The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security November 2021 Master of Management – Security (WSG) Module: PADM 7213A – Research Report Student Number: 584557 (Thandi Makhubele) Supervisor: Prof Mzukisi Qobo Title: The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security i Declaration I declare that this report is my own, unaided work. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Management in the field of Security in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university. ________________ Thandi W Makhubele November 2021 Revised May 2022 The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security ii Abstract Food insecurity remains one of the critical issues for countries in the African continent. According to Pérez-Escamilla, (2017, p. 1), “food insecurity occurs when people do not have access to nutritious food and where food production is inadequate.” Most of the world’s rural population relies on agriculture for its livelihoods and to bolster their local economies (The World Bank Group, 2020). Small-scale farmers are the backbone of the agricultural sector in most rural areas. They (Small-scale farmers) provide access to food for vulnerable groups, including women and children (Misselhorn & Hendriks, 2017). Meanwhile women are the most affected by food insecurity, even though they are the main contributors to food production in most Sub-Saharan countries (Doss, 2018). Women in rural areas, in particular, rely on agriculture to fight food insecurity and to participate in local economies. In South Africa, small- scale women farmers ranked lowest in income accumulation, equal access to food production resources such as land and markets and financing (Sishuba, 2019). For this reason, government subsidies and philanthropic support are crucial for engaging women and assisting them with resources that can allow them to have equal access to land, resources, skills, and finances as their male counterparts. This research investigated the intersection between and among philanthropy, food security and women-owned initiatives in the agricultural sector in Limpopo. The study focuses on small- scale women farmers in the Vhembe and Capricorn districts in Limpopo, the two regions that are popular for large scale farming in South Africa. The research sought to answer the question; ‘what is the contribution of philanthropy to women development in the agriculture sector?’ A qualitative research approach was employed to explore the role of philanthropic organisations in women development, particularly in the agricultural sector in Limpopo. Two questionnaires through an online survey were used as the main methods to collect primary data . Forty seven (47) respondents were targeted. Of these, twenty four (24) were small scale farmers while twenty three (23) were drawn from philanthropic organisations operating in South Africa. The feminist theory was adopted to discuss the findings. The main findings of the study are: 1. Most philanthropic foundations did not have gender specific funding in general and in particular few funded small scale women farmers in the Vhembe and Capricorn regions. There were exceptions however where a few foundations were conscious to fund women projects. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security iii 2. Philanthropic foundations provided other forms of support other than finances. These included networks, resource mobilisation strategies, training and equipment. Coincidentally these were the same needs that were identified by small scale women farmers as necessary. 3. Funding to small scale farmers in the last five years remained very low and as a result most small scale farmers ended up using their own capital to finance their operations. Their operational budgets were thus very small. 4. Most of the philanthropic foundations did not have a feminist policy to anchor their grant making. The exceptions were mainly international foundations or international organisations that operated in the philanthropy space. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security iv Dedication This research report is dedicated to my late father, Hlengani T Makhubele (Bra Khukza). You have always encouraged me to go to school. Thank you for laying a great foundation. This research report is also dedicated to my mother Tsakani Makhubele. Thank you for modelling education. You made it look easy. Now I know that you made it look easy because you wanted me to embrace education and persevere, no matter the circumstance. A ku nga ri nyuku wa mbyana. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security v Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge my supervisor, Professor Mzukisi Qobo. Thank you for your patience and guidance through this journey. Your continuous feedback of numerous revisions helped to shape my report. I would like to also thank the Director at the Centre on African Philanthropy and Social Investments (CAPSI) and manager, Professor Bhekinkosi Moyo for the support and his inspiration. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security vi Table of Contents DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... I ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. II DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................ IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................................ V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................... IX CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 1 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 5 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................................ 9 1.4 RESEARCH PURPOSE ................................................................................................................ 11 1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 11 1.6 RESEARCH QUESTION(S) ......................................................................................................... 12 1.6.1 THE MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION FOR THIS STUDY IS: ................................................... 12 1.6.2 THE SUB-QUESTION IS: ............................................................................................................ 12 1.6.3 WHAT ARE THE GAPS IN FUNDING SUPPORT FOR SMALL SCALE WOMEN FARMERS? ................................................................................................................................................ 12 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 13 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................. 13 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................. 13 2.1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 13 2.1.2 OVERVIEW AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT .................................................................................................................................................. 14 2.1.2.1 THE LIMPOPO FARMING TYPOLOGY .............................................................................. 16 2.1.2.2 CAPRICORN DISTRICT ........................................................................................................ 19 2.1.2.3 VHEMBE DISTRICT ............................................................................................................... 20 2.1.2.4 PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS AND AGRICULTURE IN SOUTH AFRICA ......... 21 2.1.2.5 SOUTH AFRICA POLICY AND STRATEGIES FOR THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR ... 24 2.1.3 FOOD (IN)SECURITY AND THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR ............................................... 26 2.1.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND PHILANTHROPY THROUGH AGRICULTURE .... 29 2.1.5 FEMINIST PHILANTHROPY AND FOOD SECURITY ............................................................ 33 2.1.5.1 WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA ......................................................... 36 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................ 40 2.2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 40 2.2.2 FEMINIST THEORY PERSPECTIVE (LIBERAL) .................................................................... 41 2.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 43 CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 46 The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security vii 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 46 3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 46 3.1.1 RESEARCH APPROACH ............................................................................................................ 46 3.1.2 RESEARCH TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS .............................................................................. 48 3.1.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURE .......................................................................................................... 49 3.1.3.1 PRIMARY DATA (SAMPLE A): PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS SAMPLE ................ 49 3.1.3.2 PRIMARY DATA (SAMPLE B): SMALL-SCALE FARMERS’ SAMPLE ................................. 50 3.1.4 PROCESS OF ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 50 TABLE 2: SAMPLE A – CODES ................................................................................................................. 53 TABLE 3: SAMPLE B – CODES ................................................................................................................. 54 TABLE 4: SAMPLE A – THEMES ............................................................................................................. 55 TABLE 5: SAMPLE B – THEMES ............................................................................................................. 55 3.1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................. 56 3.1.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................. 56 3.2 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 57 4. RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................................................................... 58 4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 58 4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS ..................................................................... 59 FIGURE 1: TYPES OF PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS ................................................................ 60 SEE ANNEXURE 1(B). ............................................................................................................................... 60 FIGURE 2: SMALL-SCALE FARMERS VS OTHER ORGANISATIONAL TYPES ................................... 60 4.3 RESEARCH FINDINGS ............................................................................................................... 61 4.3.1 PHILANTHROPIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO FOOD SECURITY THROUGH WOMEN-LED INITIATIVES ............................................................................................................................................. 61 FIGURE 4: PHILANTHROPIC SUPPORT TYPE VS GENDER FOCUS ................................................... 62 FIGURE 5: PHILANTHROPY FOCUS ON SUPPORTING WOMEN-LED ............................................... 63 TABLE 8: NUMBER OF ORGANISATIONS MOTIVATED BY FEMINIST APPROACH OR POLICY .... 64 FIGURE 6: MOTIVATIONS FOR SUPPORTING SMALL-SCALE WOMEN FARMERS IN LIMPOPO .. 64 FIGURE 7: AVERAGE AMOUNTS CONTRIBUTED BY PHILANTHROPY TO SMALL- SCALE WOMEN FARMERS IN THE PAST 5 YEARS (IN LIMPOPO) ................................................................................. 