i
Min
Mini Glass Ceilings and Queen Bees in
Management of South African Organisations
Samantha du Preez
Student no: 2621165
Report presented in fulfilment for the degree of Master of Business Administration to the Faculty
of Commerce, Law, and Management, University of the Witwatersrand
February 2024
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Abstract
Gender equality in the workplace remains a business and Government imperative. Although
the South African transformation journey had a positive impact to female careers by way of
affirmative action policy, female career advancement remains lethargic.
This study delves into the complex challenges hindering female career advancement, focusing
on two prominent phenomena: the glass ceiling and queen bee syndrome. The glass ceiling
refers to invisible yet formidable barriers that prevent women from ascending to leadership
positions within organizations. It encompasses systemic biases, gender stereotyping, and
organisational culture discrimination against females, creating a tangible, albeit invisible
barrier to women's professional growth. Conversely, the queen bee syndrome describes a
phenomenon where senior women have successfully broken through the glass ceiling, but
seemingly creates a toxic barrier which inhibit the progress of their junior female
counterparts. In combination, these barriers often perpetuate a hostile and toxic work
environment underpinned by competition and lack of support.
This quantitative study’s aim was to identify and analyse the prevalence of these barriers in
South African organisations today. The study’s findings indicate that both these phenomena
are found in the organisations respondents are employed by, with an indication of positive
organisational cultures within these workplaces. Recommendations are proposed
encompassing organisational intervention with suitable and targeted initiatives to create
awareness, educate and guide all managers in the managerial hierarchy.
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction to the Research ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the Study ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Research Problem, Aims and Objectives ............................................................................... 2
1.3 Delimitations of the Study ..................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Structure of the Research Report .......................................................................................... 3
2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Empirical Literature ................................................................................................................ 4
2.1.1 The Glass Ceiling Theory ................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 The Queen Bee Theory ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................................... 9
3 Research Methodology ................................................................................................................ 11
3.1 Research Strategy ................................................................................................................. 11
3.2 Research Design.................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Population and Sample ........................................................................................................ 12
3.3.1 Population ....................................................................................................................... 12
3.3.2 Sample ............................................................................................................................ 12
3.4 Data Collection Method and Research Instrument ............................................................. 12
3.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation Strategy .......................................................................... 14
3.6 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................................... 14
3.7 Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 15
4 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 16
4.1 Introduction to the Analysis ................................................................................................. 16
4.2 Key Demographics to the Study ........................................................................................... 16
4.2.1 Gender, Marital Status, and Dependents ...................................................................... 17
4.2.2 Gender, Management Level and Education ................................................................... 17
4.3 Data Analysis Results and Frequencies ................................................................................ 19
4.3.1 The Glass Ceiling Phenomenon ...................................................................................... 20
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4.3.2 The Queen Bee Syndrome .............................................................................................. 24
4.4 Summary of the Data Analysis ............................................................................................. 27
5 Interpretation of Results and Findings ........................................................................................ 29
5.1 Introduction to the Interpretation ....................................................................................... 29
5.1.1 The Glass Ceiling Phenomenon ...................................................................................... 29
5.1.2 The Queen Bee Syndrome .............................................................................................. 34
5.2 Summary to the Interpretation ............................................................................................ 38
6 Conclusion, Recommendations and Future Research ................................................................. 39
7 References .................................................................................................................................... 41
8 Annexures ..................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2 Gender and Management Level .............................................................................................. 18
Figure 3 Glass Ceiling Phenomenon: Responses to Career Advancement Hinderances ...................... 20
Figure 4 Glass Ceiling Phenomenon: Responses to Career Mobility .................................................... 21
Figure 5 Glass Ceiling Phenomenon: Responses to Career Sacrifices ................................................... 23
Figure 6 Queen Bee Syndrome: Responses to Preference for Males ................................................... 24
Figure 7 Queen Bee Syndrome: Reponses to Queen Bee Distancing Tactics........................................ 25
Figure 8 Queen Bee Syndrome: Responses to Belief in Meritocracy .................................................... 27
Figure 9 SPSS Demographic Information .............................................................................................. 46
Table 1 Cross-tabulation: Gender, Marital status, Dependents ............................................................ 17
Table 2 Management Composition ....................................................................................................... 18
Table 3 Cross-tabulation: Gender, Management level, Number of Years in Management Level ......... 19
Table 4 Formal Educational Achievement ............................................................................................. 19
Table 5 T-Test Results Glass Ceiling Phenomenon ................................................................................ 30
Table 6 T-Test Results Queen Bee Syndrome ........................................................................................ 34
Table 7 Survey Data: Glass Ceiling Phenomenon .................................................................................. 47
Table 8 Survey Data: Queen Bee Syndrome ......................................................................................... 49
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1 Introduction to the Research
1.1 Background of the Study
Society, cultural norms, and beliefs influenced and shaped gender roles. The interconnected
nature of globalisation led to a shift in attitudes towards traditional gender roles. Although
the shift is evident, gender transformation in business remains sluggish. Globally, gender
inequality has become an imperative to both society and business, as the world strives to
become more equitable and environmentally sustainable. Given the importance of global
transformation, gender equality is addressed as a sustainable development goal by the United
Nations (United Nations, 2015).
South Africa, 30 years into its democratic journey, still contends with numerous issues
affecting both business and society at large, gender inequality is one such issue. Important
policies such as Employment Equity (“EE”) and Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment
(“B-BBEE”) was legislated to address historical inequities and to transform the South African
economy. Despite good strides made, slow gender transformation in business remain visible.
The 2021 South African women in leadership census published by the Businesswomen’s
Association of South Africa indicate women held 26.9% (2015: 20.8%) director positions at
JSE-listed entities (BWASA, 2021). Furthermore, women held a mere 10% (2015: 9.2%) of
chairperson positions at JSE-listed entities, whilst a decline was noted in women whom held
executive management positions from 29.3% (2015) to 28.1% (2021) at JSE-listed entities
(BWASA, 2021). According to the 2023 Sanlam Transformation Gauge report, the
management control element monitors not only black female representation on corporate
boards in South Africa but also the employee demographic within the management hierarchy
(i.e.: junior, middle, senior management). Out of just over fourteen thousand five hundred
companies surveyed, both listed and unlisted, these companies achieved a score of 69% in
2023 representing an improvement from 56% (2022) (Intellidex, 2023). Although an
improvement was noted, the Balanced Scorecard element remained the worst scoring
measurement across all industries, with reasons such as “resistance by corporate South Africa,
lack of skills, or a combination of both” reported (Intellidex, 2023, p. 22). Lastly, the financial
services industry in South Africa is an important role player in the economy. The Banking
Association of South Africa’s 2023 Transformation report provides an overview of the banking
industry's progress on empowerment and transformation targets as set out in the Financial
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Sector Charter (BASA, 2023). A significant increase of 21% (2021) in black women who held
top senior positions, when compared to 15% in 2020 is noted (BASA, 2023). Conversely,
however a significant decline across the managerial hierarchy was reported, where black
women held 17% (2021) of senior management positions, down from 20% (2020), 25% (2021)
of middle management positions down from 35% (2020) and 48% (2021) of junior
management positions, down from 59% (2020) (BASA, 2023).
The depiction of the published results highlights slow and even regressed progress with a
somewhat skewed nature of female representation from the highest to lowest management
levels in business. In pursuit of gender equality in the workplace, the afore dynamics are
explored. The glass ceiling phenomenon and queen bee syndrome represent persistent
challenges that hinder women in their career paths. Despite strides towards inclusivity and
diversity, these barriers continue to impede women’s career advancement in the managerial
hierarchy of South African organisations. The study’s purpose is to gain gendered views of
these impediments whilst understanding the prevalence of these barriers within South African
organisations today.
