntary turnover may occur 
for reasons which are independent of the affected employee(s), such 
as the (real or perceived) need to cut costs, restructuring or 
downsizing. The researchers suggest that it is important to emphasize 
that the degree to which it is actually possible for organisation s or 
managers to influence turnover should be assessed alongside any 
measures of turnover such as functionality. If, according to the 
researchers, in all instances turnover appears to be unavoidable, that 
can redirect the focus of resources spending so that managers can 
look to minimize the disruption and inconvenience of an inevitable 
phenomenon. 
 
It is argued by the researchers that, if turnover appears to be 
avoidable, this offers the potential for directed intervention. Turnover is 
often not measured in a sophisticated enough manner to enable 
differentiation between cases where employees have chosen to leave, 
and cases where they have had to leave for reasons outside of their 
control. Below is a crude measurement which is often used by 
organisation s. Even if organisation s of the future has ?virtual? 
employees, they will need to manage them as a resource. ?When an 
employee leaves, this can have a variety of effects that not only impact 
on an organisation but also the individual employee and wider society?. 
(Mobley, 1982, 15-31). These can be either positive or negative 
(Mobley, 1982; Hom and Griffeth, 1995: 13-33). 
 
2.12.1.17. Turnover data  
 
According to Forbes and McGill (1985) organisations do not properly 
manage labour turnover data to assist in future strategic or policy 
 
55 
 
decisions. An approach such as the formula below, does not 
distinguish between cases where people left because of dissatisfaction 
and cases of ill health, retirement and redundancy. A more 
sophisticated measurement needs to be adopted, it is argued by the 
researchers.  
 
The formula below illustrates how some organisations measure 
turnover; 
 
                                Leavers in a year        x 100 
Average number of staff in post during year 
 
Adopted from Forbes and McGill (1985) 
  
Hilgert, Schoen, and Towle (1978) argue that, organisations must 
direct their will and resources towards decisions that will develop and 
enhance personnel management. They proceed to indicate that most 
enterprises direct their efforts towards specific objectives and that 
management is responsible for developing policies and plans of action 
to achieve objectives and for organizing tasks, people, and facilities to 
execute plans efficiently. 
 
Organisations, it is argued, are the mechanisms through which 
management direct, coordinate and controls activities and resources. 
The mechanism is likened to a vehicle steering, which once faulty or 
improperly operated, the vehicle is apt to go off. Hilgert, et al., (1978). 
 
The authors describe an organisation, as the term used to describe a 
group of people working together to achieve common objective and 
that an organisation is most effective in pursuing its goals if the 
individual efforts of the people within the enterprise are coordinated 
and directed properly.  
 
56 
 
2.12.1.18. Retention framework  
 
Van As (2001) argues that organisations have people as their primary 
assets and the attraction, development and retention of highly skilled 
employees should be seen as a priority in any business. According to 
the literature, new models have to be adopted by each organisation 
based on its unique situation and needs. As Capelli (2000) argues, 
successful organisations realise that they ought to rethink retention 
strategies and appreciate that they may not be able to minimise labour 
turnover but that they can influence the decision of highly skilled 
professionals to remain with the organisation. The literature further 
indicates that in developing retention models, organisations need to 
strive to become employers of choice in order to attract, develop and 
retain the best. Policies, frameworks or models need to be properly 
developed, coordinated and implemented. This view is supported 
Lehman, et al., (2000) who advises that, for the purposes of analysis 
and strategy development, it is helpful for policy-makers and managers 
to have some way of organising the different factors.  
 
This notion is supported by Wood (1999) who argues that people in an 
organisation will determine how that organisation performs and that the 
key to retaining the best to ensure performance of the organisation lies 
in the identification of employees measures of success and 
communicating the results of their efforts. This view is shared by 
Dibble (1999) who also argues that retention actually begins prior to 
employment and starts with the job description, continues during the 
interview and lastly when the offer of employment is made. Dibble 
(1999) proceeds to indicate that recruitment consists of the following 
aspects: 
 
a) Searching for potential employees 
b) Finding methods of communicating with those identified 
 
57 
 
c) Informing those identified about the positions available 
d) Determining whether they have the necessary skills  
e) Describing how their career aspirations can be met within the 
organisation. 
 
The principles of recruitment as outlined by Dibble (1999) explain the 
process that employers undertake in order to identify, recruit, develop 
and retain an employee to the benefit of the organisation. Employees 
normally ask themselves questions about an organisation pertaining to 
self-description of the organisation, staffing, mission/strategy, flexibility, 
employee developments, job expectations, rewards, supervision and 
team work and respect.  
 
Boninelli and Meyer (2004) advocate for employer branding and 
proceed to define employee branding as a process of placing an image 
of being a great place to work in the minds of a targeted candidate 
pool. The authors further warn that the shortage of skilled labour has 
made it much harder for organisations to attract and retain employees 
and with so little available quality labour on the open market, 
organisations are forced to compete ever more fiercely for any 
available talent. According to the authors, employers should live their 
brand so that employees can be recruited for the brand, be immersed 
in the brand, and believe in the brand so that they can be prepared to 
fully deliver their best.  
 
Thulare (2003) in his research on factors affecting retention of medical 
doctors in the public sector identified commitment where the employee 
is committed to the organisation, participatory management style 
where employees are involved and contribute to decision-making, 
teamwork and social ties where the friendships at work are fostered 
and a feeling of connectedness, focused reward and compensation 
which includes competitive salary packages, partnership with 
 
58 
 
employees where employees know what is happening in the 
organisation, work-life balance where employees are communicated to 
regarding the organisation?s work life, culture, atmosphere, community, 
recreational opportunities, and school systems. 
 
The diagram below highlights an organisational policy overview and 
indicates that there must first be a need within an organisation which 
must inform the organisation?s strategic direction from which a policy 
can emanate and be developed for implementation. 
 
Figure 1: Organisational Policy Overview  
 
 
 
Adopted from an Expatriate Policy presented at the Mobility Conference, 
Ernst and Young, May 2010, Parys, Free State  
 
 
Organisations must continuously assess and evaluate their retention 
needs, a point correctly alluded by Kaye, et al. (1999) and Capelli 
(2000), who argue that successful organisations realise that they ought 
to rethink retention strategies and appreciate that they may not be able 
 
59 
 
to minimize labour turnover but that they can influence the decision of 
highly skilled professionals to remain with the organisation. 
 
2.13. Capacity building and public administration 
 
Employee retention is an element of the notion of capacity building for 
the state, as explained by Adei and Badu (2007) who explain the 
emergence of New Public Management as a major shift in the field of 
human resources management. The authors indicate that public 
administration is said to be the action side of government, the means 
by which the purpose and goals of government are realised. It 
encompasses actions involved in effecting the intent or desire of 
government. The authors indicate that there is a belief that 
management is management and private sector practices are superior 
to the public sector. According to Awortwi and Sitoe (2006) in recent 
years public administration concepts and practices have been 
undergoing a complete overhaul with the aim of making them work 
better for both government and society. This in practice requires 
devolving new ways of organising, managing and improving the 
performance of public organisations. It also means development of 
new capacities and deployment and utilisation of human, material, 
information, technological and financial resources.  
 
The authors emphasise public organisation reform; they do so by citing 
Pollitt and Bouckaert (2008:8) who argue that there is a need for public 
sector reform which consists of deliberate changes to the structure and 
process of public organisations with the objective of getting them to run 
better. The reform frequently also embraces changes to systems by 
which public servants are recruited, trained, appraised, promoted, 
disciplined or declared redundant. 
 
 
60 
 
On the other hand, the African Peer Review Mechanism (2007) found 
that lack of capacity is a major constraint to ongoing efforts to improve 
the quality of governance in all spheres and service delivery at optimal 
levels in the light of the socio-economic challenges. One of the 
recommendations from the South African Review Report No. 5 was 
that there is a need to design a comprehensive strategy for skills 
development and retention in the public sector to ensure effectiveness. 
The efforts can include regulatory frameworks, remuneration systems, 
education and training. 
 
2.14. Conceptual frame work 
 
2.14.1. Introduction 
 
The conceptual framework on which this research is based recognises 
the complexity of policy implementation and outlines how the networks 
of bureaucracy in the Department of Home Affairs should relate in 
order to enable successful implementation of the retention policy. 
Bryand and Hanekom (2006) define Conceptual Framework as the 
mental conceptualization of an abstract idea or plan. The authors 
further define theory to mean expositions of the principles of science or 
a system of ideas explaining or predicting something.  
 
Mouton (2009) explains conceptualization as the clarification and the 
analysis of the key concepts in a study and also the way in which a 
particular research product is integrated into the body of existing 
theory and research. The study will be approached with a combination 
of theories. The study will be founded on a combination of two 
theories, namely system theory and classical Management theory.  
 
 
61 
 
2.14.2. Applicable theories 
 
2.14.2.1. System theory  
 
White, Clayton, Myrtle, Siegel and Rose (1985) indicate that most of 
the time, relationships among events are so complex that no parochial 
explanation or set of explanations suffices and systems theory 
imposes a common conceptual order on a fairly wide range of events. 
The authors argue that it encourages the recognition of analogies and 
structural similarities between phenomena previously thought to share 
little in common. 
 
The authors define a system as a set of units with relationship among 
them. It is further argued by the authors that, while the units are 
important, it is the linkages or relationships among the units that make 
it possible to speak of a system.  
 
According to the authors, a system is characterized by the following:  
 
a) Scope 
This implies that the organisation?s different units must be seen 
together to form the system; this is best explained by the authors by 
providing an example of traffic in the city by considering vehicles, 
traffic lights and pedestrians as part of a commuter flow in and out of 
the city or as part of the economy of the area. 
 
b) The notion of purpose 
The units forming the system are joined together for a purpose. 
 
c) The notion of Holism 
This characteristic implies that the system must be grasped as a whole 
and cannot be understood by studying only certain or few parts. 
 