65 FIGURE 8: NON-MONETARY SUPPORT FROM PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS ...................... 66 4.3.2 WAYS IN WHICH SMALL SCALE FARMERS ARE WORKING WITH PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS. .................................................................................................................................... 66 FIGURE 9: TYPES OF SUPPORT RECEIVED BY SMALL-SCALE FARMERS FROM PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS ...................................................................................................... 67 FIGURE 10: FINANCING MECHANISMS FOR SMALL-SCALE FARMERS IN LIMPOPO .................. 68 FIGURE 11: SMALL-SCALE FARMERS’ ANNUAL OPERATING BUDGET .......................................... 68 FIGURE: 12: SOURCES OF SUPPORT FOR SMALL-SCALE FARMERS. .............................................. 69 FIGURE 13: WAYS IN WHICH SMALL-SCALE (WOMEN) FARMERS ACCESS SUPPORT FROM PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS. ..................................................................................................... 70 The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security viii FIGURE 15: PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS’ INTENTION TO SUPPORT WOMEN DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES ................................................................................................................ 71 TABLE 9: FACTORS LIMITING SMALL-SCALE (WOMEN) FARMERS PROGRESS ............................ 72 4.4 DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................................. 72 4.4.1 PHILANTHROPIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO FOOD SECURITY THROUGH WOMEN-LED INITIATIVES ............................................................................................................................................. 73 4.4.2 WAYS IN WHICH SMALL SCALE FARMERS ARE WORKING WITH PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS AND GOVERNMENT. .............................................................................................. 77 4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................................................ 80 5. CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER AREAS FOR RESEARCH ....................................................... 82 5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 82 5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ......................................................................................................... 82 5.3 FUTURE AREAS OF STUDY ...................................................................................................... 85 5.3.1 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................... 86 REFERENCE: ............................................................................................................................................ 87 ANNEXURE 1(A): SAMPLE A, PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS ............................................. 105 ANNEXURE 1(B): SAMPLE B, SMALL-SCALE FARMERS ................................................................ 107 APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE A – PHILANTHROPIC ORGANISATIONS ..................................................... A APPENDIX 2: SAMPLE B – SMALL-SCALE FARMERS ......................................................................... I APPENDIX 3: ETHICS CLEARANCE LETTER ...................................................................................... R APPENDIX 4: SAMPLE A, PHILANTHROPIC ORGANIZATIONS ........................................................ S APPENDIX 5: SAMPLE B, SMALL-SCALE FARMERS ......................................................................... TT The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security ix List of Abbreviations AUDA-NEPAD African Union Development Agency - NEPAD CARE Cooperative For Assistance and Relief Everywhere DGMT OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development FANTA Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GBV Gender Based Violence GDP Gross Domestic Product HFIAS Household Food Insecurity Access Scale HNWI High Net Worth Individuals IFSS Integrated Food Security Strategy IPASA Independent Philanthropy Association of South Africa LRAD Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development Programme MDG Millennium development goals NGO Non-Governmental Organisation SAB South African Breweries SAWIF South African Women in Farming SDG Sustainable Development Goals SIOC SOFA State of Food and Agriculture SSR Sub-Saharan Region StatsSA Statistics South Africa UN United Nations The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 1 Chapter 1 1. Introduction 1.1 Introduction Food insecurity remains one of the critical issues in Africa. Poverty and lack of access to nutritious food remain the key most causes of food insecurity for families and communities in the region (FAO, 2015). Food insecurity predominantly occurs in African countries where food demand exceeds the quantity and quality of food available to sustain the population (Hlophe- Ginindza & Mpandeli, 2020). According to the Global Food Security Index, South Africa is one of the most food-secure countries on the African continent (Mail and Guardian, 2018), yet, statistics show that many households remain food insecure (De Cock et al., 2013; Pérez- Escamilla, 2017). Even though women contribute significantly to food production in most Sub- Saharan countries, they remain by far the more affected group by food insecurity than men (Doss, 2018). Banik (2019) argued that food insecurity is associated with gender, income, and access to food production inequality. Poverty and food insecurity challenges can best be resolved through agriculture. Most rural communities in sub-Saharan Africa rely on small- scale farming to fight hunger and improve their local economies (Hlophe-Ginindza & Mpandeli, 2020). Rametsteiner (2016) stated that transforming agriculture for sustainable development was crucial. Furthermore, government institutions and other agencies need to rethink agriculture to include small-scale farming in order to end hunger and reduce poverty. There is also a need for collaborations across government institutions and the private sector through policy coherence to address food security sustainability (Rametsteiner, 2016) Small-scale women farmers play a crucial role in rural economic development. According to the United Nations report on gender and agriculture, women farmers produce up to 80 per cent of food for households in sub-Saharan Africa (Ben-Ari, 2014). However, women in the agricultural and food production sector remain powerless and vulnerable to cultural and unfair labour practices, particularly in rural areas. Women face barriers to access and availability on all dimensions of food security (Oxfam, 2019). Ben-Ari (2014) further stated that disparities that women face in agriculture are unsettling. Male farmers remain in key farm management positions, while women farmers hold subservient roles. There is need to remove obstacles that prevent women from participating fully in the agricultural and food production sector. It is also important to support women in small-scale farming so that they can participate fully in the The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 2 production through financing schemes (Misselhorn & Hendriks, 2017; Rusare & Tsegay, 2014). These schemes include government interventions and financial strategies from philanthropic organisations to tackle food insecurity issues in South Africa (Hendriks, 2014). Philanthropic organisations are important given their role in marshalling resources that support innovations and the much-needed collaboration in the sector (Sulek, 2010, p. 199). According to human security scholars, the concept of food security is nested under the paradigm of human security, which draws a humanistic perspective and the adoption of policies to promote agricultural development to combat food insecurity in the Sub-Saharan Region (SSR) (UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). The main aim of the development initiatives is to renew the interest of agriculture in the development agenda and transform poor small-scale farming to thrive and alter marginalised communities (Rajaonarison, 2014). Support from governments for small-scale farmers has taken centre stage in South Africa, according to Thamaga-Chitja and Morojele (2014). The South African government has also implemented the 'New Growth Plan initiative' to position agriculture and support small-scale farmers in development areas. These efforts from the government are meant to position small- scale farmers where they can fight food insecurity and participate in the economy. Current challenges faced by small-scale farmers in South Africa ranges from access to markets, institutional dynamics related to the farmers' socio-economic conditions, poverty and inequality, and the historical marginalisation of small-scale women farmers in the country, Thamaga-Chitja and Morojele (2014) argued. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), small-scale farmers produce about 80 per cent of the developing world's food, this is fundamental to fighting food insecurity (Saarinen, 2020; SEEPNetwork, n.d.). Women are perceived to be the backbone of the rural economy. Empowering them (women) in the food security sector is crucial. This is important given that women contribute over 40 per cent to the agricultural workforce in developing countries, and their involvement has resulted in noteworthy developments in rural businesses (Committee in World Food Security, 2016). FOA further states that gender is also key to food insecurity because women are disproportionally dis-empowered through current processes and politics of food production, consumption, and distribution. SOFA Team and Doss (2011) argued that agriculture is critical for growing rural economy and reducing poverty reduction. Women often drive the agricultural workforce, and women's contribution and participation in agriculture are noteworthy. Women's contribution to agriculture and rural economy amounts to roughly 43 per cent on a global scale. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 3 However, in sub-Saharan Africa, the general trend is that women are underpaid and overlooked for skilled work. Their contribution to agriculture is reduced to menial work such as tending animals, preparing food for other labourers, producing crops, and fetching water. In contrast, men take up roles in management, skilled labour, and land ownership. The State of Food and Agriculture team and Doss (2011) demonstrated that constraints imposed on women in the agricultural sector in many developing countries contribute to the lack of development for the rural economy and underperformance in the sector. As such, "millions of women are going hungry because of gender inequality" (SBS Food, 2018, p. 1). Women farmers and entrepreneurs in the agricultural sector also face severe constrictions more than men. Men quickly access resources for food production (SOFA Team & Doss, 2011). Available data shows that almost 80 per cent of economically active women in developing countries spend their working hours producing food through agriculture. As a result, there is a need for transformative approaches that seek to transform gender roles and promote gender- equitable relationships between men and women. Gender equality is about men and women having equal participation in decision-making; having the same access and control over productive resources, services and technologies; having equal benefits from project results and the same opportunities to access decent employment and livelihood systems (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations & CARE Inc, 2019). Gender transformative approaches such as the feminist perspective seek to promote gender equality by encouraging equal participation for both men and women. Feminist theory focuses on deconstructing gender norms by highlighting the politics of gender to challenge women's marginalisation and seek to bridge inequality gaps between men and women created by social, cultural, and political norms and beliefs (Kiguwa, 2019). Tsheola (2012) noted that the feminist perspective supports women's participation in development processes by advocating for women's liberation from traditional roles in the labour market. The feminist perspective further infers that men and women should both have the same access, control and equal benefits over productive resources and the same access to opportunities (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations & CARE Inc, 2019). Feminisation processes and interventions that empower and allow women access to critical resources for their livelihoods are crucial for sustainable rural development, Tsheola (2012) concluded. Government institutions and other private organisations need to intervene and assist struggling small-scale women farmers to combat food insecurity. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Agenda 2030 presented The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 4 a feminist opportunity for all states to implement and provide policies aimed at protecting women, enhancing their participation, providing universal access to quality service and social infrastructure, diversification of policies and providing funding opportunities (Struckmann, 2018). Whether political, economic, or social, power inequalities contribute to unequal access to productive resources, discriminatory norms (cultural), and laws. Inequities that hinder women's decision-making participation need to be addressed to align with new SDGs development plans, especially in South Africa (Struckmann, 2018). According to Hendriks (2014), government interventions and financial strategies from philanthropic organisations are critical in tackling food insecurity issues in South Africa. Ideally, government interventions should be sufficient and inclusive to every individual as outlined in section 27 of the South Africa Constitution, which obligates the state to take responsible legislative measures suitable for a progressive realisation of sufficient food, water, and social security for all individuals. However, this is not the case, and hence the need for philanthropic interventions. This study examines the intersection between philanthropy, food security and women-owned enterprises in the agricultural sector in Limpopo. The study focuses on small-scale women farmers in the Vhembe and Capricorn districts in Limpopo. The study assesses the role of philanthropic organisations in food security, particularly how philanthropy supports women development in the agriculture sector in the Limpopo province. A qualitative research approach was employed to explore the role of philanthropic organisations in women development. The study uses the conceptual lenses of security, development, and the feminist (liberal) theory to provide the rationale for examining the research question. The report is structured as follows: the first chapter focuses on the context and the background of the study. It also addresses the research problem, research statement, research purpose, research objectives and research questions. Chapter two (2) examines the literature in the South African context. This will include government policies and strategies, background information on Limpopo and an overview of Capricorn and Vhembe district, zooming into small-scale women farmers. The chapter will further focus specifically on food security in the agricultural sector, small-scale women farmers, and the role of philanthropic organisations. The second section of the chapter discusses the theoretical framework. Chapter three (3) discusses the research methodology considerations for identifying, selecting, processing, and analysing information collected for the study and discusses study limitations and ethical considerations. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 5 Chapter four (4) presents research results and the general analysis of the research study. The final chapter five (5) consists of conclusions and further areas for research. 1.2 Background of the Study “Food security is related to all of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Improved food security governance based on sound, equitable, and sustainable food systems that benefit from current information and sustainable and equitable agricultural technologies is essential for countries to meet the SDGs.” (Pérez- Escamilla, 2017, p. 1) Food security is always crucial for realising human security for all people, especially for vulnerable groups. The idea of linking human security and food security relates to the full realisation of human rights, prescribing that every person should always have physical and economic access to adequate and nutritious food (Rajaonarison, 2014). According to Pérez-Escamilla, (2017, p. 1) “food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”. The FAO defines food security as the presence of physical, economic, and social assessments to nutritious, safe and sufficient food to all people at all times (Committee in World Food Security, 2016). The United Nations (UN) Food, FAO and the Trust Fund for Human Security defined Human Security as “the right of all people to live in freedom and dignity, free from poverty and despair”, that “all individuals, in particularly vulnerable people, are entitled to freedom from fear and freedom from want, with an equal opportunity to enjoy all their rights and fully develop their human potential” (FAO & UN Trust Fund for Human Security, 2016, p. 1). The human security approach seeks to promote people’s livelihoods and dignities (FAO & UN Trust Fund for Human Security, 2016). Achieving food security is vital. Food security is achieved through agriculture by increasing food production, increasing support from governments and private donors, including favourable conditions inclusive to all (OECD, 2012). FAO and UN Trust Fund for Human Security (2016) further stated that agriculture remains a primary livelihood source for the world's rural population. Over 80 per cent of the world's rural population relies on agriculture that small-scale farmers provide to get access to food. (Pérez- Escamilla, 2017) further stated that food insecurity occurs when people do not have access to The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 6 nutritious food and where food production is inadequate". Food insecurity is also interlinked with political, economic, social and health insecurities that negatively affect physical, social, cognitive, and emotional development. Social injustice, social exclusion, wealth inequality, cultural policies, and politics are some of the most significant barriers to food security for vulnerable groups (FAO & UN Trust Fund for Human Security, 2016; Pérez-Escamilla, 2017). Pérez-Escamilla (2017) further emphasises that unsustainable agriculture, poor gender equality policies, empowerment opportunities for women, and social and environmental challenges are major social disruptors that cause food insecurity. Over 1.8 billion cases of people who are affected by food insecurity are reported worldwide (Doss, 2018). Women and children remain the most vulnerable. Although women in most Sub- Saharan countries contribute over 90 per cent to food production, they are the most affected by food insecurity (Doss, 2018). Banik (2019) argued that food insecurity is linked to gender, income, and access to food production inequality. Women are more than two times likely to face these challenges and constraints along with disparities of income and limited access to (food) production resources compared to males (Oxfam, 2019). Additionally, women in agriculture and food security are powerless and vulnerable to cultural and unfair labour practices, particularly in rural settings. Thus, it is essential to remove obstacles that prevent women from participating fully in the sector. Misselhorn and Hendriks (2017) and Rusare and Tsegay (2014) argued for an urgent need to support women’s full participation in small-scale farming, mainly production and financing. South Africa is among the largest economies on the African continent. Over 2 million small- scale farmers in the agricultural sector contribute to over $2 billion of the South Africa GDP. Although South Africa has a sophisticated agricultural sector, approximately 11 per cent of the population suffered from hunger in 2018. Significant challenges were caused by poor governance in the agricultural value chain, predominantly for small-scale farmers (African Development Bank, 2021). Historically, South Africans living in rural areas have engaged in agricultural production and running small and micro-enterprises. A substantial portion of rural South Africans’ livelihoods contributions is dominated by land-based activities such as crop farming (Tsheola, 2012). The Limpopo province is known as the “country's breadbasket and one of South Africa’s most important agricultural regions as a significant producer of livestock, fruit and vegetables” (Molele, 2016, p. 1). The Limpopo province is also known for its rich and diverse cultural The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 7 heritage, agriculture, and incredible wildlife. Furthermore, Limpopo produces over 50 per cent of all vegetables, fruits, maize and other fresh produce for the country (Limpopo Info, 2016; Molele, 2016; Mzolo, 2018). Limpopo also has an increased record of social development growth in the agriculture, mining, and tourism sectors. It has an abundance of agricultural resources. However, the province is characterised by rural poverty, especially in the most underdeveloped parts of the province (Musyoki, 2011). The rural province faces numerous challenges in the agricultural sector. More than 50 per cent of rural households were declared food insecure (De Cock et al., 2013) because of the decreasing agricultural activities (Tsheola, 2012). Mpandeli and Maponya (2014) inferred that constraints and challenges affecting small- scale farmers in the province included finance, land ownership, and market access. In addition to constraints that affect small-scale farmers, women in agricultural development face further compounded socio-cultural and economic barriers. They continue to face challenges accessing finance, land, training, and information (International Development Research Centre, 2020). Struckmann (2018) argued that these challenges continue in South Africa because of persisting gender inequality and women's rights abuses. Further, the 2019 Rural and Agricultural Finance State of the Sector report outlined that small-scale women farmers’ progression in the sector was constrained by harmful traditional social norms and limited financial resources (International Development Research Centre, 2020). Women in the agricultural sector continue to face challenges caused by persisting gender inequalities—access to recourses such as financial assistance, markers, land, and productive recourses. Hence there is a need for philanthropic organisations and other institutions (private and governmental) to play a role development initiative for women development. Philanthropic organisations consider philanthropy as synonymous with “goodness and affecting the wealth of men” (Sulek, 2010, p.195). Hence, there