1.2 Research Problem, Aims and Objectives
The traction of women to the top of the proverbial corporate ladder within South African
organisations remain slow and problematic. The industry reports highlight a skewness that
exist in the management hierarchy of the organisations surveyed, where females seem to
dominate the lower levels of management and dwindle towards the top levels of management
(BASA, 2023; BWASA, 2021; Intellidex, 2023).
This study aims to identify and analyse these gender specific impediments to advancement of
female careers through the lens of the glass ceiling phenomena and queen bee syndrome
theories.
1.3 Delimitations of the Study
The study’s delimitations are:
1. The focus area of the study is limited to junior, middle, and senior management and
excludes executive management (top management) and C-suite positions.
2. Although traditionally male or female dominated organisations still exist, this study is
generic as it does not account for such differences that might be prevalent across
sectors.
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3. The study sets out to obtain gendered views of managers employed in South African
organisations.
1.4 Structure of the Research Report
The report is structured as follows:
▪ The literature review is done in Chapter two which covers past studies on the topic.
▪ Chapter three covers the research methodology which outlines the research approach,
the design, data collection methods, the population and sample, data analysis
strategies, quality assurance and ethical considerations.
▪ Chapters four and five covers the data analysis and interpretation of the results and
findings, respectively, to answer the research problem posed.
▪ Lastly, Chapter six provides an overall summary and concluding remarks with
recommendations and future study avenues.
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2 Literature Review
2.1 Empirical Literature
The introduction to this study highlights the slow traction of female careers in the managerial
hierarchy of organisations in South Africa. The glass ceiling phenomenon and queen bee
syndrome represent female career barriers in the workplace, which in combination pose a
serious threat to female career ascension (Abalkhail, 2020; Johnson & Mathur-Helm, 2011a;
Kobus-Olawale et al., 2021; Marinakou, 2014; Mathur-Helm, 2006a; Matotoka & Odeku,
2021). Significant attention was devoted by academia, to understand these career
impediments overtime, as these barriers not only represent obstacles to women but
perpetuates gender inequality in the workplace (Abalkhail, 2020; Johnson & Mathur-Helm,
2011a; Kobus-Olawale et al., 2021; Marinakou, 2014; Mathur-Helm, 2006b; Matotoka &
Odeku, 2021). Whilst a positive link between gender diversity, corporate governance and
corporate performance have been evidenced, females remain scantly represented within the
upper management structures and boardrooms of organisations globally (Boukattaya et al.,
2022; Geyfman et al., 2018; Khatib et al., 2021).
Role congruity theory on the other hand, the perceived incongruity between the female
gender role and the female leadership role (Eagly & Karau, 2002) provide a foundation
through which the glass ceiling phenomenon can be understood. Social identity theory, the
concept of self and identification with social groups, explore the importance of group
membership in shaping individual identity (Scheepers & Ellemers, 2019) and provide a
foundation through which the queen bee syndrome can be understood. In combination these
theories provide a broad spectrum of female career impediments studied and provide
valuable insights into female leadership dynamics in the workplace. The theories however lack
in fully explaining the complex nature of female career impediments experienced, such as the
role of intersectionality and the structural barriers women experience on their career journey,
such as unequal opportunities. Many organisational practices have been improved to address
gender transformation however entry barriers in male-dominated organisations remain high,
but not impossible (Eagly & Carli, 2018).
The literature review aims to explore the existing research on the glass ceiling phenomenon
to understand the different societal, organisational, and individual dimensions of the
phenomenon. Secondly, the review will explore existing research on the queen bee syndrome,
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to understand the nature of this unique barrier which is caused by senior females who
discriminate against junior females in organisations.
2.1.1 The Glass Ceiling Theory
The concept of the glass ceiling refers to the invisible barrier that prevents women from
advancing into senior management positions and reaching their full career potential (Akkaya,
2020; Manzi & Heilman, 2021; Matotoka & Odeku, 2021). Despite progress in gender equality,
women still face numerous barriers in their career advancement. Understanding the
intersectionality of these barriers are crucial in addressing the glass ceiling and creating
pathways for female career advancement (March et al., 2016).
These barriers can be categorized into three main themes of societal, organizational, and
individual factors.
1. Societal barriers encompass cultural norms and biases that perpetuate gender
stereotypes and limit women's opportunities for advancement. Societal barriers, such
as ingrained gender stereotypes and biases, create an environment where women are
often overlooked for leadership positions despite their qualifications and abilities
(Manzi & Heilman, 2021; March et al., 2016). These biases not only affect hiring and
promotion decisions but also shape the organizational culture, making it difficult for
women to thrive in male-dominated environments. The influence of gender
stereotypes and cultural norms emerges as a significant barrier to women's career
advancement (Marinakou, 2014), whist societal expectations and stereotypes often
shape leadership perceptions and contribute to the underrepresentation of women in
senior roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
2. Organisational barriers is a form of systemic discrimination women encounter in the
workplace and emerges in the form of biases in recruitment practices, being held over
for a promotion, compensation processes and pay gaps, lack of organisational support
and misaligned organisational cultures in traditionally male-dominated organisations
(Enid Kiaye & Maniraj Singh, 2013; Mathur-Helm, 2006a; Matotoka & Odeku, 2021).
These discriminatory practices perpetuate the glass ceiling and hinder women's career
advancement. The act of networking, formally and informally, builds tremendous
social capital and a well-entrenched practice with males however largely unexplored
by females (Jauhar & Lau, 2018). The prevalence of informal networks, traditionally
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referred to as the old boys’ club, is an informal network reserved strictly for males
from a certain social class and wields vast influence over decisions relating to the
organisation (April et al., 2007; Michelman et al., 2022). This network not only present
a barrier to women from a decision-making and influence perspective but also
accessing influential networks and formal mentoring opportunities, which are crucial
for career development and progression (Jauhar & Lau, 2018; Man et al., 2009).
3. Individual factors relate to personal barriers, such as self-perception (confidence and
ambition to succeed) and work-life balance challenges. On an individual level, women
often face unique challenges that impact their career advancement, such as balancing
work and personal life (female dual role) which hinder their ability to fully commit to
their careers (Buddhapriya, 2009; Enid Kiaye & Maniraj Singh, 2013; Jauhar & Lau,
2018a). Furthermore, self-perception and confidence can be influenced by societal
and organizational barriers, leading to a self-perpetuating cycle of doubt and
hesitation when pursuing promotions or high visibility opportunities (Akkaya, 2020).
The consequences of the glass ceiling are far-reaching insofar lack of representation and
diversity at the top levels of organizations and limiting the perspective and ideas used in
decision-making processes (Ellemers et al., 2012; Osituyo, 2018). This lack of diversity can
hinder innovation and the organization's agility in an ever changing fast-paced business
landscape, ultimately inhibiting the organisation’s growth (Jing et al., 2022; Quintana-García
et al., 2022). Secondly, the glass ceiling can lead to a talent drain, as women who are unable
to advance in their careers may choose to leave the organization, resulting in a loss of valuable
skills and expertise (March et al., 2016; Marinakou, 2014; Mathur-Helm, 2006a; Matotoka &
Odeku, 2021).
Whilst organisational practices and traditional hierarchical organisational structures present
career barriers to females, self-inflicted career regression barriers also emerge, where women
create and possibly perpetuate their own barriers. Personal choices and preferences such as
senior women in leadership positions making conscious decisions to exit their careers, driven
by a yearning for change and purpose in life factor and typically have the financial freedom
and support of the family to do so (Neck, 2015). Whilst prioritizing family responsibilities over
career advancement and unwillingness to relocate to advance in their careers (Adhikary, 2016;
Akkaya, 2020; Enid Kiaye & Maniraj Singh, 2013; Mathur-Helm, 2006a), is another personal
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preference. However, it is important to recognize that these choices may be influenced by
societal expectations, such as values, norms, beliefs and behaviours of the society, culture or
family unit they belong to and gender roles that have been ingrained in individuals from a
young age (Chabaya et al., 2009). Conversely, Jauhar and Lau (2018) found that family
responsibilities does not have an impact to female career advancement but rather systemic
barriers such as a toxic corporate culture and the persistent impact of informal male networks
(old boys club) which are more of a hinderance (Jauhar & Lau, 2018). Women’s self-esteem
such as lack of confidence and perseverance also impede female career advancement (Akkaya,
2020).