62 
 
  
The authors indicate that a system has four features and they include 
input, output, processor and flow. The authors proceed to outline the 
network analysis technique for managers and explain the networks 
model as the interrelated flows of work that must be accomplished to 
complete a project. It is argued by the researchers that they visually 
portray the events and activities that are planned for the project and 
show their sequential relationships and interdependencies. The 
authors justify the systems theory by arguing that systems theory and 
approaches are used today by government managers, planners, 
analysts and theorists to understand complex phenomena, to solve 
problems of organisation and co-ordination and to plan and design for 
the future. 
 
White, Clayton, Myrtle, Siegel and Rose (1985) comment that network 
analysis has four principal stages. Network Generation begins with 
specifications of the project?s goal and objective. It moves from the 
conceptualization of what must be done to the precise specification of 
events and activities that are to be carried out in achieving the goal or 
objective. Secondly is network evaluation which means that once the 
project network plan is completed, it must be assessed by a manager 
to determine its soundness from the standpoint of its underlying logic. 
Thirdly, network monitoring which becomes a valuable managerial tool 
for the life of the project. It determines the extent to which the project 
proceeds as planned and whether managerial interventions are 
required. Fourthly, network modification occurs when for example 
monitoring indicates that the network plan has to be altered to maintain 
the required necessary managerial control. 
  
Systems theory is also supported by Budd, Charlesworth and Paton 
(2006) who argue that the network approach assumes that policy 
outcomes are the result of interaction of strategies of various actors 
 
63 
 
and that the involvement of these actors is a consequence of the fact 
that they possess resources that require their involvement in the 
handling and solution of a particular problem. The authors add that 
actors in policy development and implementation fail to realise 
concerted policy outcomes because of the fact that they are unaware 
of their external dependencies and believe that they can solve 
problems on their own and impose their solution on other actors. 
Cloete and Wissink (2000) explain system theory as focusing on the 
contributions of interrelated forces to policy-making. John (1998) adds 
that the network approach stresses the importance of interactions 
between participants in the policy process. 
 
2.14.2.2. Classical management theory 
 
White, Clayton, Myrtle, Siegel and Rose (1985) explain classical 
management theory as the intellectual predecessor to systems theory 
in management. The authors argue that the theory is not a complete or 
adequate description of management in public or private life, but its 
concepts and principles, judiciously applied, can help bring order to 
what otherwise would be a confusion. According to the authors, the 
theory begins with the notion that management is a scientific discipline, 
and this implies that management can be systematically studied, 
resulting in cumulative knowledge and continual improvement. 
Classical management theory identifies five principles:  
a) Division of labour which involves the allocation of tasks and 
specialization; 
b) Matching authority and responsibility which entails the right to 
make decisions and to exact obedient; 
c) Unity of command which dictates that an employee should 
receive orders from one supervisor only; 
 
64 
 
d) Centralization and hierarchy which is considered to belong to 
the natural order of things in the social world and deals with 
problems of complexity, distance, communication and overall 
work load;  
e) Span of control which deals with the regularization of 
subordinates allocations. 
 
The principles as outlined above ensure a systematic operational 
process where authority regarding decisions to be made is clear to all 
employees and a clear span of control is observed.  
 
The classical organisation theory is further supported Miller, Roome 
and Staude (1978) who argue that classical organisation theory is 
mainly concerned with the structural framework of a formal 
organisation and is based on a set of principles which includes the 
principle of specialization where activities of an organised group are 
restricted as far as possible to the performance of a single function; the 
principle of co-ordination where the purpose of an organisation is to 
facilitate co-ordination and unity of efforts; the principle of authority 
where there is a supreme decision-making body; the principle of 
responsibility where the superior is at all times responsible for 
delegation of responsibilities; the principle of definition where the job 
description and interrelations are defined; the principle of 
correspondence where the responsibility and authority should 
correspond; the principle of span of controls which entails limitation on 
a number of subordinates to be supervised; and the principle of unity 
and command which channels the reporting line to one superior. 
Cloete and Wissink (2000) on the other hand, see the classical theory 
(institutional) as putting more emphasis on the fact that the different 
concerns and interests of government should be given preference.  
Cole (1990) however, indicates that the system in an organisation 
includes people, materials, information and finance. He proceeds to 
 
65 
 
argue that these inputs are organised, and activated so as to convert 
human skills and raw materials into products, services and other 
outputs which are discharged into the environment. 
 
Cole (1990) defines an organ as a complex social system, responsive 
to a number of interdependent and important variables such as people, 
technology, organisational structure and the environment. Hult and 
Walcott (1990) are in support of a system approach and they argue 
that when two or more people wish to accomplish a common task, they 
often divide up the work, each taking care of a different part of the 
task. This strategy requires some co-ordination, and it may even be 
necessary to appoint somebody to do the job, it is argued. The 
approach allows people to specialize, doing a similar task repeatedly 
rather than moving from one kind of activity to another. In this way, 
people may become more efficient, producing more work for less 
effort. According to the authors, governance structures, especially 
those deep inside an organisation, seldom stand-alone but are linked 
in networks through which ideas and potential decisions pass before 
final acceptance or rejection. The authors further argue that networks 
link the individuals, groups and organisations at different levels of 
government whether in private or public sectors, that act together in 
the formation and implementation of policy.  
 
2.14.2.3. Conclusion 
  
It is evident from literature review that retention of knowledge or skilled 
workers is in general a daunting task for all organisations, including the 
public sector. It requires well planned, organised, controlled, co-
 ordinated and communicated strategy and policy. The literature 
acknowledges that employee turnover cannot be eradicated, but that 
retention can and must be managed. Labour/employee turnover is very 
complex and there is no single generic solution to address challenges 
 
66 
 
that organisations face today. There is really no set of answers to the 
problem of high staff turnover but through learning about what works in 
terms of fit between the problem analysis and adopted strategy 
navigation through the politics of retention policy implementation is 
possible. It is further evident from literature that staff turnover and 
retention are a deeply rooted area of specialisation which should 
occupy the heart of discussion for any organisation to succeed in 
efforts to effectively manage, attract and retain skilled personnel. Staff 
turnover can also be well managed within an organisational system 
such as the systems and classical management theory. Although there 
are critics of the systems and classical management theories, there is 
a strong argument that the theories remain relevant and applicable to 
today?s organisations and if well implemented, can be a worthwhile 
investment in ensuring any organisation?s success in policy 
management. 
 
 
67 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
 
3.1. Introduction 
 
The paper set out the evaluatory journey to examine challenges on 
implementation of retention policy within the Department of Home 
Affairs by engaging the Department?s senior and middle management. 
The study is qualitative in nature, using data collected through 
interviews and literature review to understand the retention policy?s 
implementation challenges. In this chapter the research methodology 
assumed towards completion of the study is outlined. It contains the 
explanation and justification of the applied research method, the 
research design, population and sample and data collection 
techniques. 
 
3.2. Research approach 
 
The study focused on the implementation phase of the policy and 
investigated challenges for implementation of retention policy within 
the Department of Home Affairs. In order to fully comprehend the 
retention problem confronting the Department and to harmonise the 
theory identified and the literature reviewed, a qualitative method 
approach was adopted to investigate the phenomenon.  
 
Neuman (2006) highlights that the difference between the qualitative 
and quantitative paradigms is that in quantitative research, researchers 
are far more concerned about measurement issues than qualitative 
researchers. Quantitative researchers treat measurement as a distinct 
step in the research process that occurs prior to data collection. 
Researchers adopt a deductive approach, it is said, and they develop 
special terminology and techniques as compared to qualitative 
 
68 
 
researchers. Quantitative researchers think about variables and 
convert them into specific actions during a planning stage that occurs 
before and is separate from gathering or analyzing data. Creswell 
(2003) adds that qualitative research occurs in natural settings where 
human behaviour and events occur and the focus is on participant 
perceptions and experiences and the way they make sense of their 
lives.  
 
Ulin, Robinson, Tolley and McNeill (2002) also indicate that 
quantitative researchers develop techniques that produce data in the 
form of numbers. The researcher moves deductively from abstract 
ideas to specific data collection techniques, to precise numerical 
information produced by the technique. For the purpose of the study a 
qualitative paradigm method was preferred because theory more often 
builds, moving from observations and open questions to more general 
conclusions through an inductive process. Creswell (2007) on the 
other hand, defines qualitative research as a situated activity that 
locates the observer in the world. The qualitative approach consists of 
a set of interpretation material practices that make the world visible. 
These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series 
of representations including field notes, interviews, conversations, 
photographs, recordings and memos to the self. At this level, the 
author proceeds to argue, qualitative research involves an 
interpretative, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that 
qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting 
to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning 
people bring to them. 
 
Creswell (2007) presents the following characteristics in respect of 
qualitative research: natural setting, collection of data in the field, 
researcher as a key instrument to data collection, participants 
meaning, inductive data analysis, and multiple source of data, 
 
69 
 
emergent design, theoretical lenses, holistic account, and 
interpretative inquiry. Brynard and Hanekom (2006), on the other hand, 
justify the usage of qualitative research and describe it as research 
that produces descriptive data as generally the participant?s own 
written or spoken words pertaining to their experience or perception is 
captured. The authors outline the advantage of qualitative research as 
allowing the researcher to know people personally, to see them as 
they are and learn about their daily experiences.  
  
According to Neuman (2006), qualitative research is characterized by 
the following: constructing social reality, cultural meaning, focus on 
interactive processes, events, authenticity is key, values are present 
and explicit, theory and data are focused, it is situational constrained, 
few cases, subjects, thematic analysis and the researcher is involved. 
The author proceeds to indicate that in qualitative research, as with 
quantitative, data is the empirical representation of concepts, and 
measurements link data to concepts. Neuman (2006) goes further to 
indicate that data for qualitative researchers sometimes is in the form 
of numbers and more often it includes written or spoken words, 
actions, sounds, symbols, physical objects, or visual images. 
Badenhorst (2008) also qualifies this method and sees qualitative 
research as relying on data in the form of words. When citing 
Schwandt (2001) she argues that qualitative researchers seek 
meaning in human action and that researchers depend on description 
to express their data.  
 