is an expectation for philanthropic organisations to support wherever there is a need. In African terms, philanthropy is associated with the notion of Ubuntu, which translates to ‘I am because of you’ (Murisa & Trust Africa, 2015). Additionally, philanthropy in the African context applies to giving in solidarity for the well-being of others (Murisa & Trust Africa, 2015). In contrast, modern philanthropy is defined as the love of humankind or good nature (Sulek, 2010). The definition further expanded in the 19th century to include charity donations to alleviate the suffering of the poor. During this time, philanthropists such as Frederick Gates focused on giving to resolve previously challenging social problems. While Andrew Carnegie emphasised self-reliance The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 8 among his beneficiaries (Sulek, 2010), most of Carnegie's philanthropic initiatives occurred in African countries with severe under-development and socio-economic deprivation. Philanthropic foundations are understood as financial institutions separate from governments and enjoy a meaningful degree of autonomy (Sulek, 2010) further stated. Under the SDG agenda 2030, philanthropic organisations are encouraged to partner with government institutions to plan and implement sustainable development goals. This partnership will also provide a common framework to address social ills, including social, economic and environmental challenges (Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors, 2019). Most philanthropic foundations are known to adopt policies that work with underdeveloped and disadvantaged communities. Their efforts are instrumental in promoting radial policy change, empowering marginalised groups and funding projects for development, mainly small-scale local projects. The Ford Foundation is one example of a philanthropic foundation that has influenced public policy, including focusing on the political marginalisation of women since the 1950s (Mottiar, 2015). Efforts from philanthropic organisations are also critical because of philanthropy's role in providing financial and other resources that support innovations and much-needed collaborations. Philanthropy is defined as an act of “goodwill to fellowmen and active efforts to promote human welfare, such as charitable gifts, and organisations supported by or distributing such philanthropic funds” (Sulek, 2010, p. 199). Wong et al. (2016) define philanthropy as generous behaviour in the form of charity. Contributing to this context involves giving by wealthy residents or philanthropists’ money, assets, and volunteering time to the beneficiaries or the needy. Philanthropic organisations have in the past actively supported women-led initiatives as part of their commitment to development and gender equality by creating a space for education and skills development. Philanthropy is increasingly perceived as an alternative source of development finance worldwide, especially for rural development in developing countries. Initiatives that promote gender equality as well as empower women have also gained traction among philanthropic organisations. These initiatives gained more traction after the agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development Goals, in particular the SDGs on gender equality and women's empowerment that were adopted in 2015 (OECD, 2021). Sustainable Development Goal 17 calls for philanthropic institutions to offer partnerships and resources to resolve issues such as gender inequality. Further, philanthropic institutions have a vital role given their significant resources that allow them to take more risks, fund new projects and offer new solutions than other stakeholders such as government institutions (Rockefeller The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 9 Philanthropy Advisors, 2019). According to Ogden, Prasad, and Thomson (2018), most funders target education, health, environmental issues and gender equality under the banner of SDGs. Donors such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and Susan Thompson Buffett Foundation have donated over 3 billion dollars towards gender equality programs in the past few years. Although known for its commitments to poverty reduction programs, the Ford Foundation has also contributed significantly to gender equality. It has mainly worked with policy dialogues and funding global advocacy work (Ogden et al., 2018). The Development Centre of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development concluded that gender-based giving for gender equality rose among philanthropists. The OECD survey in 2018 for Private Philanthropy for Development showed that (philanthropic) foundations provided a total of over $3 billion to support gender equality in developing countries. South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, and Ethiopia were among the top five African countries that received philanthropists' gender-related giving. Gender-based giving is mainly concentrated in the health sector and reproductive health. Gender-based giving in the agriculture sector was very limited, recording only at 3 per cent at the time of the survey time (OECD netFWD, 2019). Women are disadvantaged when it comes to food security and agriculture. This is true of small-scale women farmers. At the same time, women are the backbone of food production through their provision of the agricultural labour force. Government interventions are not adequate, creating a gap that is then filled by philanthropy. Some of the features of philanthropy are that it is flexible, risk-taking, and adaptable. Philanthropy has a role to play in assisting women in development, yet philanthropic contributions to gender are less promising, and very little goes to women in agriculture. 1.3 Problem statement The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its Social Institutions and Gender Index claimed, “South Africa is making significant strides in improving gender equality” (OECD, 2021, p. 32). However, restricted access to productive and financial resources and discriminative norms and practices continue to mitigate women’s societal barriers (OECD, 2021). Women’s participation in rural labour markers are represented by unpaid work and being paid less than men for the same work (SOFA Team & Doss, 2011). Additionally, women are historically subject to social and economic insecurity emerging from decades of social, political, economic inequality and gender disparities. As stated above, small- scale women farmers contribute up to 40 per cent of the agriculture workforce in South Africa. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 10 However, they rank lowest in income accumulation, equal access to food production resources, land, markets, and financing (SOFA Team & Doss, 2011). While high inequality and food insecurity levels remain a significant challenge for rural areas in South Africa, women remain the most affected (Denison et al., 2016). Despite efforts made by the feminist community and other human rights groups, agriculture continues to be male- dominated. Patriarchy disproportionately excludes women from farming resources such as land, farming equipment and financial resources. According to SOFA Team & Doss (2011), government institutions and philanthropic organisations have resources to empower women and strengthen their initiatives to achieve food security and economic development goals. Miranda (2019) argues that most funders have acknowledged that not enough resources are directed to women's organisations. The result is the high level of food insecurity among women due to unequal resources across different sectors (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations & CARE Inc, 2019; OECD, 2021). Table 1 illustrate the distribution of philanthropic funds across different sectors. Table 1: Sector allocation of philanthropy funding, 2013-18 (OECD, 2021) Sector USD millions Education 65 Health and reproductive health 16 Government and civil society 14 Multisector 10 Other social infrastructure 5 Total classified SIGI 2013-18 112 The OECD study mentioned above found inadequate research material and data in philanthropy and its contribution to small-scale women farmers, particularly in South Africa. While women and other activists have attempted to solve women’s challenges in the agriculture sector with little success, literature suggests that philanthropy and government can change the status quo if they adopted a feminist analytical framework. The study explored philanthropy’s role in supporting women led initiatives in the agricultural sector. It is essential to explore the significant contribution by philanthropists towards improving the conditions of small-scale women farmers in South Africa. This exploration will help fast-track women development initiatives through food security measures within the agriculture space, especially in rural areas. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 11 1.4 Research purpose This research aims to assess the role of philanthropic organisations and their influence on women development through food security in rural areas. Examining the significance of contributions and support for small-scale women farmers in Limpopo from philanthropic organisations is crucial. The study focuses on philanthropic development initiatives since the inception of the SDGs in 2015 to date. It studies women in the agriculture sector in the Vhembe and Capricorn districts in Limpopo. The study will specifically look at women who own and or manage farms and women who are part of the farming cooperatives. According to the United Nations’ Issue Note on Economic Empowerment, “Economic empowerment of women is widely seen as an effective mechanism to help break the cycle of discrimination and vulnerability” (United Nations, 2020, p. 2). Therefore, it is vital to strengthen rural women’s participation and access to (agricultural) production, economic and financial recourses. It is also essential to assess the challenges faced by these women in terms of government support, hence the call for external actors to get involved. Other forms of participation can be in the form of building public and private partnerships. Philanthropic organisations are thus encouraged to support women’s initiatives and provide assistance for strategies that support women empowerment (The Economic and Social Council, 2010). 1.5 Research Objectives Research objectives in qualitative research generally refer to the purpose of the research. Formulating objectives is vital for the study because objectives determine the research's scope and comprehensive focus (Denscombe, 2012). Hodges and Thomas (2010) argue that research objectives give specific and precise details of the research topic linked to the study's main purpose. The following research objectives are explored in the study: § Objective 1: exploring how philanthropic organisations support small-scale female farmers and increase their visibility in Capricorn and Vhembe district in Limpopo. § Objective 2: examining whether small-scale farmers in Capricorn and Vhembe districts in Limpopo have access to philanthropic support. The support includes The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 12 monetary assistance, skills training and access to equipment, agricultural land, information and access to markets. § Objective 3: examining the gaps in funding support for small-scale women farmers from philanthropic organisations. 1.6 Research Question(s) Qualitative research questions seek to uncover the perspectives and experiences of those involved in the study. Clearly stated questions thus give direction for the study (Agee, 2009). 