In conclusion, the persistence of the glass ceiling and obstacles to women's career progression
in management remains a prevalent issue, despite ongoing attempts to address the inequity.
The literature review outlines several reasons behind these challenges, such as rigid
hierarchical structures, lack of respect from male counterparts, cultural limitations based on
gender, conflicts between domestic and work obligations, inadequate support systems, and
restricted access to networking and mentorship programs.
2.1.2 The Queen Bee Theory
Queen bee syndrome refers to a phenomenon where women in senior leadership positions
display negative behaviour, such as distancing tactics towards junior women, hindering their
advancement and perpetuating gender inequality in the workplace. Queen bees align more
closely with men to navigate the challenges and discrimination they face in male-dominated
organizations (Faniko et al., 2021).
The syndrome has a destructive three-pronged impact, not only on junior females, but queen
bee managers themselves and the organisation at large. Senior women leaders distancing
themselves from other women, may gain short-term career success but may ultimately face
high costs in terms of poor work conditions, compared to their male peers. These conditions
include isolation and lack of support from their peers and subordinates; undermining
leadership effectiveness, low team morale and team dissonance (Kobus-Olawale et al., 2021;
Sobczak, 2018). Negative behaviours by queen bees towards junior females exhibit as
undermining or belittling junior females achievements and/or abilities in the organization,
refusing to support or mentor junior women, creating a lack of opportunities for their
advancement, engaging in competitive and individualistic behaviours, prioritizing their own
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success over supporting junior women, engaging in workplace bullying or hostile behaviours
towards junior women and utilizing gatekeeping strategies to limit the visibility and
opportunities of junior women in the organization (Kobus-Olawale et al., 2021; Pillay-Naidoo
& Vermeulen, 2023; Sobczak, 2018). Queen bees thus create a toxic work environment for
both senior and junior females and has the potential to erode the organisation’s effectiveness
and ultimately the bottom line.
The basis of social identity theory is how individuals derive part of their self-identity from the
groups they belong to, in this instance, the female gender group (Scheepers & Ellemers, 2019).
Self-distancing behaviour towards junior females is a purposefully displayed distancing tactic
by queen bees (Faniko et al., 2016, 2017, 2021), believing their success and achievements are
threatened by being a member of a negatively perceived group. Queen bee syndrome is not
inherently feminine, but rather a self-group distancing response that can be found in other
marginalized groups as well, e.g.: racial minority groups (Ellemers et al., 2012; Pillay-Naidoo &
Vermeulen, 2023). From a queen bee perspective, this behaviour can be seen as a response
to the social identity threat and discrimination women experience in workplace (Faniko et al.,
2016; Harvey, 2018; Johnson & Mathur-Helm, 2011b; Mavin, 2008). According to Faniko et al.
(2016, p. 908), queen bees are not in support of policy “targeting junior female”, such as
gender quotas and considered it as preferential treatment that junior females will gain. This
behaviour may be seen as a way for women leaders to fit into the male-dominant culture and
gain legitimacy for their roles within their organizations.
Queen bee behaviour is not against all females but particularly against junior females
perceived to not have not made the same personal sacrifices as queen bees (Faniko et al.,
2016). Queen bees portray solidarity particularly when strong identification with other
females exists, e.g.: peers or junior women who made similar personal sacrifices to attain
success. Queen bees are thus more likely to support and promote gender equality initiatives
such as gender quota policy, in this instance (Derks et al., 2016; Faniko et al., 2016).
The queen bee syndrome is not solely the fault of senior female leaders portraying queen bee
behaviour, but stems from traditional male hierarchical organisational structures, which
discriminate against females, within organizations. Thus Queen bee syndrome is not a source
of gender inequality, but rather a consequence of the gender discrimination and social
identity threat that senior women experience in male-dominated organizations (Sterk et al.,
2018). Several strategies for combatting queen bee behaviour include implementing diversity
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and inclusion initiatives, providing mentorship and sponsorship opportunities for junior
women, promoting transparent and fair evaluation processes, fostering a culture that values
collaboration and support among women in leadership positions, and challenging gender
stereotypes and biases within organizations (Abalkhail, 2020; Harvey, 2018; Johnson &
Mathur-Helm, 2011b; Pillay-Naidoo & Vermeulen, 2023).
In conclusion, the literature on the queen bee syndrome provides insights into the underlying
factors and consequences of this behaviour in organizations. It highlights the role of gender
discrimination, social identity threat, and the existing gender hierarchy in perpetuating the
phenomenon. Furthermore, the literature also emphasizes that the queen bee behaviour is
not inherently feminine, but rather a response to the relegated status of women in male-
dominated environments. The literature also discusses the negative impact of queen bee
behaviour on women leaders themselves, as well as on junior women who may experience
limitations in their career opportunities and access to resources. The literature suggests
various strategies to combat the queen bee syndrome, including creating an inclusive work
environment, challenging gender biases and stereotypes, providing mentorship and support
for junior women, and implementing diversity and inclusion initiatives. Overall, the literature
agrees that the behaviour reflects systemic gender discrimination and gender inequalities
within organizations.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework is an outline to the study’s objective. The study’s aim is to analyse
gendered views to slow career advancement of females in the managerial hierarchy through
the lens of the glass ceiling phenomenon and queen bee syndrome barriers.
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Figure 1 Conceptual Framework
The framework divides these traditional female career barriers into two overarching domains
by stating the following hypotheses:
1. The presence of the glass ceiling in organisations will persist unless corporate cultures
become more sensitive to and aligned with the barriers hindering women’s career
advancement.
2. Women are their own worst enemy and will continue to perpetuate their own barriers
to advancement. Only when senior queen bee females become more aware and more
attuned with their own group within the workplace, will junior females then steadily
advance in their management careers.
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3 Research Methodology
3.1 Research Strategy
The conceptual framework identified, and the appropriate research approach guides the
answering of the research problem identified. Deductive reasoning, described as “a scientific
method to test a theory” follows a logical approach to derive specific conclusions (Bryman &
Bell, 2014, p. 62). Deductive reasoning aims to test and/or confirm the hypothesis whilst
inductive reasoning is the outcome of research and creation of a new theory (Bryman & Bell,
2014; Ochara, 2016). A deductive reasoning method was followed given the objective was to
confirm the hypotheses. This method allows the researcher to narrow down the research
scope from general and/or wide range to ultimately reach a true and accurate conclusion
based on the data collected.
A positivistic approach underpins the foundation of the study, where a non-experimental
quantitative research method was applied (Mohajan, 2020). This method takes a clinical
approach as it involves the use of numerical and statistical analysis techniques to reach
accurate and quantifiable conclusions to the hypothesis posed (Mohajan, 2020). The
application of these techniques is beneficial for the researcher to understand why females
within management hierarchies experience impediments to career advancement.
3.2 Research Design
A research design is a plan that guides the collection and analysis of the data the researcher
plans to collect and considered a structured framework (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020; Bryman &
Bell, 2014). A descriptive research design was followed as the design allows the researcher to
systematically answer the what, where and how questions stemming from the research
question posed (Mohajan, 2020). The advantage of deploying this design permits the
researcher to identify, observe and measure the variables in an uncontrolled and undisturbed
manner with high external validity, given the research was conducted within the respondent’s
natural setting (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020) and could provide a foundation for future research
by directing future policy-making decisions about women’s career progression within the
management ecosystem of organisations.