The assertion by both Neuman (2006) and Badenhorst (2008) above 
justifies the approach the researcher adopted because the researcher 
had to concentrate on human action, written and spoken words during 
data collection. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) highlight that qualitative 
research is generally used to answer questions about the complex 
nature of a phenomenon with the purpose of describing and 
 
70 
 
understanding the phenomenon from the participant?s point of view. 
According to the authors, the phenomenon is studied in its complexity 
and the research is context-bound.  
 
Merriam (1998) justifies the usage of the qualitative method and 
suggests that qualitative researchers are interested in understanding 
the meaning people have constructed, how they make sense of their 
world, and the experience they have. She proceeds to advise that 
qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their 
uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interactions there, 
and that this approach is linked to a direct concern with experience as 
it is lived, felt or undergone. She goes on to assert that ?the key to 
understanding qualitative research lies with the idea that meaning is 
socially constructed by individuals in their interaction with the world. 
The world of reality is not the fixed, single, agreed upon or measurable 
phenomenon that it is assumed to be in positivist, quantitative 
research? (Merriam, 2002, p. 1). 
 
3.3. Disadvantages of qualitative approach 
 
Different authors highlight that qualitative research is characterized by 
field work, inductive strategy, and the product is richly descriptive. Bell 
(2006), for example, criticizes qualitative research and argues that it 
does not allow for statistical analysis to be conducted, but rather 
focuses on an individual?s interpretation of the world.  This sentiment is 
shared by Yin (1984) who argues that the qualitative approach lacks 
precision, objectivity, rigour, and that it is less robust than the 
quantitative approach.  
 
71 
 
 
3.4. Population and sample 
 
The population for the research as a whole consisted of the 
Department?s business units responsible for policy development and 
implementation. Participants were drawn from a mixture of senior and 
middle managers from various business units of the Department. A 
total of fifteen managers were interviewed including five recently 
resigned managers in order to clarify issues that emerged during 
literature review.  
 
3.5. Data collection and sample 
 
Yin (2009) defines research design as the logic that links the data 
collected and the conclusion drawn to the initial questions of the study. 
The research was conducted in two phases: in the first phase 
interviewees were contacted by telephone followed by an official letter 
in order to secure the interview appointments. Semi-structured 
questions were used. This approach was adopted in order to elicit 
more information from the interviewees and collect tangible data.  
 
3.6. Case study methodology  
 
The study is located within the qualitative paradigm and a case study 
methodology was applied in order to comprehensively examine and 
understand the phenomenon. This approach enabled the researcher to 
interrogate, unravel and fully understand the reasons for non-
 implementation of retention policy in Home Affairs. Bennet (1983) 
validates the use of the case study approach by indicating that case 
study is an intensive examination of a single unit such as a person, a 
small group of people, or indeed a single company. Case studies are 
said to be studies that involve measuring and studying what is there 
and how it got there. In this way, it is historical and can enable the 
 
72 
 
researcher to explore, unravel and understand problems. A case study 
approach was adopted for the purpose of the research as it was found 
to be most suitable, because it is most appropriate for the qualitative 
method and it enhances the researcher?s ability to fully examine the 
phenomena.  
 
British Association for Commercial and Industrial Education (1979, p. 
7) in Bacie case studies defines case study as ?the description of a 
situation which is used as a basis for study and discussion?? This 
approach is also supported by authors such as Leedy and Ormrod 
(2001) who indicate that, in a case study, a particular individual, 
programme, or event is studied in depth for a defined period of time. A 
medical researcher might study the nature, cause and treatment of a 
rare illness for a particular patient, while an educator might study and 
analyze the instructional strategies that a master teacher uses to teach 
high school history. The authors proceed to argue that the researcher 
can through a case study focus on a single case because it is unique 
or has exceptional qualities and can promote understanding or inform 
practice for similar situations. In other instances, researchers study two 
or more cases ? often cases that are different in certain key ways ? to 
make comparisons, build theory, or propose generalizations; such an 
approach is called a multiple or collective case study.  
 
A case study may be suitable for learning more about a little known or 
poorly understood situation. It may be useful for investigating how an 
individual or programme changes over time, perhaps as the result of 
certain circumstances or interventions. According to Bell (2007) case 
studies may be carried out to follow up and expand on or populate 
more fully a survey.  They can also precede the survey and be used as 
a means of identifying key issues which merit further investigation. 
Researchers identify an instance which could be the introduction of a 
 
73 
 
new way of working, the way an organisation adapts to a new role or 
any innovation or stage of development in an institution.  
 
Case study was thus found to be the appropriate design as it will 
enable the researcher to systematically collect the evidence. Case 
studies are more relevant for the study since, although observation 
and interviews are most frequently used, no method is excluded. As all 
organisation and individuals have their common and unique features, 
Bell (2007) points out that in case studies researchers aim to identify 
such features and attempts to identify the various interactive 
processes at work showing how they affect the implementation of 
systems and influence organisational functions.    
 
Yin (1994) maintains that case study is the most appropriate tool when 
a researcher is researching a complex organisational phenomenon. 
This assertion by the author is found to be more relevant to the 
researcher when a complex phenomenon, such as reasons for non-
 implementation of retention policy in a big and complex organisation 
such as the Department of Home Affairs, is to be studied. He proceeds 
to define case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a 
contemporary phenomenon within its real life context, especially when 
the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly 
evident. 
 
Yin (2009) argues that a case study is preferred for examining 
contemporary events, but when the relevant behaviours cannot be 
manipulated, the case study relies on many other techniques such as 
history and adds two sources of evidence not usually included in the 
historian repertoire, namely direct observation of the events being 
studied, and interviews of the persons involved in the events. The 
author proceeds to justify the case study approach and adds that a 
case study, although it can overlap with history, is unique because of 
 
74 
 
its ability to deal with a full variety of evidence such as documents, 
artefacts, interviews and observations. 
 
The unit of analysis which is the Department of Home Affairs Head 
Office is the focus of the study and will be studied from 2004 after the 
Department of Public Service (DPSA) sanctioned a study on reasons 
for voluntary termination of service in government, and provides a 
guide for government departments to develop and adopt strategies 
and measures to address labour turnover within their specific 
environments. 
 
3.6.1. Disadvantages of case study 
 
The case study approach does not enable generalization since the 
results, findings and theory developed may not apply to the other 
similar case studies as the case looked at may be unique and 
therefore not representative of other instances. This view is supported 
by Leedy and Ormrod (2001), who emphasize that either way, it is 
useful for generating or providing preliminary support from hypothesis. 
Its major weaknesses are that, especially when only a single case is 
studied, one cannot be sure that the results can be generalised to 
other situations because the researcher collects extensive data on the 
individual(s), programme(s), or event(s) on which the investigation is 
focused.  
 
The above sentiment is shared by Yin (2009) who also presents the 
disadvantage of case study as being the limited basis for scientific 
generalization. Yin proceeds to argue that scientific facts are rarely 
proven based on a single experiment but rather a multiple set of 
experiments and that a similar approach in respect of a case study 
should be adopted.   
 
 
75 
 
Yin (2009) further observes that many researchers find the case study 
to be a less desirable form of inquiry because it lacks rigour and 
investigators may fail to follow a systematic procedure, and may have 
allowed equivocal evidence or biased views to influence the direction 
of the findings and conclusion. In a qualitative paradigm, the 
researcher can use case study as a design, and within a case study, 
techniques like interviews or a combination of tools can be employed 
in order to collect data.  
 
Because of the characteristics and the uniqueness of the challenges 
facing the Department of Home Affairs, the Department will be used as 
a case study.  
 
3.6.2. Primary and secondary data overview 
 
Two sources of data were collected and used in the study: interviews 
which were conducted with fifteen participants, and appropriate 
relevant documentation which included books on retention, journals 
and research reports. Leedy (2001; 94-95) explains data as ?the 
manifestations of the reality?. He goes further to say that no one has 
ever looked upon the truth itself. We are like those who live in a 
dungeon, across the floor of which a beam of sunlight passes. That 
light gives us an idea of what the sun must be like, but we can never 
behold the sun, we shall never know the difference between it and the 
shaft of light on the dungeon floor. The researcher is in a factual 
dungeon and through the data he seeks to discover underlying truth. 
 
Data can be presented in two categories, namely primary data and 
secondary data. Yin (1994) cited in Fani (2006) observes that, ??in any 
case study, it is important to use several collection methods??. In the 
study the researcher concentrated on both primary data (interviews 
 
76 
 
with participants) and secondary data (existing policy and literature 
reviews). 
 
3.6.3. Primary data 
 
Primary data is defined in Bell (2007) as sources which came into 
existence in the period under research (e.g. minutes of a school 
governors? meeting). Primary sources are divided into deliberate 
sources which are those produced for the attention of future 
researchers such as diaries, and the inadvertent sources which are 
used by the researcher. 
 
Interviews were conducted in order to collect data. Silverman (1993) is 
cited in Leedy (2001:159) asserting that ?interviews can yield a great 
deal of useful information. The researcher can ask questions related to 
any of the following: facts, people?s beliefs about the facts, feelings, 
motives, present and past behaviour, standards of behaviour (what 
people think should be done in certain situations), conscious reasons 
for actions or feelings such as why people think that engaging in a 
particular behaviour is desirable or undesirable??.  
 
In a qualitative study, the interviews are not structured. They are either 
open-ended or semi-structured, and this is the approach which the 
researcher followed in order to elicit information. Leedy (2001) adds 
that unstructured interviews are of course more flexible and more likely 
to yield information that the researcher had not planned to ask for.  
Their primary disadvantage is that the researcher gets different 
information from different people and may not be able to make 
comparisons among the interviewees.  
 
Schimmit (1991:138-139) indicates that, 
 
 
77 
 
Interviews have been characterized as conversations with a purpose. 
As a technique for qualitative research, they are used to gain insights 
regarding how individuals attend to, perceive or otherwise deal with 
some phenomenon of interest. Interviews are dynamic.  
 
Interviewees were consulted and appointments secured in order to 
ensure a smooth process and avoidance of unnecessary 
inconvenience.  
 