1.6.1 The main research question for this study is: How is philanthropy contributing to food security in the rural agriculture sector, mainly through supporting women-led initiatives? 1.6.2 The sub-question is: In what way can small-scale women farmers work with philanthropic organisations to improve their farming enterprises? 1.6.3 What are the gaps in funding support for small scale women farmers? The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 13 Chapter 2 2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 2.1 Literature Review 2.1.1 Introduction The purpose of a literature review is to examine literature that covers the themes for the study. According to Allen (2017), a literature review aims to construct arguments that generate particular research questions. This section discusses food (in)security in a South African context as well global context to identify gaps in the literature concerning how governments institutions in general and philanthropic organisations in particular directly influence food security through women’s involvement in agricultural development. The chapter further discusses South Africa’s agriculture sector policies, programmes, and strategies developed to assist previously disadvantaged farmers to give an overview of the Limpopo agricultural sector and looks sharply into small-scale farmers in the Capricorn and Vhembe districts. The literature further focuses on the dynamics of food security in Limpopo province, particularly challenges facing women in small-scale farming. Under the nexus of food security and human security, Rajaonarison (2014) argued that the concept of food security is encapsulated under the human security paradigm. He further argued that the concept is new and is shaping the history of agricultural development in Sub-Saharan Africa in fighting food insecurity in the region. For De Boeck, Jacxsens and Uyttendaele, challenges in food safety ought to be accomplished through food security. Achieving food security includes all points of food production, food availability and access to safe and nutritious food (De Boeck et a., 2016). According to the Global Food Security Index, food security can be further archived by improving access to nutritious food and reduced dependency on food imports (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2021). The core themes discussed in this session are food (in)security and the agricultural sector, sustainable development, philanthropic foundations, feminist approaches and food security. The following sub-section discusses the notion of food insecurity in agriculture. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 14 2.1.2 Overview and Historical Context of the Study: the South African Context The agricultural sector plays a significant role in economic development, especially in developing countries. The agricultural sector’s strategic role is to further improve food availability and access to all people at all times to achieve food security and poverty reduction (Pawlak & Kołodziejczak, 2020). The world’s rural population relies on agriculture for their primary livelihood. Agriculture is vital and can help raise income and improve food security for over 80 per cent of the world’s poor who live in rural areas (The World Bank Group, 2020). The agricultural sector in South Africa includes enterprises engaged in crop cultivation, fisheries, forestry, growing fruit and vegetables, and raising animals (UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the agricultural sector is also the backbone of the rural economy. The sector is driven mainly by small-scale farmers (Rapsomanikis, 2015). While small-scale farmers rely predominantly on family labour, they account for almost half of the world's small farms and produce a significant amount of their food supply (Ricciardi et al., 2018). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations further reiterates that “the world's smallholder farmers produce around a third of the world's food, nine out of 10 of the world's 570 million farms were family farms and produced around 80 per cent of the world's food” (FAO, 2021, p. 1). Additionally, most small-scale farmers, roughly 475 million, are in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, South Asia, and the United States. Small-scale farmers allocate a large portion of their land to the production of food crops. Thus, small-scale farmers play a vital role in food security, environmental sustainability and conservation (Sustainable Food Production and Food Security, 2020). The Sustainable Food Production and Food Security (2020) stated that small-scale women farmers in underdeveloped and developing countries play a significant role. Although women own fewer assets such as land, equal livestock, access to resources and capital, small-scale women farmers provide over 40 per cent of agricultural labour in developing countries (The World Bank, 2017). Women in Sub-Saharan Africa provide substantial labour on small-scale farms than men. Most women working in small scale farms engage in the production of maize, tending to small animals and cultivating crops (Rapsomanikis, 2015). Women in agriculture significantly contribute to food security and nutrition at the household and community level. Therefore, governments and financial institutions need to support and create programs that The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 15 encourage women to invest in the agricultural sector, particularly women in small-scale farming (The World Bank, 2016). South Africa has a vast community of scale-scale farmers. Women farmers account for one- third of the country's farmers’ labour, according to the 2018 Statistics South Africa report (Solidaridad Network, 2019). According to World Wide Fund for Nature, there are over 2 million small-scale farmers in South Africa. Rural small-scale farmers rely predominantly on available agricultural land for domestic trade and supplement food for their households (WWF, 2017). South Africa is said to be a food secure country at the national level. However, statistics suggest that many households within the county are food insecure, and almost 6 million South Africans experience hunger (Davida et al., 2018; Statistics South Africa, 2019a). By the end of 2017, Statistics South Africa reported that almost 20 per cent of households had inadequate access to food (Statistics South Africa, 2019a). The primary cause of individual and household food insecurity for South Africans is inadequate access to food (Rusare & Tsegay, 2014). Hence, individuals and households in rural communities need to get involved in agricultural activities to reduce vulnerability to hunger and food insecurity. Notwithstanding challenges facing many South African households, there is noteworthy progress toward fighting food insecurity and hunger (Statistics South Africa, 2019a). The South African agricultural sector contributes significantly to household food security (International Trade Administration, 2021). In 2019, statistics South Africa reported that Limpopo and Gauteng had the highest number of households with adequate access to food (Statistics South Africa, 2019a). South Africa’s agricultural sector is one of the world’s most diverse sectors. The country's agricultural sector produces all major grains, livestock production and other food production. According to the International Trade Administration, the commercial farming sector is the backbone of the country’s agricultural economy (International Trade Administration, 2021). Moreover, the agricultural sector exports its agricultural produce. Thus, South Africa's total agriculture exports were valued at $10.2 billion in the 2020 financial year, about 10 per cent of South Africa's total exports earnings (International Trade Administration, 2021). The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 16 2.1.2.1 The Limpopo Farming Typology Since 1994, the Limpopo Province, formally known as the Northern Province under the apartheid government, continues to experience high poverty levels, poor infrastructure, and weak institutions (Hall, Shirinda, Wisborg, Zamchiya, 2013). The Limpopo province is one of South Africa’s regions that contribute about 7.6 per cent to national agriculture (Scholtz, 2020). Limpopo is in the North, and it shares international borders across the Limpopo River with Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Botswana. The province is known as the ‘Africa’s Eden’ or South Africa ‘Bread and Fruit Basket due to its green landscapes and rich agricultural land. There are five districts in the province, namely, Capricorn, Sekhukhune, Mopani, Vhembe and Waterberg (Ayisi, MacLeod, Mcdonald, et al., 2011). Limpopo province covers a land area of about 12.4 million hectares, with a population of over five million. It is also the only province in South Africa with more than two ethnic groups dwelling together. The most dominant ethnic groups are the BaPedi, MaTsonga and VhaVhenda (SAHO, 2021). According to Statistics South Africa (StatsSA), approximately 41 per cent of people are involved in agricultural production in one form or the other. The Limpopo province has the highest number of households that are involved in agriculture nationwide. (Olofsson, 2020). Although the province is one of the poorest regions in the country, (Masiwa (2021) there are claims that the province is the most food-secure province in South Africa. What makes the poor province more food secure than other provinces is that most people in the rural communities take advantage of the available fertile land, especially those who are not formally employed (Masiwa, 2021). The Limpopo province is one of the most affluent agricultural areas in South Africa, producing over 60 per cent of fruit, vegetables, tea, maise meal, wheat, and livestock production. Limpopo agriculture produces 60 per cent of mangoes, avocadoes and tomatoes, and over 25 per cent of bananas, tea, oranges and citrus for South Africa (Ayisi et al., 2011; Limpopo Info, 2016; Vuk’uzenzele, 2007). The Limpopo province also hosts one of the largest producers of tomatoes in the world. ZZ2 supplies 40 per cent of South Africa's tomatoes (Limpopo Info, 2016; Vuk’uzenzele, 2007). Both commercial and small-scale enterprises characterise agricultural activities in the province. Since the dawn of democracy in 1994, the democratic government centres its growth and development strategies on promoting agriculture, tourism and mining in the province (Ayisi et al., 2011). The province’s agricultural sector offers significant jobs, income and export opportunities to poverty and dependence while enhancing food security for the region. More The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 17 than 85 per cent of the population in Limpopo is categorised as rural, and agriculture in this province accounts for 15 per cent of the provincial Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thus, agriculture, particularly at the domestic level, plays a significant role in the (rural) economic growth and development of the province (Molele, 2016). A significant number of agricultural activities in the province are practised by almost 300,000 small-scale farmers, mainly in their former homelands. In the past ten years, farmers in this area were known to practise mixed farming, including keeping livestock, growing crops, and producing fresh fruits and vegetables (Ayisi et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2013). Current data shows that farmers in some of the biggest farming areas, such as Levubu, Tshakhuma, Tshiomba and Rabali, still practice mixed farming. Seventy per cent of farmers in this area produce subtropical and tropical crops, while the rest focus on the production of livestock (Maponya, 2021). Notably, the Limpopo province hosts the highest number of households