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3.3 Population and Sample
3.3.1 Population
According to Bougie and Sekaran (2020), the target population can be described as the entire
population or group that the researcher is interested in researching.
In the case of this study, the population identified was managers across the managerial
hierarchy, active in South African organisations. Registered post graduate students at the
University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, was used as the target population. These students
are economically active and in managerial positions (historic and/or current) of South African
businesses across various sectors.
3.3.2 Sample
A sample is a sub-set of the population aimed to be a representative sample that the
researcher will draw conclusions from and a sampling frame being the accessible population
(Bougie & Sekaran, 2020; Ochara, 2016). A non-probabilistic sampling approach was taken
allowing the researcher to apply judgement to the population pool selection, where the
respondents met certain specification criteria relevant to the research objectives of this study.
The sampling frame for this study consisted of managers of South African businesses across
various sectors. The sampling method applied was convenience sampling, Ochara (2016)
highlights that this method is simplistic, convenient and allows the researcher to survey
whoever is easily available. A key drawback to this method is its reliability, meaning the study
may not be generalisable to the population (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020; Ochara, 2016).
Thirty-four post graduate students responded to the survey, of which twenty-five responses
were considered viable for use in this study. Nine responses were excluded from the study, as
the response fields were either blank or semi-answered.
3.4 Data Collection Method and Research Instrument
A survey design methodology is the foundation to the study’s data collection method and the
research instrument being a survey. A survey is a popular research tool used to gather
information and data used to answer research questions posed from a sample sub-set of the
population which could be generalised to the population group (Bougie & Sekaran, 2020;
Mohajan, 2020; Ochara, 2016).
An online web-based software tool, Qualtrics, was used to generate and distribute the survey,
via an online in-application generated link. The link was distributed to the target population
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via the University’s in-house department which ensures no interference from the researcher.
The questions were randomised so respondents could answer the statements as openly and
honestly as possible without any preconceived notions about the study’s hypotheses.
The survey consisted of the following three sections:
a. The first section comprised general type personal information. These were gender;
marital status; dependents; whether respondents had dual income households;
management level; number of years at the management level; the sectors
respondents were employed in and education level.
b. The second section, the crux of the study, comprised closed-ended questions which
directly relates to the hypotheses posed in this study. Thirty-one closed-ended
statements were posed.
A seven-point Likert Scale design was used which offers prepopulated answers. This
rating scale allows for the tracking of subtle nuances and trends associated with large
sample sizes. The answer range was as follows: 1. Strongly agree; 2. Somewhat agree;
3. Agree; 4. Neither agree nor disagree; 5. Disagree; 6. Somewhat disagree; and 7.
Strongly disagree. The points allocation was in line with the afore numbering order of
the pre-populated answers.
c. The third section was a free text section. Two (2) open-ended questions were posed
which respondents could respond to. This allowed respondents to express their
experience and thoughts around gender concentration and own career barriers
experienced whilst simultaneously allowing the researcher to gain depth of insights to
the closed-ended statements posed. The free text box word limitation was set to one
hundred and forty characters.
The survey was open for four weeks over the South African summer holiday period. As
indicated, only thirty-four respondents participated in the survey. The sample size was thus
considered small considering the scope of the study and the nature of the survey structure.
Taking account of the afore, the scope of the study was reduced. Initially, three hypotheses
were posed, these covered female career advancement barriers through the glass ceiling
phenomenon and queen bee syndrome, the intensity of the impediments experienced in the
management hierarchy and lastly the intersections that interplay. The scope was condensed
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to two hypotheses and limited to only the career advancement barriers experienced by
females through the lens of the glass ceiling phenomenon and queen bee syndrome barriers.
Similarly in re-designing the scope, a decision was made to reduce the Likert Scale
measurement from seven to three and group the categories as follows: 1. Agree; 2. Neither
agree nor disagree and 3. Disagree. The points allocation range also mimicked this order.
3.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation Strategy
Quantitative data analysis is a systematic process that allows the researcher to deploy
statistical methods for analysing and interpreting the numerical data collected (Bougie &
Sekaran, 2020; Ochara, 2016).
The raw data collected was exported from the Qualtrics platform and numerically coded in
excel in preparation for the statistical analysis. The IBM SPSS software tool was used to
statistically analyse the coded data. The analysis methods used were two-fold:
1. “Frequencies, descriptives, histograms, and cross tabulations” were used to assist with
unpacking the data collected (Garth, 2008, pp. 14–42).
2. A “T-test” was used to aid the interpretation of the results and to determine the
statistical significance (or lack thereof) of statements posed to respondents (Garth,
2008, pp. 44–47).
During this phase of the research, a problem with the survey questions was detected. The
study’s aim was to obtain views from both male and female managers on female career
advancement barriers experienced. The intention of including males in the study was to obtain
a sense of organisational culture change to organisational barriers females encounter in the
workplace. Some of the statements were however posed in a manner where males considered
the statements based on their own career journey.
3.6 Ethical Considerations
Consent was obtained from the University to allow postgraduates to participate in this study.
The survey did not include respondent names and the names of the organisations they are
employed by, as this is of no interest to the researcher. Furthermore, given the proposed
population and sample, the sample are postgraduate students and economically active adults
and considered part of the country’s working population hence no vulnerable groups are
included.
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The data collected will be stored on the researcher’s computer, where access to the computer
is with a passcode. The data will be kept for a maximum of two years after which deleted from
the researcher’s computer files.
3.7 Limitations
The following limitations to this study have been identified:
1. The possibility of respondents not answering truthfully and refrain from answering key
questions posed, as these factors may hinder the data interpretation and analysis.
2. The age differences within the management ecosystems of South African businesses
may impact the responses received, the data interpretation and hinder the
generalisability of the study.
3. The geographically centred nature of the respondents. Students are assumed to
primarily study, live and work in the Gauteng province, thus hindering perspectives of
managers from other provinces.
4. The small sample size together with the restrictive dynamic relative to the sectors
respondents work in, may hinder generalisability of this study.
5. The statement construction which seems problematic, given male responses. The
intention of the statements posed was to solicit both male and female managers
perceptions of the female career progression barriers. In hindsight, the statement
construction could be valuable with emergent male views that may emanate from the
male responses.
6. The Likert Scale point allocation possibly skewing the statistics.
7. A qualitative or mixed method research design with a larger sample size could have
been better suited for this study, which would have allowed for depth of responses.
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4 Data Analysis
4.1 Introduction to the Analysis
A detailed analysis of the data collected was performed, specifically focusing on the barriers
to career advancement for women in management roles. The dataset, encompassing
responses from 25 participants (n = 25), offers insights into the experiences and perceptions
of individuals across various management levels and educational backgrounds.
Given the nature of this study, the gender distribution lays the groundwork for the study as
the aim was to obtain views from both genders on females’ career advancement barriers. The
gender distribution has a slight predominance of female participants (n=16), whilst males
represent the remainder (n=9).
By presenting these findings, the study aims to understand whether the glass ceiling
phenomenon and the queen bee syndrome remain present within South African organizations
today. From a glass ceiling perspective, the study assesses the fit (i.e.: firmly or loosely) of the
proverbial ceiling, by understanding the perceptions of both males and females on an array of
aspects relating to the theory. The same methodology was applied to the queen bee
syndrome, which centers on senior female discriminatory tactics towards junior females
within organizations. Obtaining views from female managers across the spectrum of
management levels should illuminate the complexity and presence of this phenomenon
within South African organizations.