Brynard and Hanekom (2006) explain the advantage of interviews as 
being to allow the researcher to explain his or her questions if the 
respondent is not clear on what is being asked. When citing De Wet 
(1981: 161-163), the above authors indicate that interviews allow the 
researcher to probe more deeply following the answers of the 
respondents. In order to prevent bias in an interview, the researcher 
must avoid leading questions, must have properly selected samples of 
interviews and must pose specific detailed questions and check and 
recheck the conflicting data.  
 
Bell (2007) supports the use of interviews as a technique by indicating 
that interviews have the advantage that they are adaptable and a 
skilful interviewer can follow up ideas, probe responses and investigate 
motives and feelings which questionnaires cannot do. The way in 
which a response is made (the tone of the voice, facial expressions, 
and hesitations) can provide information that a written response would 
conceal.   
 
Yin (2009) justifies the use of interviews by adding that one of the most 
important sources of case study information is the interview and he 
advises that throughout the interview the researcher or investigator 
must follow up her/his line of inquiry as reflected by the case study 
protocol, and ask questions in an unbiased manner. In order to ensure 
 
78 
 
success with the interviews, interviewees will be contacted prior to the 
interview in order to secure appointments. Before the interviews, the 
interview proceedings will be explained to the interviewee, taking into 
consideration the ethical principles which include confidentiality. 
 
Leedy and Ormord (2005: 146) assert that interviews can provide a 
researcher with a great deal of very useful information covering a 
range of aspects which may be factual. Merriam (2002) agrees that 
interviews are a technique used to gather information in a qualitative 
study and range from highly structured, pre-determined questions that 
are posed in a specific order to unstructured, open-ended questions. 
The researcher?s approach in the study was a semi-structured 
interview approach which, according to Merriam (2002), contains a 
mixture of more and less structured questions as this adds an 
advantage in gathering more information.   
 
3.6.4. Advantages of interviews 
 
According to Neuman (2006), interviews can take the following form: 
 
1. Telephone interviews 
This is a popular survey method because 95% of the population can 
be reached by telephone. An interviewer calls the respondent, asks 
questions and records the response. However, this method can be 
costly and restrict the researcher to a limited time for the interview. 
 
2. Face to face interviews    
This method has the highest response rates and permits the longest 
questionnaires.  Interviewers can also observe the surroundings and 
can use non-verbal communication and visual aids. This method is 
associated with high costs resulting from travel, supervision and 
biasness. 
 
79 
 
 
The participants were contacted by telephone to ask for their 
permission to participate in the study, and were informed about the 
process and objective of the study. Once permission was granted, an 
interview schedule was planned where respondents were interviewed 
and advised of their right to remain anonymous and not have their 
identities revealed. 
 
Interviews were conducted with fifteen (15) managers in different 
business units of the Department, including Human Resources 
Management, Inspectorate, Immigration Services, Provincial 
Managers, Counter Corruption and Security, Legal Services, Audits, 
and Information Technology. The researcher was prepared to expand 
the sample population should the need arise during data collection. 
Interviews were conducted with key informants because of their 
knowledge of the phenomenon. The information obtained during 
interviews helped the researcher in his endeavour to collect useful 
data in order to understand the phenomenon. This technique is 
supported by Bouchard (1976) as cited in Schmidt (1991) that ??key 
informants may be selected for their presumed specific knowledge??. 
 
Questionnaires were drafted based on research themes and the 
researcher made use of semi-structured questions in order to collect 
primary data as per annexure c. The reason for using semi-structured 
interviews was to allow flexibility of questions during interviews. 
 
Merriam (1998) justifies the use of interviews and argues that 
interviewing is a common means of collecting qualitative data, where 
the researcher or investigator through interviews is involved in a 
conversation with a purpose. 
 
 
 
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3.6.5. Secondary data  
 
According to Bell (2007) secondary sources are interpretations of 
events of that period based on primary sources (e.g. history of that 
school). Bell further clarifies that some documents are primary from 
one point of view and secondary from another.  
 
In addition to primary data, the research drew extensively on 
secondary data from existing literature such as Phillips and Connelle 
(2003); Rowland, et al. (1980); Lusthaus, et al. (2002) and other 
available sources. Some of the documents consulted for data 
collection include:  
 
a) DPSA: Research on reasons for turnover in the public service 
b) The South African Constitution 
c) The Public Service Act 
d) DHA retention policy 
e) DHA management policy 
f) DHA retention records  
g) University of Witwatersrand libraries: books, research reports, 
published and unpublished theses and journals. 
  
3.6.6. Sampling  
 
The researcher adopted a purposeful sampling method in order to 
collect data through interviews. The reason for the application of this 
method was that it is most suitable as the sample population is known 
to the researcher. Creswell (2007) explains that purposeful sampling is 
used in qualitative research as the inquirer selects individuals and sites 
for study because they can purposefully inform an understanding of 
the research problem and central phenomenon of the study. He goes 
further to indicate that decisions have to be made about who and what 
 
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should be sampled, what form sampling should take, and how many 
people or sites will need to be sampled.     
 
Brynard and Hanekom (2006) explain sampling as a technique 
employed to select a small group with the view to determining the 
characteristics of a large group (population). What is worth mentioning 
is the importance of sampling as related by the authors, namely to 
simplify the research, save time and save on costs. Creswell (2007) 
and Brynard and Hanekom (2006) are supported by Denscombe 
(2007) who observes that with purposive sampling, the sample is 
hand-picked for the research as the researcher already knows 
something about the specific people or events; the researcher 
deliberately selects particular ones because they are seen as likely to 
produce the most valuable data. The researcher further asserts that 
the selected people are chosen with a specific purpose in mind and 
that purpose reflects the particular qualities of the people or event 
chosen and their relevance to the topic of investigation. During data 
collection, the respondent?s real identities were not used and they were 
identified by abbreviations, for example, SM 1. 
 
3.6.7. Data analysis and interpretation 
 
According to Denscombe (2007), the analysis of qualitative data is 
based on four guiding principles: the first is that the analysis of data 
and the conclusions drawn from the research should be rooted in the 
data. The analyses should, according to the author, be grounded in the 
evidence that has been collected. The second principle is that the 
researcher?s explanation of the data should emerge from a careful and 
meticulous reading of the data. Accordingly, the meaning of qualitative 
data always involves a process of interpretation in which the 
researcher produces the meaning of the raw data. The third principle is 
that the researcher should avoid introducing unwarranted 
preconceptions such as personal prejudices and biasness arising from 
 
82 
 
previous theories and research in the particular area of investigation 
into the analysis of data .Lastly, the analysis of data should involve an 
interactive process where the development of theory or concepts is 
based on a process that constantly moves back and forth comparing 
empirical data with themes or concepts used. The authors advise that 
qualitative data analysis is the range of processes and procedures 
whereby the researcher moves from the qualitative data that has been 
collected into some form of explanation, understanding or 
interpretation of the people and situations that are being investigated. 
The authors add that a qualitative data analysis process usually 
involves the writing and identification of themes. The author further 
indicates that data analysis should follow a process which involves five 
stages, including preparation of the data, familiarity with the data, 
interpreting the data, verifying the data, and representing the data. 
 
Data collected was analysed and interpretation was done while the 
data collected was still fresh in the researcher?s mind, beginning 
immediately after each interview had taken place. As Denscombe 
(2007) advises, analysis involves the separation of things into their 
component parts and it also involves the study of complex things in 
order to identify their basic elements. After each interview the 
researcher assessed data to gather thoughts and impressions for 
proper data interpretation while information was still readily available 
as alluded to by Creswell (2003) who, with reference from Merriam 
(1998), contends that data collection and data analysis must be a 
simultaneous process in qualitative research. Follow-up interviews 
were immediately arranged in cases where the researcher wanted 
clarity on outstanding issues. The content of the transcribed interviews 
was analysed and interpreted with reference to the research problem.  
The results obtained were then used to answer the research questions 
and later incorporated in the research report in accordance with 
Denscombe?s (2007) recommendations that the researcher is called 
 
83 
 
during data analysis and interpretation to discover the key components 
or general principles underlying a particular phenomenon so that these 
can be used to provide a clearer understanding of the researched 
phenomenon. Creswell (2003) agrees that the process of data analysis 
involves making sense out of text and image data and is an ongoing 
process involving continual reflection about the data, asking analytical 
questions, and writing memos throughout the study. 
 
3.6.8. Validity and reliability 
 
The validity of the research refers to the accuracy, meaningfulness and 
credibility of a study as a whole (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). The 
authors further explain reliability as referring to how consistent the 
results are within a study. Creswell (2003) asserts that reliability and 
validity address issues about the quality of the data and 
appropriateness of the methods used in carrying out a research project 
where the methods are particularly important because of the different 
philosophical and methodological approaches to the study of human 
activity. The author proceeds to highlight that research is not a precise 
science and that social science as a body of knowledge is enriched by 
many different disciplines. Although primary data as a source was 
obtained through interviews, an extensive literature review was 
conducted in order to augment the sourced interview data.     
 
Bell (2007) defines reliability as the extent to which a test or procedure 
produces similar results under constant conditions on all occasions. 
The author further indicates that there is a number of devices for 
checking reliability in scales and tests such as ?test?re-test 
(administering the same test sometime after the first); the alternate 
forms method (where equivalent versions of the same items are given 
and results correlated); or the split half method (where items in the test 
are split into two matched halves and scores then correlated). 
 
84 
 
Holloway and Jefferson (2000) indicate that ?reliability refers to the 
consistency, stability and repeatability of the results.??  The researcher 
will endeavour to be reliable by ensuring consistency.  
 
The researcher captured notes during the interviews as agreed with 
the interviewees. The responses from interviewees were honestly 
interpreted and this was checked against both primary and secondary 
data. The researcher re-checked and verified the responses with 
participants in order to avoid any alternative explanations or 
interpretation of the data. This point is emphasised by Mouton (2009), 
who highlights that reliability is a demand of consistency over time.  
 