involved in agriculture in the country, and small-scale farmers account for the majority of agricultural production in the province (Olofsson, 2020). Photo: small-scale farmers selling fresh produce in the Tshakhuma marker. Photo by Ndalomo Photo credit: @mulepest – (Instagram) The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 18 While Limpopo boasts of a thriving agricultural sector, most informal or small-scale farmers do not have farming background knowledge or necessary skills to operate a successful farming enterprise (Ayisi et al., 2011). The province’s agricultural sector is also affected by frequent droughts, poor soil fertility, and climate change, which interrupts farming progress, particularly for small-scale farmers who do not have the resources to continue working during drought periods (Molele, 2016). Small-scale farmers continue to use low levels of production technology which leads to little marketable surplus. Some of the challenges facing small-scale farmers in Limpopo are linked to lack of access to finances, ownership of land and assets, access to marketing information and market access (Mpandeli & Maponya, 2014). Women farmers tend to face more challenges compared to men. In 2017, the World Bank reported that only a handful of women farmers own assets such as land and livestock. Women also have less access to seeds, financial services, and skills training than men (The World Bank, 2017). As discussed in the next chapters, this is one of the key findings of this study. Women in agriculture play a vital role in the province's economic development, specifically in the rural areas of the province. According to Statistics South Africa, women constitute 80 per cent of small-scale farmers in the province (Ayisi et al., 2011; Limpopo Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2020). Women play multiple roles in the agricultural sector. Women farmers contribute generously to food production at the household level and for commercial purposes (E. n. Raidimi, 2014). Murugani and Thamaga-Chitja (2019) argue that women also turn to agriculture to produce enough food to trade and support their households. Sihlobo (2018) further affirmed that not only do small-scale women farmers contribute substantially to agricultural production, women's income also makes a significant impact on food security (Sihlobo, 2018). Sadiki (2021) contends that the government, in collaboration with the agricultural sector, are working together to support and address challenges facing small-scale women in the farming industry. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 19 Photo: Map of Limpopo with municipalities and districts - Limpopo Map of South Africa by Ofomaps 2.1.2.2 Capricorn District The Capricorn District covers up to 21.705 square kilometres of the Limpopo province. It consists of five municipalities, including the Capital of Limpopo, Polokwane (Chauke & Oluwatayo, 2019). Capricorn agricultural sector accounts for 2.8 per cent of the total district economy. The district is home to more than 100 agriculture development projects, focusing on poultry, vegetable production and dairy farming (Capricorn District Municipality, 2014). Capricorn district municipality had the highest number of farms in 2017. The Capricorn district is by far the biggest producer of potatoes in South Africa. It was reported to have produced over 70 per cent of potatoes in 2017, followed by its production of onions and cattle sales at 55.4 per cent of the whole province (Statistics South Africa, 2020). Additionally, Capricorn tomatoes and egg production are considerably high. The district is also home to two of the largest farms in South Africa. The Zebediela Citrus Estate supplies the local market and exports to the international market in the Lepelle-Nkumpi municipality (The South African Government, n.d.), while The ZZ2 farm mainly produces tomatoes and grows mangoes, avocados, onions, and other fruits and vegetables (ZZ2, n.d.). According to the ZZ2 information page, "the ZZ2 brand is a well-known icon in South Africa with a proud history backed by a great customer value offering and superior economic value for all our stakeholders” (ZZ2, n.d.,p1). Small-scale farmers in Limpopo are beneficiaries of the Zebediela farm through the South African government land restitution programme (Nkombisa, 2020). The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 20 2.1.2.3 Vhembe District The Vhembe district municipality is in the far North of the Limpopo province, next to the Zimbabwe border, connecting via the Limpopo River (Dagada et al., 2002). Vhembe agriculture is one of the main drivers of the province’s economy. According to studies done in the region, about 90 per cent of the Vhembe rural community rely on agriculture to generate income and sustain their livelihoods (Maponya, 2021). As a prolific fresh produce grower, Vhembe also exports quality fresh produce across the country (Vhembe District Municipality - Overview, n.d.). The district is divided into two distinctive agricultural systems, namely, large-scale commercial farmers and small-scale farmers. According to the Limpopo Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, there are over 1.100 small-scale farmers in the Vhembe district (Olofsson, 2020). Olofsson (2020) further asserted that the most prominent commodity amongst small-scale farmers in the Vhembe district is macadamia nuts and avocados. Notably, small-scale farmers in this region are historically known to grow sub- tropical tree crops such as mangoes, bananas, avocados, etcetera. According to StatsSA, the Vhembe district was one of the two leading districts in avocado production. The district was also responsible for producing over 80 per cent of Bananas in the province in 2017 (Statistics South Africa, 2020). Maponya (2021) further asserted that agriculture is key to livelihoods in the district. Seventy per cent of the farmers in the Levubu, Tshakhuma, Rabali and Tshiombo areas produce sub- tropical and tropical crops, which contribute generously to the rural economy. However, it is still problematic that women's role and contribution in agricultural production is doing menial labour such as planting, weeding, and harvesting. Most men in the districts manage farms, are involved in off-farm activities or migrate to other provinces (Maponya, 2021). Despite considerable investments in Agriculture from the government, the Vhembe district was reported to have failed to achieve food security. Most government initiatives failed before preliminary stages because of socio-economic contrasting such as lack of water, use of poor quality seeds, declining soil fertility and (land) conflicts, to a few (Oni et al., 2010). Oni et al. (2010) further stated that several farmers could not access credit to start their enterprises. This is further demonstrated by findings of this study. Chauke and Oluwatayo (2019), apart from farmers low education levels and poor access to markets, access to credit facilities and information about financial assistance are the main socio-economic challenges affecting farmers efficiency. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 21 2.1.2.4 Philanthropic Organisations and Agriculture in South Africa Philanthropy in Africa and South Africa expresses itself in forms of individual giving and institutional giving. Philanthropic practices at a local level include stokvels, cooperatives, and lending of livestock, among others. In ‘The Poor Philanthropist: How and why the poor help each other, Wilkinson-Maposa and colleagues infer that philanthropy in Africa is not something that needs to be introduced by anyone because philanthropy is embedded in strong African traditions of self-help and self-support, voluntary institutions, community rotational credit and associations such as South African stokvels (Wilkinson-Maposa, Fowler, Oliver- Evans & Mulenga, 2015). According to Independent Philanthropy Association, South Africa 2019 annual review, the African definition of philanthropy should include acts performed at the community level and acts by the private sector and non-profit organisations geared towards the public good (IPASA, 2020). Murisa and Trust Africa (2015, p1) stated, “African philanthropy is best summed up as ‘ubuntu’, which is translated as: ‘I am because you are’…the primary focus of ubuntu-based giving and solidarity is on ensuring the well-being of the neighbour, rather than being based on one person having more resources to spare than a neighbour does.” African philanthropy is embedded in the notion of Ubuntu, which is the highest expression of the African philosophies of solidarity, empathy and collaborative partnership and giving (Moyo, 2015). African communities have always found a way to mobilise resources necessary to meet their needs and the public good. African Philanthropic scholars suggest that Ubuntu drives generous giving. According to MacLeod (2010), wealthy South Africans are the most generous after North Americans, and South Africa is also ranked fourth in the world for volunteerism. MacLeod (2010) further added that inequality is one of the driving forces behind philanthropic giving in South Africa. Philanthropy giving is no longer defined in monetary terms. It now consists of giving time or volunteerism, skills transfer, a community-based initiatives, philanthropic foundations, corporates, private philanthropy/high net worth individuals or ordinary individual givers (Moyo, 2015). Bellegy (2019) further stated that philanthropy is involved in development by reaching spaces that government institutions cannot occupy. Philanthropy for development include empowering people in society to help close the SDG funding gap. According to Everatt and Solanki (2005, p. 5), “South Africa appears to be a nation of givers.” In early 2000s, over 50 per cent of South Africans who give donated money to charity, while The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 22 about 30 per cent gave food and volunteered time to charity (Everatt & Solanki, 2005). According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (EOCD), domestic philanthropy in South Africa is predominantly corporate. Philanthropy has become a source for funding for public healthcare, education, environmental challenges, agriculture, and gender equality in middle to low-income countries. There is also a large number of individual and family giving. Most organisations give their funds and resources primarily to education, and over $260 million was donated between 2013 to 2018 to finance the education space. Some of the interventions include programs that seek to improve women's skills and education and assist women to gain access to financial resources (OECD, 2021). Additionally, giving behaviour in South Africa includes contributions from High-Net-Worth Individuals (HNWIs).According to the Nedbank Giving Reports, one-fifth of HNWIs giving is motivated by family giving, social and community development initiatives. HNWIs prioritise their giving (in time and money) to social causes to aid the challenging economic environment in South Africa. The Report further states that, one of the social and community development initiatives included giving significantly to food security and agriculture programmes (Nedbank Private Wealth, 2019). HNWI earning over R5 million per annum gave over R50 000 of their earnings in 2018 (Nedbank Private Wealth, 2019). Between 2013-2018, top domestic philanthropic funders in South Africa included SIOC Community Development Trust, DGMT, Sanlam Foundation, South African Breweries Foundation, Discovery Foundation and The Harry & Doris Crossley Foundations (OECD, 2021). Data shows that philanthropic organisations are moving toward supporting more sustainable food and agriculture