4.2 Key Demographics to the Study
The biological data provides information on the respondents to the survey. Although generic
non-identifiable information was collected, of particular interest to the study was the gender
of the participants, the managerial positions held, and their marital status as these
demographic variables underscore the crux of the study. A cross-tabulation of the information
was done (i.e.: grouping different variables), so to gain a deeper sense of the respondents’
background which is useful when analysing the statements posed (Garth, 2008). The
individual demographic variables can be found annexed to this report.
17
4.2.1 Gender, Marital Status, and Dependents
Marital status and dependents vs. unmarried individuals with no dependents are key factors
to consider when analyzing the statements posed to respondents, given the impact of family
responsibilities on respondents’ careers.
Table 1 Cross-tabulation: Gender, Marital status, Dependents
Most respondents (72% or 18 respondents) have dependents, of which eleven (11) are either
married or in domestic partnerships. Included are four (4) unmarried females with
dependents. In the minority are three (3) respondents are unmarried with no dependents,
whilst two (2) respondents are married with no dependents.
4.2.2 Gender, Management Level and Education
Gender and management level are important aspects within the glass ceiling and queen bee
domains. The bar chart below indicates that twelve (12) of the sixteen female managers (75%)
hold positions of power, i.e.: middle and senior managers.
18
Figure 2 Gender and Management Level
The data indicates that the largest group of respondents (gender insensitive), 48%, are in
middle management positions, followed by 32% of respondents in senior management roles,
and 20% in junior management positions. Whilst the female manager composition is 25%
junior management, 38% middle management and 38% senior management.
Table 2 Management Composition
The healthy mix of respondents in middle and senior management offers crucial insights to
this study to unearth aspects of the queen bee syndrome and glass ceiling phenomenon.
19
Table 3 Cross-tabulation: Gender, Management level, Number of Years in Management Level
Career stagnation is another important aspect to the theories mentioned above. Eight (8)
out of sixteen females (50%) have been at the same management level for more than five
years. This is significant to the study to understand the prevalence of the glass ceiling within
organizations the respondents are employed in.
Collectively understanding the gender, management composition, and educational
achievements of respondents are important aspects in the study when analyzing respondent
responses.
Table 4 Formal Educational Achievement
The findings reveal that the respondents predominantly hold either an honors or a master’s
degree, each account for 44% of the total participants. This indicates a high level of academic
achievement among the respondents. Additionally, 8% of the participants have attained a
Doctoral Degree, and 4% an Undergraduate Degree.
4.3 Data Analysis Results and Frequencies
This part of the data collection analysis section focuses on the results and findings of the study.
The results are reported based on the two identified domains, namely, 1. Aspects of the glass
20
ceiling, and 2. Aspects of queen bee syndrome. The findings henceforth are presented within
the two domains identified.
4.3.1 The Glass Ceiling Phenomenon
This section of the study consists of eleven statements each relating to aspects of glass ceiling
literature. The statements in this section were grouped to obtain an overall feel for the data
collected and to provide context to the statements posed, thus providing a basis for the
interpretation section that follows.
Figure 3 Glass Ceiling Phenomenon: Responses to Career Advancement Hinderances
Statements 1 to 3 aims to gain a sense of the barriers hindering female career advancement.
Gender as a Career Hindrance: According to Eagly and Carli (2018), the glass ceiling is
described as a range of invisible barriers which primarily impact females and their
career advancement. This statement thus aims to understand whether gender is a
career advancement hinderance, given discrimination against females in the
workplace because of their gender (Braun et al., 2017).
Career Advancement Challenges Varying by Management Level: Females experience
career barriers not only vertically (e.g.: “Glass ceiling”) but also horizontally (e.g.:
“Sticky floors” and “Glass walls”) (Grangeiro et al., 2022). This statement aims to obtain
gendered views as to whether these barriers are different for females in the
managerial hierarchy.
21
Influence of 'Old Boys Club': Networking is an important part of business and builds
tremendous social capital amongst peers and leaders. The old boys club, a professional
network traditionally white and older male who hold positions of power and/or
influence within organizations, is exclusionary to females and younger individuals
(Jauhar & Lau, 2018). The aim of the statement is to understand whether a more
gender diverse organization has dismantled this informal network.
High overall agreement noted for statements 2 and 3, where the genders acknowledge that
female career barriers vary by management level and the prevalence of influential networks
still influencing business decisions. Conversely, high disagreement is noted to statement 1,
gender as a career hinderance, and could be interpretation of the statement by males
considering their own career barriers experienced.
Figure 4 Glass Ceiling Phenomenon: Responses to Career Mobility
The following five statements, provide an indication of the treatment of females and career
mobility in the workplace. The glass ceiling theory addresses various aspects relating to the
afore, such as females being overlooked for promotion (Mathur-Helm, 2006a) and male-
22
dominated organizational cultures underpinned in gender stereotyping which disadvantages
females (Jauhar & Lau, 2018).
Perception of Treatment of Female Managers: The statement addresses the heart of
the glass ceiling theory, where males traditionally are allowed entry to top echelon
positions whilst females stare upwards trapped below the proverbial ceiling (Jauhar &
Lau, 2018; Marinakou, 2014; Mathur-Helm, 2006). Given the focus on gender
transformation, this statement was posed to ascertain if respondents perceive females
to get preferential treatment (e.g.: promotions and high visibility projects) based on
their gender or their ability.
Performance Comparison for Promotion: This statement interlinks with the afore
statement and aims to understand whether increased female efforts are needed
compared to their male counterparts to prove that they to qualify for a promotion.
Braun et al. (2017) argues that the female gender role is culturally linked to that of a
follower. This cultural norm stigma disadvantages females especially when being
considered for promotions and leadership roles. Eagly and Karau (2002) highlight that
role incongruence is a major factor why females are less preferred for leadership
promotion positions.
Risk Aversion and Career Opportunities: This statement aims to understand whether
stereotypical gender traits, such as lack of confidence, low ambition and risk aversion,
still play an influential part within the workplace in light of career development
opportunities (Jauhar & Lau, 2018). High visibility projects and opportunities could
involve a measure of risk inclination and is advantageous given a project’s success may
propel managers into the limelight.
Feeling Stuck in Managerial Roles: The statement aims to understand whether
females are stuck in their current managerial positions. This statement builds on the
afore statements insofar assessing female career mobility.
Promotion Based on Likability: This statement intertwines with stereotypical gender
roles in male-dominated industries and interlinks with statements 4 to 7. Combined,
these statements’ underlying intention is to understand the prevalence of gender
inequality in South African organizations currently (corporate cultures).
23
Generally, the genders primarily agree with the statements posed. The sample agree that
female managers are treated differently to their male counterparts, with aspects such as,
females having to outperform males for the same promotion and female risk aversion (to a
lesser extent), adding to female career immobility.
Figure 5 Glass Ceiling Phenomenon: Responses to Career Sacrifices
Importance of Lifelong Learning: Lifelong learning offers the necessary qualifications,
skills, knowledge, and confidence to overcome career ascension hinderances and
considered an essential tool females use to bring credibility to their corporate
positions (Buddhapriya, 2009). The value and importance of lifelong learning is thus
accessed by this statement.
Statements 10 and 11, explores organizational cultures and work-life balance trade-
off, considering the female duality role and the acceptance of long working hours to
progress on the career journey.
Overall, respondents value lifelong learning on their career path. Respondents also agree to
the harsh realities between a work-life balance and accepting the organization culture focused
on productivity.
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4.3.2 The Queen Bee Syndrome
This section of the study also consists of eleven statements each relating to aspects of queen
bee syndrome. Queen bees, born from the glass ceiling, is an important consideration aspect
in understanding female career progression barriers, given its highly destructive nature. As
with above, the statements group to obtain a sense of the data collected and to provide
context to the statements posed, which will form the foundation for the interpretation section
that follows.