3.6.9. External validity 
 
Leedy (2000) explains validity as ?the extent to which the instrument 
measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity takes different 
forms namely face validity, content validity, criterion validity and 
constructive validity??. Sasford and Jupp (1996) are cited by Bell 
(2007:1) and define validity as the design of the research to provide 
credible conclusions, whether the evidence which the research offers 
can bear the weight of the interpretation that is put on it. They go 
further to indicate that what is to be established is whether data 
measures what the authors claim and that the interpretation follows 
from there.   
 
Bell (2007) states that ?validity tells us whether an item or instrument 
measures or describes what it is supposed to measure or describe, but 
this is rather vague and leaves many questions unanswered??. Mouton 
(2009) explains validity as quality of the elements of data. Brynard and 
Hanekom (2006) explain validity as the potential of a design or an 
instrument to achieve or measure what it is supposed to achieve or 
measure. According to Neuman (2006) there are two types of validity, 
namely internal validity, which concerns the ability of experimenters to 
 
85 
 
strengthen the logical rigour of a casual explanation by eliminating 
potential alternative explanations; and external validity, which is about 
the ability to generalize the findings beyond a specific study. The 
author further presents different forms of measuring validity as follows: 
face validity - in the judgment of others; content validity - captures the 
entire meaning; criterion validity - agrees with external source; and 
construct validity - multiple indicators are consistent. 
  
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) define external validity as the extent to 
which its results apply to situations beyond the study itself, how the 
findings can be replicated, or apply to situations. It has never been the 
researcher?s intention to generalize the findings of the research 
considering the sample of analysis. Managers within the Department of 
Home Affairs were interviewed due to the Department?s unique 
situation to clearly understand the reasons for non-implementation of 
retention policy within the Department. 
 
3.6.10. Internal validity 
 
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) explain internal validity as the extent to 
which its design and the data that it yields allows the researcher to 
draw accurate conclusions about cause and effect and other 
relationships within the data. Leedy (1997) also explains internal 
validity as the freedom from bias in forming conclusions in view of the 
data. 
 
Although the researcher is currently employed as a Manager with the 
Department under study, the researcher ensured openness and 
objectivity during the study to ensure avoidance of biasness. 
Preconceived ideas were not discussed with participants during the 
interview. Participants were asked to re-check their responses during 
the interview in order to eliminate any element of data distortion. 
 
86 
 
 
3.6.11. Construct validity 
  
Yin (1994) defines construct validity as the evaluation of whether a 
scale measures unobservable social constructs or characteristics. It 
also refers to the degree to which inferences can be made from the 
operationalisation of a study. Construct validity is also concerned with 
exposing and reducing subjectivity. 
 
3.6.12. Confidentiality 
 
??Rendering case material anonymous is, as we know, a fundamental 
guiding ethical principle?? (Hollway, 2000:95-96). The researcher 
respected the right of the interviewees to remain anonymous at all 
times during data collection and the final data presentation. This 
ethical principle was fully explained to participants before they could 
take part in the study in order to ensure their understanding. 
Denscombe (2007) advises that there should be a mutual trust and the 
researcher is duty-bound to treat the data as confidential.  
 
3.6.13. Objectivity 
 
Although the researcher is an employee of the organisation where 
samples were drawn and the study carried out, the researcher was 
guided by principles in order to avoid biasness and promote consistent 
objectivity through the research process. Hollway and Jefferson (2000) 
define objectivity as ?a contentious principle in contemporary social 
science??.  Objectivity and reliability are the fundamental principles 
under which this study will be pursued. It is also through the art of 
interpretation characterized by intuition that this study will be pursued. 
 
 
 
87 
 
3.6.14. Ethical considerations 
 
Creswell (2003) warns researchers to adhere to ethical considerations 
during data collection and analysis, and further advises that the 
researcher needs to respect participants and the sites for research as 
many ethical issues arise. He adds that participants must not be put at 
risk and respect must be given to the vulnerable population and their 
needs. Participants must be informed about their right to participate 
voluntarily and their right to withdraw at any time, the purpose of the 
study for their understanding, the procedure of the study, the right to 
ask questions, obtaining a copy of the results, having their privacy 
respected and the benefits of the study. Neuman (2006) adds that 
ethical issues are the concern, dilemmas and conflicts that arise over 
the proper way of conducting research as ethics define what is or what 
is not legitimate to do. ?Many ethical issues involve a balance between 
two values: the pursuit of scientific knowledge and the rights of those 
being studied or of others in society?. Denscombe (2007) concurs with 
Creswell (2003) that there should be a mutual trust and the researcher 
is duty-bound to treat the participants? identities as confidential.  
 
Respondents were informed that their identity will not be revealed if 
they so desired. As this was indeed their request, their names were not 
used in the research report and reference is only made to unique 
codes allocated to each respondent. 
 
Creswell (2003) and Neuman (2006) further assert that ethical issues 
proceed even during data analysis and interpretation where the 
researcher should take into consideration how the study will protect the 
anonymity of individuals, data storage and the accurate account of 
information. In complying with all ethical principles, the research will be 
conducted with openness, be unbiased, and data collected from 
participants will be treated with respect and confidentiality, and be 
 
88 
 
recorded, analysed and interpreted as accurately as possible. Identity 
of respondents will not be disclosed and reference will only be made to 
abbreviations such as SM 1. 
 
3.6.15. Conclusion 
 
The research paradigm and its techniques applied here ensured that 
the researcher does not deviate from the research process flow but 
remains rooted within the qualitative paradigm parameters. It is evident 
from literature on research methodology that an incorrect 
methodological approach is disastrous to the researcher and will 
defeat the research objectives. The research methodology gives the 
rationale of the research paradigm and techniques applied during the 
study and require care and attention to details before any study can be 
undertaken.   
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
DATA PRESENTATION 
 
 
4.1. Introduction 
 
As discussed in chapter one, the research was aimed at understanding 
the challenges in the implementation of retention policy within the 
Department of Home Affairs. In order to finalise and compile the 
research report, data was collected and is presented in this chapter as 
it emerged. The data collected was based on the following research 
questions: 
 
a) What are the challenges to the implementation of retention 
policy in the Department of Home Affairs?  
b) Are managers in the Department aware of the existence of the 
retention policy and understand their roles in the implementation 
of the retention policy? 
c) How is the policy implementation process managed in the 
Department? 
 
4.2. Themes of discussion  
 
Data collected during the study has been categorized under themes as 
described below. 
 
a) Retention Policy Management and co-ordination 
b) Resources allocation 
c) Talent/skill existence 
d) Policy successes and challenges  
e) Causes and recommendations. 
 
90 
 
 
Emerging from data was two groups of respondents namely those that 
were not aware of the existence of the retention policy in the 
Department, and those that were aware of the retention policy?s 
existence. Collected data also shows that the Department?s 
commitment towards talent/skills retention is lethargic. 
 
4.3. Responses recorded in respect of themes discussed with 
senior managers (SM) 
4.3.1. Retention policy management and co-ordination 
  
Under this theme, five senior managers at the level of Chief Directors 
and Directors were asked to describe how the Department of Home 
Affairs manages retention of personnel/employees and the following 
responses were obtained: 
 
 Most Senior Managers reported that the Department has no 
retention policy or strategy and that if such policy or strategy existed, 
they were not aware of its existence as they were not consulted before 
and after the policy had been developed. (SM 1, interview 5 
September 2010), SM2, interview, 7 September 2010, and SM5 
interview, 15 September 2010).  
 
 According to the respondents SM 1, SM 2, and 5, ?the department 
does not manage retention of personnel but continuously loses skilled 
employees in the fields such as Legal Services and Immigration 
Services??. The response given by SM 1 in particular highlighted that 
there is no retention policy co-ordination at all. The respondent 
proceeded to say in order for the Department to enable successful 
implementation of the retention policy, ?it must start by developing a 
 
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strategy, communicate it to managers and get their buy in?. (SM 1, 
interview, 5 September 2010).   
 
 Two of the senior managers responded that the Department has a 
retention policy. SM 3 in his response proceeded to say ?All managers 
in the Department are aware of the existence of the retention policy 
and how it should be implemented?. (SM 3, interview, 9 September 
2010). 
4.3.2.  Resources allocation 
 
When asked to explain which part of the Department requires more 
resources allocation to manage retention of skilled personnel, all 
interviewed Senior Managers pointed out that Financial Services of the 
Department, Immigration Services, Legal Services and Security 
Vetting required more resource allocation. This response was common 
in respect of SM 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. 
 
4.3.3.  Existing talent/skills 
 
Managers were asked to explain whether the Department has talented 
/skilled personnel to retain.  The response provided was that the 
Department has abundant talent or skilled employees who did not 
receive recognition, hence most of them are lost to other employers in 
both the private and public sectors. SM 3 in particular explained that 
?Immigration Service of the Department is a specialised field within the 
Department and across government sectors and Information 
Technology is also a skill talent specialization area?. (SM 3, interview, 
9 September 2010). 
 
92 
 
 
4.3.4.  Retention policy successes and challenges 
 
Managers were asked to describe their department?s retention policy 
successes and challenges and none of the respondents was able to 
relate any retention policy successes but proceeded to argue that the 
Department has no strong leadership in respect of human resources 
management, policy development and implementation. Managers 
warned that the Department is being suicidal by not having a retention 
policy and human resource strategy. 
  
?The Department has a high number of disgruntled employees which 
include managers, why retain them when they want to leave?? argued 
one of the senior managers who reported that the Department has a 
retention policy. ?It is good that they leave, the department will replace 
them? he further argued. (SM 5, interview, 18 September 2010). 
 
4.3.5.  Causes of retention policy challenges 
 
The retention policy challenges were mostly associated with lack of 
strong leadership in respect of organisational human resource 
management, strategy, policy development and implementation. SM 3 
responded that causes of challenges which lead to retention policy 
non-implementation were: ?subjectivity, jealousy and short-
 sightedness?. (SM 3, interview, 9 September 2010). 
 