projects (Nallainathan, 2015). The OECD's report states that various philanthropic interventions and funding improve women's economic opportunities. The South African philanthropy for gender equality focuses on increasing women’s access to financial and production resources. Organisations such as the Discovery Foundation, Claude Leon Foundation, Nelson Mandela Foundation and Lefa La Rona Trust support women initiatives for economic development (OECD, 2021). Moyo & Sowa (2015) added that philanthropic efforts in agriculture could potentially enhance economic prospects for rural African women. Most philanthropic organisation collaborate with Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) for sustainable development initiatives. Government institutions and philanthropies partnering with NGOs and CBOs in South Africa aim to strengthen government systems in the country by creating opportunities for skills development (Van der Elst & Volmink, 2019). Choto, Iwu and Tengeh (2020) further stated The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 23 that more government institutions are working with NGOs to provide resources for their citizens through partnerships with the private sector and philanthropy. Few non-governmental programs and organisations are supporting the agricultural sector in South Africa. The P.E.A.C.E Foundation, Lima and the Future Farmers Foundation support agriculture and recognise that agriculture is critical for development, particularly for boosting the rural economy. These foundations work in collaboration with other organisations to consult and implement agriculturally based projects. Lima was founded to support disadvantaged small- scale farmers in rural areas. Lima has implemented a program that comprehensively supports and targets isolated farmers in rural areas by assisting them to gain access to key markets and services (LIMA Rural Development Foundation, n.d.; The P.E.A.C.E. Foundation, 2009). The Future Farmers Foundation provides a platform for women and men who are interested in agriculture. The initiative was formed in 2007 to create opportunities for those who need to gain practical experience in the agricultural sector (Future Farmers Foundation, 2021). The P.E.A.C.E Foundation, Lima and the Future Farmers Foundation are work with disadvantage communities. The three organisations focus on all community development projects that empower all people in the communities. They offer agricultural support to both small-scale and commercial farmers in efforts to transform the agricultural sector. Several philanthropic foundations involved in the agricultural sector in South Africa, particularly in Limpopo, include the Motsepe Foundation. The Motsepe Foundation is one of the philanthropic organisations which continue to support agriculture for sustainable development and reform in South Africa. The Foundation partnered with local traditional leaders, rural and urban communities. The Motsepe Foundation is also in partnership with AgriSA to provide technical skills, farming expertise, and knowledge to the farming communities. The Foundation has already spent over R600 million contributing to the development and growth of agriculture and farming projects in South Africa, including Limpopo province. The funding was used to procure tractors, seeds and fertilisers, irrigation systems, farming equipment and the construction of boreholes. The project commenced in 2019 at the African Farmers' Association of South Africa's Agribusiness transformation conference. The Motsepe Foundation pledged to work with traditional leaders and other stakeholders in urban and rural communities to commence this project to benefit sustainable agriculture, land development, and reform (Macaskill, 2021). The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 24 The SAB Foundation has an innovative programme aimed at promoting entrepreneurship for rural women in South Africa. The Foundation works in conjunction with SaveAct to assist small-scale farmers to set up their businesses in rural areas. SaveAct facilitates programmes to break the cycle of poverty in communities and assist these communities in playing an active role in social and economic development (SAB Foundation, n.d.; SaveAct, n.d.). The Coca- Cola Mintirho Foundation specifically funds and supports black farmers who were historically disadvantaged. Mintirho Foundation looks for black ownership more than 60 per cent. The Foundation funds primary agriculture, including all food crops targeted for growth capital for sustainable development. One of the recent projects from the Foundation is recognising women leadership and the significant role they play in agriculture as small-scale farmers to fight food insecurities while maintaining their homes (Mintirho Foundation, 2020). The Women Farmers Programme, through the Vodacom Foundation, assists South African women farmers. The Vodacom Foundation delivers the programme in partnership with UN Women and South African Women in Farming (SAWIF). The programme focuses on providing basic digital literacy training for small-scale women farmers in rural areas to help them transform their productivity and fight poverty through food security (Vodacom, 2021). 2.1.2.5 South Africa Policy and Strategies for the Agricultural Sector This section presents South African policies and strategies post-1994. Since 1994, South Africa has been on a mission to change the economic, political, and social structures created by the apartheid system. The consequence of the former system created yielding poverty, which was attributed to former apartheid policies of (racial) inequality, segregation, and unsustainable settlement patterns. According to Dagada et al. (2002, p. 2290), "food insecurity and poverty in South Africa have prevailed for several centuries as a result of apartheid policies that were designed specifically to create conditions that were unfavourable to the well-being of black people. These historical legacies created the present situation where most black farmers are vulnerable to food insecurity despite the good food security situation at a national level." Maluleke (2019) further inferred that according to the South African National Development Plan, poverty is both a cause and consequence of food insecurity and vis-à-vis. Therefore, the government needs to adopt policies and strategies that will create opportunities for farmers to tackle poverty and food insecurity. The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 25 Notwithstanding the challenges of old South African policies, democratic South Africa continues to propose and implement policy interventions to tackle food security challenges. One of the significant shifts from post-democracy policies was the land reform policy which centres on "the advancement of both fairness and effectiveness through a shared agrarian and industrial plan in which land is recognised as a boost and stimulus to agricultural and economic growth" (Agholor & Bongiwe, 2020, p. 217). South Africa’s strategies for land reform include land restitution, whereby the dispossessed person or community are to give back their land and be compensated (Agholor & Bongiwe, 2020). In addition to the land reform policy, the Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development strategy "aimed at providing financial redress to black South African citizens to access land mainly for agricultural purposes” (Agholor & Bongiwe, 2020, p. 218). Other examples include the Integrated Food Security Strategy (IFSS), aimed at increasing access to productive assets and access to food production, and the Comprehensive Agriculture Support Programme, which aims to provide support to targeted beneficiaries of land reform (Hosu & Qamata, 2019). Hosu and Qamata (2019) further state that these programmes are essential for developing food security measures for household food producers and farmers working at agricultural micro and macro systems. These strategies are not without challenges. Agholor and Bongiwe (2020) argued that the South African government was not fully prepared to implement land reform policies. Informal farmers are faced with challenges as they do not have the skills needed to manage a successful farming enterprise or have sufficient capital to invest in a profitable farming business (Agholor & Bongiwe, 2020). Khwidzhili and Worth (2017) further argued that while land reform policies aim to assist poor communities to acquire agricultural land and form small farming enterprises, the policies are not inclusive for the black majority. Consequently, only a few individuals could afford and maintain the farmland they have benefited. Sadiki (2021) stated that the South African government has put initiatives and policies to support and address challenges that women face in the agricultural sector. One of the policies adopted by the government was the Beneficiary Selection and Land policy which focuses on the allocation of agricultural land to women. The policy was adopted to rethink the direction of the land reform policy in South Africa. The Beneficiary Selection and Land policy was proposed to "ensure equitable access to land for all the previously disadvantaged citizens" (PLAAS, 2020, p. 1) and to ensure that the South African government land allocation reaches out to women in the agricultural sector (PLAAS, 2020). The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 26 Another policy proposed by the South African government is the Integrated Food Security Strategy. It calls for a rights-based approach (which includes gender equality) to food security. This policy was written from a human rights perspective which recognised fundamental rights for all (E. n. Raidimi, 2014). Raidimi (2014) further stated that gender inequality could limit agricultural productivity and cause challenges to women who want to access critical productive assets and services such as land, infrastructure, and financial services. Gender disparities are more prevalent where government investment programs overlook the role of women and the significant contribution in the development processes (Raidimi, 2014). Additionally, small- scale farmers, particularly women, are not fully included in policies and strategies; and they also lack access to funding and support networks. According to the World Bank, women account for half the agricultural workforce. However, gendered agricultural inequalities remain strong because of continuous discrimination and exclusion from policies (Botreau, 2019). South Africa’s Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development Programme (LRAD) mentions creating access to agricultural land for men and women. The LRAD aims to assist previously disadvantaged South African citizens in getting access to funds to buy land specifically for agricultural purposes. The LRAD is one of the few policy interventions in South Africa that focus on women development (Agholor & Lubisi, 2020; South African Government, n.d.). There is an urgent need to remove obstacles that prevent women from participating fully in the agricultural sector. Increasing women’s access to financial resources, land and skills training is crucial to overcome women’s social exclusion. Further, there is a need to introduce innovative practices and strategies targeted at women development (FAO & CARE, 2019; SOFA Team & Doss, 2011). 