Figure 6 Queen Bee Syndrome: Responses to Preference for Males
Statements 12 to 14, solicits gendered views relating to the preference for male managers
opposed to female managers.
Preference for Male Managers: This statement aims to understand the intersection
between queen bee syndrome and the old boys club, given the dominant nature of
such influential informal networks and the impact on females who are mentored by
males belonging to such professional networks. Females in positions of power could
emulate such power structures inevitably perpetuating the gender discrimination
cycle (Ramnund-Mansingh, 2022). Furthermore, Faniko et al. (2021) highlight the
alignment of queen bees to males in male-dominated organizations given the
challenges they face.
Perception of Male Managers as Understanding: The statement’s aim is to solicit
respondents’ perception about the female managers rationality (e.g.: decisive decision
making and assertiveness), vis-a-vis their emotions (e.g.: emotional outbursts) in
25
comparison to male managers. Role congruity theory suggests male leaders are
assertive, decisive and in control of their emotions whilst females display warmth,
empathy and are emotionally expressive (Eagly & Karau, 2002). The cultural
expectation therefore is that females are more understanding, nurturing and caring,
whether in the home setting or in the office. Synonymous with queen bee syndrome
are females in position of power who display emotional outbursts and grandeur status,
inevitability reinforcing this destructive syndrome within organizations (Şengül et al.,
2019).
Emotional perception of Female Managers: The statement interlocks queen bee
behavior with role congruity theory where female managers are perceived to be
emotional in comparison to their male counterparts which could reinforce the queen
bee syndrome within organizations.
Overall, most managers seem to prefer female managers with a strong disagreement to
female managers being more emotional than their counterparts, whilst some support noted
for females being more understanding.
Figure 7 Queen Bee Syndrome: Reponses to Queen Bee Distancing Tactics
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The next five statements aim to solicit respondent views about typical queen bee behavior.
Preference for Helping Junior Females: This statement explores the respondents'
inclination towards assisting junior female employees. Key to queen bees are their
distancing behavior from junior females which includes a lack of support and/or
mentorship (Johnson & Mathur-Helm, 2011b).
Women's Independence in Career Advancement: Shared amongst queen bees is the
belief of self-reliance, struggle, and sheer grit to advance in their careers with little to
no outside assistance (Kark et al., 2023). This statement’s aim is to understand
respondents’ perception of the afore.
Perceptions of Female Leadership Characteristics: This statement is designed to gauge
respondents' perceptions of female leadership characteristics, specifically whether
females are seen as strong, competitive, authoritarian, and decisive, which are
traditionally masculine leadership characteristics (Faniko et al., 2016).
Work-Life Priorities: Queen bees tend to be ambitious and driven individuals
motivated by recognition and success in their careers and thus queen bees prioritize
their careers (Derks et al., 2016; Faniko et al., 2016). This statement aims to understand
the importance of a career.
Lack of Female Mentors: The general aim to this statement is to understand the lack
of female mentors as a barrier specifically to female career advancement in the
management hierarchy (Derks et al., 2016; Ellemers et al., 2012; Faniko et al., 2017;
Ramnund-Mansingh, 2022).
Overall, it appears most managers agree female leaders should possess masculine leadership
traits, with some agreement that women should take full control and responsibility for their
career journey. A preference for assisting junior males emerges, with strong disagreement to
a lack female mentors. The latter however could be skewed, given male respondents would
have answered considering their own career trajectories.
27
Figure 8 Queen Bee Syndrome: Responses to Belief in Meritocracy
Meritocracy: Central to queen bee behavior is the statement “If I made it on my own,
so can you” (Kark et al., 2023). Queen bees believe that all professional women should
advance their careers on their own. Females seeking assistance (e.g. mentoring) are
perceived as helpless and not in control of their careers by queen bees (Faniko et al.,
2017). Queen bees deemed this assistance as a weakness, where inevitably distance
themselves. This statement aims to gauge perceptions considering the afore
statement.
Gender Quota Policies: Although South African legislation is not overly prescriptive
(i.e.: a legislated gender quota policy), the legislation does make provision via the B-
BBEE policy regarding gender transformation in the workplace. According to Faniko et
al. (2017), queen bees perceive junior females to gain an unfair advantage through a
gender quota policy, consider the personal sacrifices queen bees made for their
careers.
Overall, respondents strongly agree with all the statements posed. The views where from the
respondent’s own career journey vantage point and suggest meritocracy coupled with the
right support (fair labor policy and sponsorship), should positively impact on careers.
4.4 Summary of the Data Analysis
The results of this study provide a complex view of the challenges and dynamics encountered
by professionals, particularly women. The findings reveal a landscape marked by diverse
28
perceptions and experiences, highlighting the complex interplay of gender, career
advancement, and organizational culture. A significant portion of respondents recognize the
existence of gender-specific barriers and the influence of traditional male-dominated
networks in career progression. There is a strong consensus on the value of lifelong learning
and professional development, suggesting a universal acknowledgment of their importance
in navigating a constantly evolving and fast-paced business landscape.
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5 Interpretation of Results and Findings
5.1 Introduction to the Interpretation
This section provides a detailed interpretation of the key findings. Given the small sample size
(n=25), a T-test was used to compare the means of two independent groups. Generally, T-
tests are used to determine whether the means of two independent groups are significantly
different from each other (Garth, 2008). In the case of this study, the gender groups are male
and female. Respondents were given the option to choose “Other” should a conflict arise
between the available choices.
The approach used to answer the research question was with the use of two hypotheses. The
null and alternative hypothesis offer divergent ways to answer the question posed based on
the data set (Garth, 2008). Accepting or rejecting the hypothesis depends on the P and T
values attained. These values are consideration factors used in conjunction with additional
influencing factors such as, in the case of this study, marital status and/or number of
dependents and/or number of years in a managerial position. A probability value (“P-value”)
is a statistical measure used to validate the hypotheses. To understand whether the gender
views are statistically significant, the P-value is used against a common benchmark of 0.05 or
less. A low P-value suggests data is inconsistent with the null hypothesis and can thus be
rejected, in this instance the alternative hypothesis will apply (Garth, 2008).
The T-statistic (“T-value”) is a statistical measure derived from the T-Test and considered in
conjunction with the P-value. The general benchmark of 2 or more indicates that the data is
inconsistent with the null hypothesis and can thus be rejected, i.e. low P-value and high T-
value, the null can be rejected. In instances where a high P-value and low T-value combinations
exist, suggests that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected.
As with the results and findings section, the interpretation discussion that follows will be
divided into two domains. The first hypothesis posed, addressing the glass ceiling
phenomenon and the second, addressing the queen bee syndrome.
5.1.1 The Glass Ceiling Phenomenon
H0: The presence of the glass ceiling in organisations will persist unless corporate cultures
become more sensitive to and aligned with the barriers hindering women’s career
advancement.
30
Table 5 T-Test Results Glass Ceiling Phenomenon
The eleven statements posed was to analyse behaviours associated with the glass ceiling
occurrence in respondents’ respective organisations. The findings to the individual statements
(in statements posed order) are as follows:
1. Gender as a Career Hindrance: A statistically significant difference (2.880, p=0.008)
indicates that the null hypothesis can be rejected. However, just over half of females
agree with this statement (56%) which supports the glass ceiling hypothesis. On the
other hand, males either disagreed or where neutral to this statement. This, however,
could be related to how males interpreted the question, namely, answered this
question considering their own barriers to their career advancement and not
considering female career barriers experienced.
2. Career Advancement Challenges Vary by Management Level for females: The results
indicate no significant difference between gender views in the belief that career
31
advancement challenges for women vary by management level (1.348, p=0.205), the
null hypothesis thus cannot be rejected. Females strongly agree (94%), acknowledging
barriers in the managerial hierarchy exist and differ by managerial level. Given
statement 1, the gender barrier forms part of a host of barriers women experience.