4.3.6.  Recommendations 
 
Respondents recommended that the Department must first develop a 
clear human resource strategy, followed by retention policy with clear 
implementation guidelines. They further advised that the department 
 
93 
 
through the Human Resource Branch needs to first set clear goals and 
engage business units in order to source inputs regarding the 
development of a formidable and sustainable human resource strategy 
which will inform the policy development, alignment, co-ordination and 
implementation. SM 3 in particular suggested that the following needs 
to improve to enable successful implementation of the retention policy: 
?professional approach to HRM and interest of the organisation should 
supercede individual considerations?. (SM 3, interview, 9 September 
2010). SM 2 (interview, 7 September 2010) also recommended that 
there should be co-operation and understanding as well as the 
willingness of managers, especially senior managers.  
 
4.4. Interviews conducted with middle managers (MM) at the level 
of Deputy Directors (DD) 
 
4.4.1. Retention policy management and co-ordination 
 
Under this theme, participants were asked to describe how the 
Department of Home Affairs manages retention of staff and the 
following responses were obtained: 
 
Most middle managers reported that the Department has no retention 
policy and that if such policy existed, they were not aware of its 
existence as they never heard of its existence and have not witnessed 
or observed its implementation. Only one of the managers, DD 1, 
advised that the Department does indeed have a retention policy. 
According to most middle managers, the Department does not manage 
retention as staff leaves for other employers regularly. Practical 
examples were provided regarding more than five Legal experts who 
left the Department in the 2009/2010 financial year. Other examples 
quoted were more than ten employees who left the department from 
 
94 
 
Counter Corruption, Security and Vetting. According to the 
respondents the Immigration Services, Human Resources, Legal 
Services and Counter Corruption and Security were among the 
business units mostly affected by turnover. 
 
4.4.2. Resource allocation 
 
When asked to explain which part of the Department requires more 
resources allocation to manage retention, most interviewed Middle 
Managers argued that the Department renders essential services and 
it must try to retain experienced employees within Security and Vetting, 
Finance and Audits, Immigration Services and Legal services. 
 
4.4.3. Existing talent/skills 
 
Respondents were asked to explain whether the Department has 
talented/skilled personnel to retain.  The response provided was that 
the Department does have abundant talent which was not recognized 
and this could be seen by numbers of employees leaving the 
Department. 
 
4.4.4. Retention policy successes and challenges  
 
Middle Managers were asked to describe their department?s retention 
policy successes and challenges and none of the participant was able 
to relate any policy successes. One of the respondents argued that 
Senior Management of the department had no vision. Some of the 
respondents argued that the department had no best interests of its 
employees at heart and this might be a contributory factor to 
employees leaving the department. 
 
95 
 
 
4.4.5. Causes of retention policy challenges 
 
The causes were mostly associated with lack of leadership from senior 
managers, lack of proper human resource planning, lack of policy 
guide lines, co-ordination and consultation. One of the managers 
identified causes of non-employees retention as ?failure to initiate, poor 
leadership, nepotism, corruption and jobs for friends?. (MM 5, 
interview, 6 July 2010). MM5?s views were supported by MM 4 
(interview, 9 July 2010). MM 2 (interview, 19 July 2010) also alleged 
that the causes of non-employee retention were ?incompetence, lack of 
training and awareness, and nepotism?.  
 
4.4.6. Recommendations 
 
Middle managers advised that the department through HR needs to 
first set clear goals and engage business units for inputs regarding 
human resource policy development, co-ordination and implementation 
and that no policy will ever be successfully developed and 
implemented without co-operation and active participation of business 
units in the department.  MM 4 (interview, 9 July 2010) recommended 
that ?leadership must live to the values of the organisation and ensure 
efficient leadership?. MM 3 (interview, 11 July 2010) on the other hand 
recommended that ?a proper skills audit and career path for 
experienced officials? was needed.  
 
4.5. Responses elicited from middle managers at the level of 
Assistant Directors (ASD)  
 
 Response from Assistant Directors did not differ much from those of 
their Deputy Directors. Two of the Assistant Directors were indeed 
 
96 
 
aware of the existence of the retention policy in the Department, but all 
spoke with one voice that although there is a policy on personnel 
retention, the policy was like a dead horse and gives no tail. One of the 
Assistant Directors added that ?there is abundant talent in specific 
areas such as Legal Services, Immigration, Vetting and Security 
Services and Counter Corruption Unit. (MM (ASD) 2, interview, 10 
June 2010).  
  
 All of the interviewed Assistant Directors did not know their role in 
retention policy implementation and indicated that they would not know 
who to approach to enable retention process if their key skilled 
subordinates were to resign. Skills to be retained as identified in the 
Department were within the Immigration Services, Information and 
Technology Branch, Legal Services, Finance and Audit, and Personnel 
Vetting Branch. Respondents reported they were also unaware of any 
retention successes within the Department and alleged that lack of 
strong competent leadership in the Department was a cause for 
concern. 
 
4.6. Interviews with recently resigned managers (RM) 
 
Although it was not the purpose of the research, data collected during 
interviews influenced the contact being made with five most recently 
resigned managers in order to elicit information regarding their 
departure experience from the Department.  
 
During telephonic interviews, three of the participants indicated that 
they left the Department for similar or equivalent positions offered by 
other organisations because they felt under-valued, un-appreciated 
and over-worked. All five participants reported that, upon handing in 
resignation letters, no exit interviews were conducted with them. 
 
 
97 
 
Four of the participants indicated that they were not aware of the 
existence of a retention policy in the Department. One of the 
participants argued ?Anything is possible in Home Affairs, there might 
be a retention policy that exists in vacuum? He proceeded to add that 
?the department suffers from poor leadership hence there is no 
direction?. (RM 2, interview, 9 September 2010). However one of the 
respondents was aware of the retention policy?s existence but argued, 
?Although retention policy is available in the department, it is a dead 
document which serves no purpose and will not contribute towards 
organisational capacity due to its non-implementation?. ??If all 
managers understood what the retention policy entails and what its 
objectives are, many skilled employees would have been retained?. 
(RM 1, interview, 9 September 2010). 
 
One of the managers had observed through his experience and 
interaction with other managers and subordinates that most employees 
wanted to leave the Department, but could not leave because the poor 
image of the Department has shadowed their experience, knowledge 
and worthiness. The respondent proceeded to argue that ?most of the 
department?s personnel are de-motivated and hopeless?. (RM 4, 
interview, 14 September 2010). 
 
One of the respondents, RM 3, (interview, 10 September 2010) 
reported that when she served her manager with a resignation letter, 
she was treated as if she had committed a crime as she was not 
spoken to for the duration of her one month notice. RM 4 (interview, 10 
September 2010) reported that when he informed his manager about 
his new appointment in another government department, he was 
advised by his manager to write a one page letter outlining the reasons 
why he should be retained. In his own words he proceeded to say, ??I 
felt insulted as I did not ask to be retained. If my manager valued my 
expertise, why would I be asked to motivate for my retention?? The 
 
98 
 
manager should have drafted the motivation if he wanted the 
department to retain me??. (RM 4, interview, 10 September 2010).  
 
4.7. Conclusion 
 
It is clear from the presented data that there is a need for a definite 
implementation of retention policy within the Department of Home 
Affairs and indeed there are skilled personnel to be retained. The data 
presented reveals a gloomy picture of the Department?s policy 
management processes and factors contributing to reasons leading to 
the non-implementation of the retention policy. It is further evident from 
the presented data that there are challenges impacting on the 
Department?s policy implementation and this are associated with poor 
leadership, poor retention policy implementation and lack of clear 
strategic guide lines that should steer the policy implementation 
process. This lack of strategic guide line to reinforce the retention 
policy implementation will if not corrected aggravate high staff turnover 
which has already eroded the Department. 
 
 
99 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
DATA ANALYSIS 
 
 
5.1. Introduction 
 
The chapter analyses the data that was examined in conjunction with 
the existing body of knowledge consulted during the literature review. 
As explained in the research methodology, the respondents? real 
identities will not be revealed and reference will only be made to 
abbreviations such as SM 1, MM (DD) 2.   
 
5.1.1. Talent management 
 
Managers strongly feel that the DHA does not manage talent, and this 
view was highlighted by most managers, in particular MM (DD) 3 when 
asked to explain how DHA manages retention of personnel, the 
responded argued that ?DHA has no retention policy or strategy at all. 
Highly skilled and experienced people therefore leave the department?. 
(MM, (DD) 3, interview, 11 July 2010). In relation to talent 
management, Christensen, Andrews and Bower (1978) argue that 
individuals and groups of individuals must be recruited and assigned to 
essential tasks in accordance with specialised or supervisory skills 
which they possess or can develop.  
 
Silzer and Dowell (2010: 18) on the other hand describe talent 
management as ?an integrated set of processes, programs and cultural 
norms in an organisation designed and implemented to attract, 
develop, deploy and retain talent to achieve strategic objectives and 
meet future business needs.? The authors further recommend that 
retention can be better managed through a migration from the 
 
100 
 
traditional human resource management to a talent-ship approach. 
They describe talent as ?referring to a pool of employees who are 
exceptional in their skills and abilities either in a specific technical area 
(such as software graphics skills) or a competency (such as consumer 
marketing talent), or a more general area (such as general managers 
or a high potential talent)?. Silzer and Dowell (2010: 3-14) and 
Goldsmith and Carter (2010) concur that an organisation should 
continuously focus on its talent needs even if it is doing well. There 
must be internal realignment where innovation is promoted, people are 
not managed like commodities, and the organisation does not become 
lethargic. 
 
In the view of the researcher, what will a modern organisation be 
without its talented employees? This fact cannot be over-emphasised 
as an organisation which wants to remain competitive in terms of 
performance should indeed introduce and maintain talent management 
practices.  
 
