i ABSTRACT In the 1989/90 academic year the Department of Fine and Performing Arts (DFPA), University of Dar es Salaam, established the Children?s Theatre Project (CTP) which involved pupils in a number of primary schools in Tanzania. The project was carried out in two phases. Phase one centred on training teachers in skills to organise and run children?s groups through workshops. The second phase focused on the use of Theatre as a Teaching Methodology. This study is a critical examination of Theatre as a Teaching Methodology in Tanzanian, formal primary schools. It investigates two key questions: Firstly, In what way might the CTPs Theatre as a Teaching Methodology work together with Drama in Education methodology? and secondly, What effects might the integration of Drama in Education pedagogy have on CTP? The theoretical framework to this study is informed by Drama in Education pedagogy which considers the use of theatre elements as essential in achieving both its ?pedagogical objective? and its ?artistic objective? (Bolton, 1993). The critical pedagogy theory which focuses on reconstructing the experience of students and which claims that ?reality is neither objective nor subjective but a complex combination of both perspectives? (Carroll, 1996, p. 76) is applied to this study. The study utilises a qualitative research methodology, in particular a case study approach to data collection and consists of three kinds of data collection instruments; observation, in-depth open-ended interviews, and written documents from the CTP?s records. It was noted that while Drama in Education focuses on the process rather that on the product, Theatre as a Teaching Methodology is largely concerned with the concept of using classroom drama and traditional theatre forms to perform within the classroom. The findings demonstrate that both approaches under study are particular to learning and teaching, and resonate with a critical pedagogy in which learning and teaching are child centred. Though there is a distinction between Theatre as a Teaching Methodology and Drama in Education, the tools are the same: the elements of theatre crafts ii (Wagner, 1980). However, it was revealed that there is no clearly articulated structure for Theatre as a Teaching Methodology, thus a need to integrate the Drama in Education structure is inevitable. These structures and their effectiveness have been proved both inside and outside Africa (O?Toole, 1992; Nebe, 1991, 2008; Simpson and Heap, 2002; and Carter and Westaway, 2001). The study recommends the CTP and education authorities in Tanzania to explicitly consider the theoretical foundations which underpin their claim of child centeredness by providing proper formalised education to all pre-service teachers. In other words, the inclusion of accredited drama and theatre pedagogical courses in teachers? training colleges is needed rather than ad-hoc, tailor-made courses and workshops. iii DECLARATION I, Delphine Njewele, declare that this dissertation is my own original work. It is being submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Arts (Dramatic Arts) to the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg and that it has not been presented to any other university for a similar or any other degree award. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Signature Delphine C. Njewele 25 day of August 2009 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this report has been possible through the support and help of many people. My profound thanks to all those who have helped me along this academic journey; I am very grateful to my supervisor Prof. Hazel Barnes whose efforts, time, encouragement and willingness to help; together with constructive criticism have enabled me to successfully accomplish this work. With her is Coordinator of the Drama for Life programme, Mr. Warren Nebe. His time, encouragements and supervision have made the original idea for this study mature into an ideal academic work. I extend my deep gratitude to Drama for Life lecturers and specifically Prof. Christopher Joseph Odhiambo, and Dr. Kennedy Chinyowa for their encouragement and help in the various stages of this study. I am grateful to my colleagues and classmates of the 2008 Masters in Dramatic Arts and Drama for Life Scholars especially Selloane Mokuku for the support they have shown throughout the