This statement is considered consistent with the glass ceiling theory. Interestingly, six
males (67%) agreed with this statement and signals heightened male awareness to the
career barriers female experience.
3. Influence of Old Boys Club: There is no significant gender-based difference in the
perception of the old boys’ club influencing decision-making (-0.019, p=0.985), which
indicates that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Strong agreement noted by both
genders (76%) acknowledging the continued existence and influence of such informal
networks within the workplace. This informal network is considered a major female
career barrier, most females agree (69%) not only to its continued existence but also
the weight of its influence, firmly supporting the glass ceiling theory. Most males (67%)
agreed with this statement and possibly indicative of younger and/or inexperienced
males’ (possibly of color) exclusion from such networks.
4. Perception of Treatment of Female Managers: No significant difference in the views
between genders for the perception of difference in treatment between male and
female managers (-0.350, p=0.731), thus the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. The
uniform nature of the gender responses (72% of the sample) suggests female
managers are treated differently when compared to male managers. Most females
agreed with this statement (69%), which signals presence of glass ceiling. Most males
(78%) agreed with this statement and could be interpreted as heightened male
awareness possibly through organizational culture initiatives.
5. Performance Comparison for Promotion: This hypothesis cannot be rejected implying
that there is agreement that women are expected to go the extra mile for promotion
(0.937, p=0.363). Females primarily agree with this statement and is consistent with
glass ceiling literature. However, the male audience is divided on this statement (44%
agree and 44% disagree). Considering statement 4, whilst males acknowledge female
managers are treated differently, 44% males disagree that women must outperform
for the same promotion. The disagreement could signal that males perceive
meritocracy and equal gender footing to be primary consideration factors when
32
promotion decisions are made, however for this statement males seem to be blind to
the impact of the glass ceiling on female career progression in their respective
workplaces. A limiting factor could be the industries in the South African private sector
these males work for e.g.: male-dominated industries.
6. Risk Aversion and Career Opportunities: No significant differences were found in the
perception that women’s risk aversion limits their career opportunities (-0.763,
p=0.455), this statement thus cannot be rejected. However, a difference of views exists
in the sample as 44% of the sample agreed, whilst 40% disagreed. Just under half of
females (44%) agreed with this statement which supports the individual barriers
females experience, compounding the effects of the glass ceiling. Half of the females
(50%) disagreed with this statement, which presents an interesting find considering
the glass cliff literature (sub segment of the glass ceiling). Often the failure rate of
women in such positions are high, however when successful, women in these positions
propel into the limelight (Grangeiro et al., 2022). The latter theory describes how
women accept highly precarious and risky positions in poor performing organizations,
whilst men decline such positions.
7. Feeling Stuck in Managerial Roles: The analysis reveals no significant gender-based
difference in feeling stuck in current roles (0.770, p=0.455), thus the null hypothesis
cannot be rejected. Female respondents primarily agree with this statement (75%) and
could be the effect of the glass ceiling in action in their respective organizations.
Interestingly, the feeling of non-progression by males (6 males agree or 67%) could be
perceived as males also facing a glass ceiling, given the statement was interpreted from
their own perspective.
8. Promotion Based on Likability: There is no significant gender difference in the belief
that promotions are based more on likability than ability (-0.991, p=0.335) hence the
statement cannot be rejected. However, eight females (or 50%) agree with this
statement and could suggest evidence of the glass ceiling. Males on the other hand
primarily agree with this statement signifying males agree with likability rather than
meritocracy. This suggests a contradiction with male views to statement 5 and might
add to the glass ceiling reinforcement in their respective workplaces i.e.: “Playing the
game” to get ahead. Again, males’ interpretation of the statement was considering
their own careers.
33
9. Importance of Lifelong Learning: There is no significant gender difference regarding
the importance of lifelong learning (-1.000, p=0.333) hence the statement cannot be
rejected. Strong overall agreement with this statement signifying the importance of
lifelong learning in career advancement.
10. Career-Family Trade-Off: Strong overall agreement with this statement whilst a
statistically significant difference in gender views is detected (-2.157; p=0.04) which
suggests that the statement can be rejected. The result seems skewed as 17
respondents (or 68%) agree that a trade-off exists. The skewed statistic could be two-
fold, the small sample size, and the Likert Scale coding. The latter dynamic therefore
suggests, theoretically, the statement cannot be rejected.
11. Acceptance of Long Working Hours: There is no significant gender difference in the
acceptance of long working hours (-1.233, p=0.231) thus the statement cannot be
rejected. Strong overall agreement with this statement. Corporate culture has an acute
part it plays in this statement and identified as a key barrier in the glass ceiling
literature to the progression of females on their career journey. The high agreement
to this statement by both genders could signify inhospitable organizational cultures in
these respective workplaces.
Overall, the findings highlight similarities in perceptions across genders on several key
workplace issues. There is sufficient evidence from the survey results to suggest that the glass
ceiling phenomenon is evident. Organizational barriers hindering both male and females
emerge from the responses. Barriers such as exclusion from informal professional networks,
the acceptance of long working hours, absent work-life balance, and limited organizational
support in the form of career development. A positive trend emerging is male awareness of
female impediments experienced on their career ascension. Whilst two of the eleven
statements posed can be rejected, in both instances the statement construction conflicted
with the intention of the statements, coupled with possible problematic data analysis
methods and a small sample size. These aspects obscure the outcomes, meaning theoretically
these statements cannot be rejected.
34
5.1.2 The Queen Bee Syndrome
H0: Women are their own worst enemy and will continue to perpetuate their own barriers to
advancement. Only when senior queen bee females become more aware and more in tune
with their ‘own group’ within the workplace, will junior females then steadily advance in their
management careers.
Table 6 T-Test Results Queen Bee Syndrome
Eleven statements were posed to analyse behaviours associated with queen bee syndrome.
Given the nature of the theory, female responses are the centre of focus. The interpretation
to the findings to the individual statements (in statements posed order) are as follows:
12. Preference for Male Managers: Hypothesis cannot be rejected as no significant
difference between male and female responses regarding the preference for a male
manager (1.610, p=0.121) is evident. According to Faniko et al. (2021), queen bees
associate closely with males in male-dominated organizations given discrimination and
challenges they face. Furthermore, the literature also highlights queen bees mentored
35
by old boys’ club members and how these tactics resonate with queen bees. Female
respondents are divided on this statement (25% agreed, 38% neutral and 38%
disagreed). The high neutral stance indicates these females are unsure about the
preference of a male manager. Whilst 38% disagreed, indicating a stronger preference
for female managers, with most of these females holding junior and mid-level
management positions. The afore nuance is thus not supportive of the queen bee
theory, however more in line with the glass ceiling theory.
13. Perception of Male Managers as Understanding: The analysis shows no significant
difference in the perception that male managers are more understanding (-0.476,
p=0.641), thus the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. As with statement 12, females
are divided on this statement as well (25% agreed, 44% neutral and 31% disagreed).
The 31% disagreement by females supports the glass ceiling theory, given masculine
leadership traits (competitive, authoritarian and productivity driven). It must be noted
that a quarter of females agree (25%) with this statement, which suggests female
managers are less understanding than male managers. This suggests senior female
leaders in these organizations might portray leadership traits which are considered
more masculine than their male counterparts. This female (25%) agreement thus
provides some support to the queen bee hypothesis.
14. Emotional perception of Female Managers: The findings show no significant gender
difference in the perception of female managers being more emotional (-0.369,
p=0.717) thus the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Half of the female sample (50%)
disagreed with this statement and in conjunction with statement 13, offer some
support to the queen bee theory.