5.1.2. Retention policy implementation 
 
Managers are not aware of the DHA?s retention policy existence, and 
this was confirmed by most of the respondents.  For example, SM 4 
said ?I have no idea that the Department of Home Affairs has any 
retention strategy or policy?. (SM 4, interview, 15 September 2010). In 
relation to implementation, Kuye, Thornhill, Fourie, Brynard, Crous, 
Mafunisa, Roux, Van Dijk and Van Rooyen (2002: 90) define 
implementation with reference from Quade (1989: 338) as ?the 
directed change that follows a policy mandate, the process of 
rearranging patterns of conduct so as to honor the prescriptions set 
forth in the decision.? Drucker (1968) adds that although managers are 
individuals, they have to work together in a team and such an 
organised group always has a distinct character as they share in a 
 
101 
 
vision, practice, attitudes and behaviour which will continue after they 
are gone and will continue to set the tone for newcomers. 
 
Boninelli and Meyer (2004) put an emphasis on retention policy 
implementation and they warn that the shortage of skilled labour has 
made it much harder for organisations to attract and retain employees. 
With so little available quality labour on the open market, organisations 
are forced to compete ever more fiercely for any available talent. 
Cloete and Wissink (2000) concur that policies become programmes 
by authoritative action which through implementation have the ability to 
forge subsequent links in the causal chain so as to obtain the desired 
result. 
 
Policies are not crafted to keep policy-makers busy, and they only 
achieve their meaning during implementation. This is a principle the 
researcher argues the DHA should bear in mind when approaching 
policy implementation.  
 
5.1.3. Policy co-ordination and communication 
 
There seems to be poor, if not a lack of, communication and co-
 ordination of the retention policy to ensure its successful 
implementation. This is the view of MM (DD) 3 who indicated that 
?DHA support structures do not realise the importance of skilled 
officials in the core business of DHA?. (MM (DD) 3, interview, 11 July 
2010). McKevitt and Lawton (1994: 174) describe co-ordination as 
concerned with ?a pursuit of coherence, consistency, 
comprehensiveness and of harmonious or compatible outcomes?. The 
authors proceed to advise that co-ordination is the rationalist technique 
for embracing the complexity and interrelatedness of social issues and 
problems. Christensen, et al. (1978) point out that co-ordination and 
division of responsibility is critical for every organisation and cannot be 
 
102 
 
left to chance. Barney (2002) on the other hand advises that if an 
organisation has retention manager, its retention policy is more likely 
to be co-ordinated as the retention manager will ensure that the right 
people are hired and that the candidates? values fit well with the values 
of the organisation. 
 
This view is supported by Hanekom (1987) when he maintains that 
public policies are aimed at promoting some aspect of the public 
welfare and their making and implementation are shaped by 
agreements, ideas and prescribed guidelines for administrative 
conduct. He also advises that although policy-making and policy 
implementation are two distinct and distinguishable functions, they are 
closely interrelated and separating them is difficult if not impossible or 
impracticable. He advises that the success of policy implementation 
can be enhanced through lucid communication to the implementers to 
avoid misunderstanding.  
 
Kroon (1994) also views co-ordination as the manager?s purposeful 
endeavour to get the work done by different individuals and 
departments so that there is harmony and total co-operation in the 
achievement of the goals. The author further advises that a manager 
should pay attention to the co-ordination function at all stages during 
planning, organising, activating and control, to ensure that the 
enterprise or a section of the enterprise functions as well as possible 
as a unit.  Kroon (1994:9) defines communication as ?the transfer of 
message by whatever means and is related to the activities of the 
enterprise and/or the relationship between two or more persons 
involved?.  
 
The researcher maintains that co-ordination and communication 
remains part of the core elements of policy implementation or 
 
103 
 
management and cannot be wished away by those entrusted with the 
responsibility.   
 
5.1.4. Leadership 
 
MM (DD) 5 raised ?poor leadership? as one of the causes of challenges 
on retention policy implementation. MM (DD) 5 (interview, 6 July 
2010). This view was supported by MM (DD) 4 who said ?there is no 
leadership to drive the policy?. (MM (DD) 4, interview, 9 July 2010).  
Leadership is defined by Nel, Werner, Haasbroek, Poisat, Sono and 
Schultz (2008: 356) as the process whereby one individual influences 
others to willingly and enthusiastically direct their efforts and abilities 
towards attaining defined group or organisational goals. The decision 
not to retain or to retain an employee within a specialised field must be 
based on informed and existing organisational needs and future 
direction and should not be based on emotions, or irrelevant and 
immaterial considerations. Such irrelevant consideration is a causal 
link of lack of decisive leadership. According to Mileham and Spacie 
(1996), leadership is about the successful resolution of problems, the 
persuasion of people to do what they should have done in the first 
place, reason and calm judgment, and getting extraordinary 
performance out of ordinary people.  
 
The researcher asserts that an organisation without good leadership is 
unlikely to meet its strategic vision and every organisation should 
ensure that leaders of high quality are recruited and retained in order 
to ensure successful organisational performance such as the 
implementation of retention policy.  
 
104 
 
5.1.5. Resource allocation 
 
Most of the interviewed respondents argued that resources have to be 
carefully allocated in HR, Finance and at management level. MM (DD) 
2 responded that ?HRM and HRD? required more resources to ensure 
successful retention. (MM (DD) 2, interview, 19 July 2010).  
Schiemann (2009) advises that organisations need to ask themselves 
whether they have a process for strategically prioritising the most 
important talent gaps in alignment, capabilities and engagement so 
that resources are not diluted across too many initiatives.  
 
In view of the analysis, the researcher argues that the aim of human 
resource management is to ensure effective and efficient allocation of 
human resources in order to meet an organisational strategic vision 
and this implies a clear resource needs analysis to inform the 
allocation thereof. Human Resource management requires soberness 
as it is a key factor in the success of every organisation and can either 
destroy or make a successful organisation.  
 
5.1.6. Policy monitoring and evaluation 
 
MM (DD) 5 highlighted that ?DHA does not have retention strategy?. 
(MM (DD) 5, interview, 9 July 2010).  SM 1, MM (DD) 2 and other 
respondents advised that they were not aware of any successful 
retention of employees in the DHA. This fact is what authors such as 
Hanekom (1987) advise against in their quest for policy 
implementation monitoring and evaluation. The authors advise that 
during policy implementation stage, policies can be modified or 
elaborated on or even be discarded. He argues that policies are not 
made merely to keep policy-makers busy or to pay lip-service to 
society and that they receive meaning only when implemented and 
because policies are aimed at the improvement of the well-being of 
 
105 
 
society, it is imperative that they be analysed to determine whether 
they are in effect contributing towards the common good and 
producing the desired results. Kuye, et al. (2002:91) define monitoring 
with reference from Dunn (1981:278) as ?the policy analytical 
procedure we use to produce information about causes and 
consequences of public policies.? On the other hand, the author 
defines evaluation with reference from Cloete and Wissink (2002:272) 
as ?a process carried out to determine the worth or value of policy 
outcomes.?  
 
The researcher asserts that policies are living documents and their 
implementation and management thereof should be regularly 
monitored with an evaluatory objective of measuring their 
implementation success level or identifying areas requiring adjustment.  
 
5.1.7. Policy stakeholder management 
 
MM 4, when asked to explain how retention policy was co-ordinated in 
DHA, responded that ?HR as the custodian of the policy is poorly co-
 ordinated and managers at lower level are not aware of the existence 
of the policy. No serious consideration is given to implementation? (MM 
4, interview, 9 September 2010). Silzer and Dowell (2010) add that 
effective management of talent pools requires a true partnership 
between line management and human resources. The authors warn 
that if the management of talent pools is not an accepted practice in an 
organisation, talent reviews will rarely be worth the investment of time 
and resources. Without strong leadership from line management, the 
alignment of talent reviews with the critical strategic issues and the 
follow-up actions required to translate plans into reality will rarely 
happen, and neither will there be the discipline required for the review 
process and follow-up actions without HR. Rooney, Hearn, Mandeville 
and Joseph (2003) advise that the cultural climate of the policy 
 
106 
 
process must enable a process where people are given adequate 
opportunity to have their say and feel that they are able to influence 
decision-making and that participants in decision-making must 
understand the logic behind shared objectives and why they are 
useful.  
 
It is the researcher?s argument that policies can be best implemented if 
stakeholders with a role to play during its development and 
implementation are clearly identified and their relationship is properly 
managed. It is the management thereof that enhances relative 
communication and co-ordination during the implementation process.  
However, in the view of the sampled managers, stakeholder 
management is found to be lacking in the policy management process. 
 
5.1.8. Organisational structure 
 
MM 4, when asked to explain how retention policy was co-ordinated in 
the DHA, responded that ?No serious consideration is given to 
implementation?. (MM 4, interview, 9 September 2010).  Drucker 
(1968) urges that an organised group needs a structure and in arriving 
at a sound structural principle of management, organisation is the final 
necessity in managing managers. He argues that organised structures 
are things that are done in every enterprise whether managers realise 
it or not, and that in every organisation managers are either guided in 
the right direction or misdirected, developed or mis-developed, and 
either have a spirit that kills or one that gives life.  Oosthuizen (1996) 
and Mutahaba (1993) advise that policy management can be 
adversely affected by any dysfunctional organisation or structures 
which include administrative and technical capacity. Silzer and Dowell 
(2010) warn that although it is tempting to delegate talent management 
to the human resources, this does not work. Although HR is critical to 
the effective talent management processes and should be a strong 
 
107 
 
partner, this function should be the responsibility of line management 
who will have a sense of ownership. 
 
In the researcher?s view, organisational structures assist in providing 
direction regarding roles and responsibilities and further assist in 
ensuring accountability. The structural organisation should be clear in 
policy management so that the interrelation thereof in policy 
implementation is enhanced.    
 
5.1.9. Policy objectives 
 
SM 3 argued that ?although the department sponsors staff with 
bursaries, the recipients are not retained?. (SM 3, interview, 9 
September 2010). MM (ASD) concurs with SM 3?s view that ?the 
department must first have a clear policy?. (MM (ASD) 2, interview, 10 
June 2010. Drucker (1968) echoes that an objective, goal or target 
serves to determine what action to take today to obtain results 
tomorrow. It is based on anticipation of the future and requires action 
to mould the future. Management has no choice but to anticipate the 
future, to attempt to mould it and balance short range and long range 
goals, and this responsibility cannot be overlooked or neglected. 
Schiemann (2009) reminds us that in every organisation, supervisors 
and managers should have clear expectations regarding their role in 
employee development and the organisation should take leader 
development seriously. This view is supported by Hanekom (1987) 
who adds that successful implementation of policy depends on the 
insight of the official and whether she or he identifies himself with the 
policy aims; the implementer must in fact make the aims of the policy 
her or his own aims and work towards achieving them.   
 