period of the study. I cannot express the deep appreciation I have to the Witwatersrand University for awarding me a place to study and the University of Dar es Salaam for granting me permission to study at Wits. I also wish to extend my thanks to my family, particularly my husband Rainard John Kayombo and my daughter Janneth who missed my immediate care and love. With them are my young brothers, especially Gaston Njewele, my young sister Edelfrida and children Sara, Baraka, Marietta and my nephew Salumu Mpando. Their great endurance during the whole period of schooling for my MA degree, understanding, encouragement, and praying facilitated the completion of this work. I also thank my parents, Mr. Cosmas Njewele and Mama Anna I. Munyuku for their encouragement, prayers and blessings during my entire academic life. They have shown me a light. v Finally, I wish to acknowledge and thank my sponsor, the GTZ, without which I could not have been able to pursue my M.A studies. vi ABBREVIATIONS CTP- Children?s Theatre Project DFPA- Department of Fine and Performing Arts DIE- Drama in Education Ed-SDP- Education Sector Development Programme EFA- Education for All EPF- Education Programme Fund ETP- Education Training Policy MoEC- Ministry of Education and Culture MoEVT- Ministry of Education and Vocational Training PEDP- Primary Education Development Plan Sida- Swedish International Development Agency TIE- Theatre in Education TFD- Theatre for Development UPE- Universal Primary Education UDSM- University of Dar es Salaam vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Declaration iii Acknowledgement iv Abbreviation vi Table of Contents vii CHAPTER ONE Introduction and Rationale 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Background of the Children?s Theatre Project. 1 1.2 Definition of Terms 4 1.2.1 Theatre and Drama 4 1.2.2 Theatre as a Teaching Methodology and Drama in Education 6 1.3 Aim 7 1.4 Research Questions 8 1.5 Rationale 8 1.5.1 CTP and Teaching Experience 8 1.5.2 Drama in Education 9 1.6 Overview of Research Report 12 CHAPTER TWO Literature Review 2.0 Introduction 14 2.1 Culture and Education 14 2.2 Tanzania and the History of Drama in Formal Schools 17 2.3 The Field of Drama in Education 20 2.4 Criticisms of Drama in Education 21 2.5 Conclusion 23 CHAPTER THREE Methodology 3.0 Introduction 25 3.1 Qualitative research methodology 25 3.1.1 Case study 26 3.2 Data collection techniques 29 viii 3.2.1 Observation and field notes 29 3.2.2 Interviews 30 3.2.3 Documentation 32 3.3 Data Analysis 32 3.4 Ethical considerations 32 3.5 Theoretical Framework 33 3.5.1 Elements of Theatre 34 3.5.2 Critical Pedagogy 36 3.6 Conclusion 40 CHAPTER FOUR Data Presentation part I 4.0 Introduction 41 4.1 Historical overview of the Children?s Theatre Project and Three Primary Schools within the Study 42 4.1.1 Background Information on CTP 42 4.1.2 Short Profile of the Schools within the Study 45 4.1.2.1 Uhuru Mchanganyiko Primary School 45 4.1.2.2 Makamba Primary School 46 4.1.2.3 Mwenge Primary School 47 4.2 Contextualisation of Theatre and Drama within CTP 47 4.3 The Framework of Theatre as a Teaching Methodology 50 4.3.1 History and Practice 50 4.3.2 Approaching New Syllabus 52 4.3.3 Teacher -Pupil Relationship 54 4.3.3.1 Teacher -Pupil Relationship and the Lesson Planning 55 4.3.3.2 Teaching and Learning Strategies within Theatre as a Teaching Methodology 57 4.3.3.3 Teacher- in-Role 58 4.3.3.4 Reflection, Evaluation and Questioning 59 4.3.4 Elements of Theatre 61 4.3.4.1 Focus 61 ix 4.3.4.2 Dramatic Tension, Signs and Symbols 62 4.3.4.3 Role 63 4.3.4.4 Time 64 4.3.4.5 Negotiating Classroom Drama 65 4.4 Conclusion 68 CHAPTER FIVE Data Presentation Part 11 5.0 Introduction 69 5.1 Theatre as a Teaching Methodology as an Under-Valued Pedagogy 60 5.2 Teacher?s Responsibility 71 5.3 Planning and Framing the Lesson Structure 72 5.4 Conclusion 76 CHAPTER SIX Conclusion and recommendation 6.0 Introduction 78 6.1 The Potential of Theatre as a Teaching Methodology and Drama in Education 78 6.2 The Possibilities of Synergy between Theatre as a Teaching Methodology and Drama in Education 80 6.3 Recommendations 82 REFERENCE LIST 84 APPENDIX ?A? Key Interview questions 90 APPENDIX ?B? Research Permission Letter 92 APPENDIX ?C? Letter of Introduction 93 APPENDIX ?D? Letter of Informed Consent 94 APPENDIX ?E? Research Clearance Certificate 95