2.1.3 Food (In)Security and the Agricultural Sector Small-scale farmers dominate the agriculture sector in Africa. Over 33 million small-scale farmers contribute to the production of food crops in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to increase domestic food security (Dobie. Finlayson, Gassner et al., 2019). Dobie et al. (2019) further argue that agriculture is a tool that can be used to help people escape poverty. Although most farms cannot generate sufficient agricultural income due to their small size, Dobie et al. (2019) maintained that small-scale farmers' contribution to the rural economy is vital, especially for food security and as an income source. Pawlak and Kołodziejczak (2020) argue that agriculture has a significant impact on improving food security. The agricultural sector is significant for improving food security and reducing poverty. The sector can produce and distribute products The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 27 across countries by playing strategic roles in improving food productivity and food availability. In "Food security and optimal government intervention level in agriculture”, Aliyeva, Babayeva, Hasanzade et al. (2019) look at government intervention in the agricultural sector for food security. They (Aliyeva et al. (2019) argue that the government's interventions in the agricultural sector often translate into subsidies, which means that the sector relies on government interventions for its optimal success. Consequently, agricultural interventions that are less than the country's optimal size can weaken the agricultural sector, which can threaten the country's food security. Moreover, the allocation of subsidies is dependent on the economy’s profitability for the government (Aliyeva et al., 2019). South Africa is considered a food secure country at a national level. However, available household data implies high levels of food insecurity, owing to income poverty and lack of access to food (de Cock, D'Haese, D'Haese et al., 2013). The government committed to halving poverty by 2014 to achieve food security at the household level (de Cock et al., 2013). Although the South African government committed to halving hunger by 2014, Masipa (2017) stated that climate change had an impact on food security in South Africa. Climate change is a major concern for food security because of its negative impact on agricultural land. Increasing and unstable temperatures can cause a destruction of crops, lower crops productivity and increase heat stress to livestock (Masipa, 2017). Further, the StatsSA also reported that millions of households across South Africans experienced hunger in 2017. Poor households lack money to buy adequate food due to inability to secure jobs to generate income (Statistics South Africa, 2019). According to Rusare and Tsegay (2014), 1 in 4 people in South Africa still suffer from hunger. At the same time, more than half of the population are at risk of going hungry due to their precarious circumstances. The underlying causes of hunger and food insecurity in South Africa include significant unemployment levels at 34.6 per cent nationally at the time of writing this report, limited access to adequate and nutritious food, and limited access to food production (Statistics South Africa, 2019a). Women and children are affected by food insecurity because of lack of employment and inadequate access to water and farming equipment for small-scale farmers (Rusare & Tsegay, 2014). According to StatsSA, approximately 20 per cent of households did not have adequate access to food in South Africa in 2017. As Stats SA pointed out, black Africans and coloured headed households were most affected by food insecurity compared to households headed by whites and Asians (Indian). Lack of money caused food The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 28 inadequacy for these poor households to access food and the inability to access resources to produce their own food (Statistics South Africa, 2019b). Rusare and Tsegay (2014) argued that women tended to suffer the most compared to men because of different forms of inequality, including income disparities, limited access to opportunities and means of production. Despite constituting most of the farming workforce, women continue to be discriminated against regarding access and control of resources. They are deprived of opportunities to improve food production activities (Rusare & Tsegay, 2014). According to an Oxfam report on Gender Inequalities and Food Insecurity, gender inequalities remain a challenge in agricultural food production. Women farmers are at risk of hunger. Rural women farmers suffer labour market discrimination, pay inequity, and difficulty in attaining (land) ownership and access to recourses and financial support (Botreau, 2019). Furthermore, women in agriculture continue to be confined to informal and casual farm work because patriarchal norms disadvantage them. Women have weaker bargaining power, are excluded from decision making and do not have the power to control resources (Botreau, 2019). In South Africa, food security, which always involves access to adequate nutritious food, is a constitutional right. According to Mbajiorgu (2019, p331), “food security strategies are consistent with section 27(1)(b) of the Constitution of South Africa, which provides that everyone has the right of access to sufficient food.” The government has an obligation to ensure that all measures and strategies are considered to achieve the right to access food for all. For instance, the South African government has put remedial policies such as social grants as a source of income for poor and low-income households (Mbajiorgu, 2019). Mbajiorgu (2019) further argued that the right to access food is at the core of human development. The South African government is also a signatory to international treaties and human rights conventions. South Africa ratified the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. The country also signed the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Additionally, South Africa is committed to the 2030 SDG goals 1 and 2 to eradicate poverty, hunger and food insecurity by 2030 (Mbajiorgu, 2019). To reduce food insecurity, South Africa implemented legislative frameworks and policies. For instance under the Reconstruction and Development Programme, the government committed to ensure the quality of life for all South Africans and the National Development Plan aimed to eliminate and reduce poverty and inequality by 2030 (Mbajiorgu, 2019). Mbajiorgu (2019) further stated that agricultural reform would be a fundamental instrument for food security strategy. Additionally, the reform strategy included promoting The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 29 small-scale farmers, which is a significant investment in rural development. Thus, it is imperative to confront current inequality and income poverty challenges, which negatively impact the realisation of food security in South Africa. In 2002, the South African government adopted the ‘Integrated Food Security Strategy (IFSS) to halve poverty by 2014. This initiative was to reduce food insecurity further to achieve physical, social, and economic access to sufficient and safe nutritious food for all South Africans. The crucial objective of the IFSS strategy was “to attain universal physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food by all South Africans at all times to meet their dietary and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (de Cock et al., 2013, p. 4). The critical elements of the IFSS strategy comprised zero hunger which focused on access to food and food production to achieve food security, sustainable agricultural reform to improve food affordability and create rural jobs for sustainable and inclusive growth for all South Africans (de Cock et al., 2013). In ‘Food security in rural areas of Limpopo province, South Africa’, De Cock, D'Haese and colleagues looked at food security challenges in the region. The authors argued that accurate measurements and policies that target the multidimensional food security nexus need to be carefully accessed (de Cock et al., 2013). Policy targeting could reduce poverty, inequality, and food insecurity. Using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), which the Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) project of US-AID was developed, De Cock et al (2013) inferred that over 50 per cent of households in rural Limpopo were food insecure. The Mopani district was presented with the highest poverty rate of 50 per cent, while the Vhembe district was presented with the lowest poverty rate at 19 per cent (D’Haese et al., 2013). Although the South African government has recognised key elements of these policies and strategies, the strategies are not fully realised. The challenges South Africa faces are due to the lack of a regulated way of monitoring the food (in)security status of the population and methods to effectively measure the current status of food (in)security (de Cock et al., 2013). 2.1.4 Sustainable Development and Philanthropy through Agriculture In “Does sub-Saharan Africa need capitalist philanthropy to reduce poverty and achieve food security?”, Morvaridi (2016) argued that traditionally, African philanthropic activities are underpinned by the idea of 'Ubuntu'. Giving, especially at the community level, is driven by moral values, collective consciousness, and the spirit of humaneness. However, the new form of philanthropy, also known as 'capitalist philanthropy', emerged globally to support all activities, including social justice and other neoliberal economic activities. Globally, capitalist The Role of Philanthropy in Women Development through Food Security 30 philanthropists such as the Bill and Melinda Gates, Aliko Dangote, Warren Buffett, and Patrice Motsepe have in the past years pledged a portion of their wealth towards various poverty reduction programs and projects across Africa. The Gates Foundation is one of the philanthropic organisations that support food security projects in SSA. Morvaridi (2016) took a closer look into the Gates foundation’s food security strategy. Morvaridi argued that the Gates capitalist philanthropy was both political and ideological. The Foundation committed to the modernisation of agriculture through market-led forces of production, which means that Gates is committed to promoting food security through agriculture while also promoting the market economy. The Gates Foundation contributed almost $2 billion to small-scale farmers in SSA in the early 2000s to support food security objectives (Morvaridi, 2016). Asuru (2015) agreed with Morvaridi on the significant contributions from the Gates Foundation to the agricultural sector. Asuru (2015) stated that the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation made a noteworthy contribution to small-scale farmers in Ghana. The Foundation aimed to address poverty and hunger by helping small-scale farmers with resources to help rural development and poverty reduction. Asuru (2015) further emphasises the significant contributions by the 'new' philanthropy toward improving conditions of small-scale farmers in SSA. The author argued that philanthropy was fundamental to addressing social problems such as hunger and poverty for rural transformation. Because most philanthropic organisations are not based in rural areas, philanthropy needs to connect with community organisations in big cities to access rural and non-metropolitan communities to make a case for rural development needs. The gap between philanthropy and rural communities poses challenges for small enterprises to access institutions (Asuru, 2015). Asuru (2015) thus recommends that philanthropic institutions should create a strategy to increase access to a rural community to resolve critical rural development issues. In ‘Philanthropy and Sovereignty: A Critical Feminist Exploration of the Gates Foundation’s Approach to Gender and Agricultural Development', Fent (2012) assessed the Gates Foundation 'Gender Impact Strategy for Agricultural Development. Fent claimed