The researcher argues that policies are developed for a particular 
purpose and are aimed at remedying or improving a situation, whether 
 
108 
 
administrative, strategic or tactical and this was found to be lacking, 
contributing to the policy?s implementation challenges. Policies arise 
because of a prevailing concern which can be addressed or regulated 
through a policy and this is what every organisation should put into 
practice.  
 
5.1.10. Accountability 
 
SM 3, when asked to relate DHA?s retention policy success, responded 
that ?the department looks at individuals rather than applying the 
policy?. (SM 3, interview, 9 September 2010). An individual manager 
must, according to Drucker (1968), be able to make the needed efforts 
and produce the required results. His job must be set up so as to allow 
maximum performance.  Management is not an end in itself, and has a 
function because of the objective requirements of the enterprise. The 
fact that most of the managers did not know about the existence of 
retention policy in the Department is an indication that managers were 
not making any effort to gather information that could assist them in 
managing retention.  Drucker (2002) also asserts that retention is an 
operational function and this assertion implies that managers involved 
in the day-to-day operations of the Department ought to be involved in 
the development and implementation of the retention policy.  
 
This view is supported by Bozemen and Straussman (1990) who 
observe that managers can enhance their autonomy and control over 
resources by expanding or contracting programmatic intent and it is 
the task of managers to operationalise and implement goals and intent 
of policy. Based on sampled participants? responses, it is unclear as to 
who is really accountable for retention management and the 
successful implementation of the Department?s retention policy. 
Hanekom (1987) adds that successful implementation of policy 
 
109 
 
depends on the insight of the official and whether she or he identifies 
himself with the policy aims  
 
The researcher maintains that managers are by nature the architects 
of organisational success or failure, and this is the case even in policy 
management. In order for the retention policy implementation to be 
successful, managers should take responsibility for the implementation 
process and should furthermore be held liable for non-implementation.  
 
5.2. Conclusion 
 
Policy objectives can only be achieved provided an integrated 
approach to development and implementation is adopted. Since 
policies are developed to remedy or guide certain programmes for an 
organisation, the non-implementation thereof has a negative impact on 
the organisation?s ability to meet its set objectives, such as the 
retention of key talent. 
  
 
110 
 
CHAPTER SIX 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 
6.1. Introduction 
 
 
The aim of the research was to investigate and understand the 
challenges facing the implementation of retention policy in the 
Department of Home Affairs. The research was undertaken because of 
the challenges presented by high employee turnover that has eroded 
the Department. The questions driving the research were: What are 
the challenges in implementation of the retention policy in Home 
Affairs? Do managers know and understand their roles in the policy 
implementation process? How is the retention policy being managed in 
the Department? 
 
6.2. Conclusion 
 
Emanating from data analysis the research report identified three 
critical areas on which recommendations will be based: leadership, 
retention policy management, and talent management. 
 
6.2.1. Leadership 
 
Data analysed indicates that leadership in policy implementation is 
lacking. Lack of leadership and incompetence are found to be the 
causes of challenges to implementation of retention policy in the DHA. 
Line leadership should be held accountable for the management of 
talent pools and the cultural climate of the policy process must enable 
a process where people are given adequate opportunity to voice their 
views and feel that they are able to influence decision-making where 
 
111 
 
participants in decision-making must understand the logic behind 
shared objectives and why they are useful.  
 
Organisations such as the DHA should have clear retention targets for 
different roles and locations and meaningful measures of turnover or 
retention that are tracked and reported on regularly.   
 
6.2.2. Retention policy management 
 
Policy management in the DHA seems to be lacking as highlighted in 
the data analysed. The fact that most of the respondents argued that 
there is no retention strategy or policy in the Department is a clear 
indication that retention policy management is poor as its existence 
should have been communicated to management. Managers are 
supposed to work together in a team and such an organised group 
always has a distinct character inasmuch as they share in a vision, 
practice, attitudes and behaviour which should continue after they are 
gone and must set the tone for newcomers. Policy management can 
be adversely affected by any dysfunctional organisation or structures 
which include administrative and technical capacity. A precondition in 
policy implementation is that there must be perfect communication and 
co-ordination of the various elements involved and perfect 
implementation will be enabled by a completely unitary administrative 
system.  
 
An organisation of the DHA?s calibre and strategic importance cannot 
afford to neglect proper retention policy management as this can 
compromise service standards and lead to unnecessary expenditure 
resulting from new recruitments, selection, training, and other 
personnel development.   
 
 
112 
 
Policy evaluation has to do with the critical assessment of policy 
implementation and determines the impact of policy outcomes. The 
authors further present that evaluation is value focused, fact-value 
interdependent and represents the present and past orientation. 
 
6.2.3. Talent management 
 
There is a lack of talent management in the DHA, a fact that emerged 
during the data analysis.  An organisation such as the DHA needs to 
assess its capacity to deliver on its own objectives so that required and 
necessary adjustments to policy can be made. Talent management is 
not the responsibility of human resource management. It is the 
responsibility of all competent managers and leaders in the 
organisation to manage retention. The people strategy in all 
organisations, whether private or public such as the DHA, should be 
tightly linked to the business strategy as it is indeed critical to recruit 
appropriately skilled employees and know the measures that must be 
put in place to manage their retention. Organisations should have a 
clear definition of what employee turnover or retention means and 
management information systems can assist in matching information 
flow to needs. In order for an organisation such as the DHA to succeed 
in high quality and efficient service delivery, talent management should 
remain a core part of its daily business.  
 
The research concludes that retention of personnel remains critical for 
any developed or developing organisation and affects the private and 
the public sectors alike. Perceptions that skilled employees are a 
business of private institutions are outdated and reside in the past. 
Retention of personnel will continue to negatively impact the DHA of 
the present and the future if not properly managed.  
  
 
113 
 
 
6.3. Recommendations 
 
In conclusion this report makes the following recommendations:  
6.3.1. Leadership 
 
Effective leadership is the strength of every organisation and remains 
a key factor in the successful implementation of organisational policies 
such as retention. The researcher recommends that the DHA reviews 
its leadership capacity to enable retention policy management and 
implementation. The review may consider leadership competency, 
awareness, and technical and administrative capacity to manage and 
implement the policy.  
 
6.3.2.  Talent management 
 
The DHA as a public organisation should view talent management as a 
critical strategic factor for organisational growth and effectiveness 
which, if not properly managed, will have serious repercussions for 
service delivery. Talent management should thus be adopted as a core 
business. 
 
6.3.3. Retention policy management 
 
A policy is not developed in vacuum; rather, its development is 
informed by a prevailing need which should be managed or regulated. 
Retention policy should be viewed and treated as a living document 
which requires proper management and implementation in order to 
achieve the intended results. Policy management moves beyond 
development, but as part of management, a policy should be 
implemented, monitored and evaluated to measure the success, 
 
114 
 
impact or shortfalls as policies achieve their purpose upon 
implementation. Policy management should further consider aspects 
such as policy management capacity, whether technical, 
administrative, stakeholder relations, and other relevant 
considerations.    
  
6.3.4. Future research 
 
Future personnel research particularly, on the attitude of managers in 
retention policy implementation, is recommended. Future research can 
also be conducted on the practice of exit interviews, turnover 
information management systems, and causes of turnover. 
  
 
115 
 
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APPENDICES  
Appendix A: List of Interviewees  
  
 
 
First Category 
1. SM 1 ? interviewed on 2010-09-05 
2. SM 2 ? interviewed on 2010-09-07 
3. SM3 ? interviewed on 2010-09-09 
4. SM 4 ? interviewed on 2010-09-09 
5. SM 5 ? interviewed on 2010-09-15 
 
Second category 
1. MM 1 ? interviewed on 2010-07-02 
2. MM 2 ? interviewed on 2010-07-02 
3. MM 3 ? interviewed on 2010-07-11 
4. MM 4 ? interviewed on 2010-07-09 
5. MM 5 ? interviewed on 2010-07-06 
 
Category 3 
1. RM 1 ? interviewed on 2010-09-09 
2. RM 2 ? interviewed on 2010-09-09 
3. RM 3 ? interviewed on 2010-09-10 
4. RM 4 ? interviewed on 2010-09-10 
5. RM 5 ? interviewed on 2010-09-14 
 
  
 
 
124 
 
Appendix B: Interview request letter            
 
 
 
       270 Maggs Street  
      Watloo 
      PRETORIA 
      0001 
      082 768 4665 
      2010 June 02 
 
Request for interview 
 
Dear Sir/ Madam  
  
I am a Masters of Management student in the field of policy at the 
University of WITS conducting a research study about the 
implementation of retention policy in the department of Home Affairs. 
 
A request is hereby made for an interview at your earliest convenience 
during the month of June to September 2010. Kindly confirm your 
availability at the above contact numbers. 
 
Your assistance will be appreciated 
 
Yours faithfully 
 
 
Adv M P Machethe 
 Date: 
 
125 
 
 
Appendix C 
Appendix C: Research Themes 
 
1. Retention management and Coordination 
1.1. Describe how your Department manages retention of personnel. 
 
2. Resources allocation 
2.1. Explain which part of your Department requires more resource 
attention to ensure successful retention of personnel. 
2.2. Does your Department have talent to retain? Please qualify your 
response. 
 
3. Existing retention policy successes and challenges 
3.1. Briefly explain your Department?s retention policy successes. 
3.2. Briefly explain your Department?s retention policy challenges. 
3.3. What do you consider as causes of the challenges if any? 
3.4. What do you think needs to be improved to enable successful 
implementation of the policy? 
 
 
 
Thank you for taking time to participate in the study