15. Preference for Helping Junior Females: The null hypothesis cannot be rejected as the
results indicate no significant difference in preference for helping junior females over
junior males (-0.473, p=0.642). A typical characteristic of queen bee behavior is their
distancing tactics towards junior women (Derks et al., 2016). Just under half of females
(44%) disagreed with this statement where these females hold middle to senior level
management positions. Support for the queen bee theory is evidenced through the
disagreement for this statement.
16. Women's Independence in Career Advancement: The result indicates no significant
gender difference in the belief that women should independently advance in their
36
careers (0.508, p=0.619), therefore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Half of
females (50%) disagreed with this statement. These females believe that additional
assistance is beneficial to their careers. However, 38% of females agreed with this
statement, believing females should be self-sufficient in their career journeys, which
is consistent with the female disagreement displayed in statement 15, thus provides
strong evidence which supports the queen bee theory.
17. Perceptions of Female Leadership Characteristics: The result similarly indicates no
significant gender-based difference in perceptions of female leadership characteristics
(-0.062, p=0.951), thus the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Only 25% of females
disagreed with this statement, whilst 44% of females agreed. The high agreement by
females to this statement is indicative of the masculine traits successful female leaders
adopt to survive in male-dominated environments (Faniko et al., 2016). This
agreement by females provides further support to the queen bee hypothesis.
18. Work-Life Priorities: The analysis shows no significant gender difference in responses
regarding the priority of work over family (0.360, p=0.723), therefore the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected. Although in the minority, 25% of females agree that
their careers are more important, signaling subtle support for queen bee theory.
19. Lack of Female Mentors: No significant difference in gender views is observed in the
responses about the lack of female mentors being a career barrier (1.420, p=0.172),
thus the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Interestingly, females are divided in their
responses (50% agree and 50% disagree). Support for the queen bee theory is evident
in the females who agree with the lack of female mentors in the workplace,
interestingly these females hold junior to mid-level manager positions. Conversely,
females who disagree with the statement primarily hold senior level positions and
suggests these females could possibly be mentors to junior females in their respective
organizations.
20. Meritocracy: No significant difference in gender views is observed in the responses
about performance and career advancement (0.381, p=0.709), thus the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected. Strong female agreement (94%) which indicates strong
support for meritocracy when promotion decisions are made in the workplace.
However, according to Faniko et al. (2017) queen bee behavior is evoked when queen
37
bees perceive junior females to obtain preferential treatment in their career journeys.
Thus, the high agreement to this statement offers no support for the queen bee theory.
21. Gender Quota Policies: The analysis shows no significant difference in the perception
of gender quota policies being instituted within organizations (-0.714, p=0,483), thus
the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Most females (75%) agree with this statement.
Faniko et al. (2017) further highlights that queen bees only support these policies
when they perceive these policies as favorable to females who have made similar
sacrifices for success in their careers. However, queen bees are not in support of any
affirmative action policies when they perceive junior females to gain an unfair
advantage (Faniko et al., 2017). To this end, support for the queen bee theory is
somewhat obscured. On the other hand, 19% of females, primarily holding senior
management positions, does not support gender quota policy, hence consistent with
the queen be theory.
22. Influence of Senior Managers: The analysis shows no significant difference in the
perception of gender quota policies being instituted within organizations (-0.714,
p=0,483), thus the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Strong overall female (75%)
agreement with the statement and testament to the strong role of sponsorship in
career growth. However, as with statement 21, although in the minority, 19% of
females, primarily occupying senior management positions, disagree with this
statement thus aligns with the queen bee theory.
Overall, the results primarily show no significant difference in the perceptions of males and
females with the various statements. Gaining female views was critical to understand the
prevalence of queen bee behavior in South African organizations. Responses to statements
such as lack of female mentorship, female leaders portraying masculine traits and possible
distancing tactics, given the statement preference for helping junior females, indicate
sufficient evidence also exists in the study to support the queen bee syndrome. Male
disagreement to statements such as female managers being more emotional and belief that
females should help themselves gives some indication of positive organizational culture
impact on male awareness. However, where males agree with female leadership
characteristics to mirror masculine leadership traits, could be a product of male-dominated
organizational cultures still prevalent, which inevitably perpetuates the queen bee barrier
junior females experience.
38
5.2 Summary to the Interpretation
The focus of the study was to understand female career barriers to advancement within the
management hierarchy. The scope of the statements was limited to testing aspects of the
glass ceiling phenomenon and queen bee syndrome and prevalence of these barriers within
South African organizations given the destructive nature of these barriers in combination to
female careers. The prevalence of organizational barriers emerged from the gendered
responses indicating evidence of both the glass ceiling and queen bee syndrome evident in
the study. This implies that these barriers remain a career impediment to females whilst the
glass ceiling also appears to impact males within the workplace. Interestingly, males appear
to show heightened awareness of female career barriers and suggests active organizational
awareness interventions.
An interesting theme emerging, was male perceptions to statements 2, 3, 4 and 7. Although
the statement construction and the intention of the questions conflict, inadvertently a
different perception trend emerges from males which could signal males possibly perceive
themselves to be on the disadvantaged end of gender inequality.
39
6 Conclusion, Recommendations and Future Research
This chapter aims to encapsulate the essence of the research, reflecting on the implications
of the findings, offering recommendations based on the evidence gathered, and suggesting
avenues for future research.
The glass ceiling and queen bee syndrome, in combination are formidable career barriers
impeding females’ growth and perpetuate gender inequality in the workplace. Despite the
small sample, sufficient evidence emerged from the study which supports the prevalence of
both these barriers inhibiting females from progressing on their career paths. Several gender
specific impediments emerged from the study in respect of the glass ceiling and includes the
persistence of traditional male-dominated networks, the double bind experienced by females,
and the disproportionate burden of the work-life balance, which is amplified by ingrained
societal and organizational biases. From the queen bee syndrome perspective, sufficient
evidence also emerged from the study where junior females seem to be discriminated against
whilst the traditional nature of male-dominated organizations, still perceive strong leadership
traits to be associated to traditional masculine traits.
The following recommendations could be considered by organisations:
1. Leadership and development training interventions: these programmes should be tailored
to the audience it aims to target:
a. Managers (gender neutral) - increased awareness efforts specific to the prevalence
of existing career barriers females experience and the impact of societal and
cultural norms especially within male-dominated environments and how these
barriers pose a threat to the success of the organisation.
b. Female managers - tailoring programmes specifically to educate female managers,
which not only create awareness but also impart skills, confidence building
techniques and networking opportunities.
2. Mentorship and sponsorship programmes: formal, active participation and deliberate
organisational support programmes to be instituted. Participation and support for these
programmes should form part of management’s key performance indicators.
3. Active identification and awareness of the queen bee syndrome: this behaviour requires
head-on intervention by the organisation.
40
a. Training and awareness interventions specifically tailored for females across the
managerial hierarchy to create awareness.
b. Organisations could consider making available an internal anonymous reporting
and support hot line for females, where women can report such behaviour but also
gain support in identifying and overcoming these barriers experienced.
This study opens avenues for further research to deepen the understanding of gender
dynamics in South African organizations. Future research could explore:
1. Longitudinal Studies: Conducting longitudinal studies to track the career progression
of women over time, providing insights into the long-term effectiveness of
implemented strategies.
2. Comparative Analysis Across Industries: Comparing the experiences of women with
those in other sectors could offer a broader perspective on gender-specific challenges
and effective interventions.
3. Global Perspectives: Examining these issues in different cultural and geographical
contexts to understand how global trends and local practices intersect in shaping
women's career advancement.
4. Impact of Technology and Innovation: Exploring how technological advancements
and innovative practices in business influence the career paths of women.
41
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8 Annexures
Figure 9 SPSS Demographic Information
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Table 7 Survey Data: Glass Ceiling Phenomenon
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Table 8 Survey Data: Queen Bee Syndrome
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