See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392341841 Sustaining service delivery: Tackling the rural depopulation dilemma in South Africa Article · January 2025 DOI: 10.63212/IJDS25011101 CITATIONS 0 READS 35 1 author: Hlanganani Mnguni University of the Witwatersrand 13 PUBLICATIONS   29 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Hlanganani Mnguni on 03 June 2025. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392341841_Sustaining_service_delivery_Tackling_the_rural_depopulation_dilemma_in_South_Africa?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392341841_Sustaining_service_delivery_Tackling_the_rural_depopulation_dilemma_in_South_Africa?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_3&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_1&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hlanganani-Mnguni?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hlanganani-Mnguni?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/institution/University_of_the_Witwatersrand?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hlanganani-Mnguni?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hlanganani-Mnguni?enrichId=rgreq-06de9792271a5cc6b91be4f065826a91-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzM5MjM0MTg0MTtBUzoxMTQzMTI4MTQ4MTQ4MTg3OEAxNzQ4OTM1NTEyNjY3&el=1_x_10&_esc=publicationCoverPdf International Journal of Development and Sustainability ISSN: 2186-8662 – www.isdsnet.com/ijds Volume 14 Number 5 (2025): Pages 413-428 https://doi.org/10.63212/IJDS25011101 Sustaining service delivery: Tackling the rural depopulation dilemma in South Africa Hlanganani Mnguni * Centre for Learning on Evaluation and Results- Anglophone Africa, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Abstract This paper examines the impact of rural depopulation on the sustainability of essential services in South Africa, with a particular focus on healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Drawing on Spatial Justice Theory, the study investigates how demographic shifts, such as population decline and aging demographics, contribute to growing service disparities in rural areas. A semi-systematic literature review of 45 studies was conducted using a qualitative, secondary data-based approach to synthesize existing knowledge on rural depopulation and service delivery. The findings reveal that rural communities face significant service deterioration, compounded by funding constraints and historical neglect. While interventions like telemedicine, e-learning, and mobile service units present promising solutions, their success is contingent upon substantial investments in infrastructure and capacity-building. Furthermore, economic revitalization strategies, such as agro-processing, eco-tourism, and renewable energy development, require strong public-private partnerships and targeted financial incentives. The study concludes that addressing rural depopulation necessitates an integrated, equity-driven approach that prioritizes spatial justice, infrastructure development, and community-led planning. Policy recommendations include strengthening local governance, fostering economic diversification, and reassessing resource allocation to bolster the resilience of rural communities. Keywords: Rural depopulation; Migration; Service delivery; Community empowerment; Disparities * Corresponding author. E-mail address: hlangs50@gmail.com Published by ISDS LLC, Japan | Copyright © 2025 by the Author(s) | This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Cite this article as: Mnguni, H. (2025), “Sustaining service delivery: Tackling the rural depopulation dilemma in South Africa”, International Journal of Development and Sustainability, Vol. 14 No. 5, pp. 413-428. International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 414 ISDS www.isdsnet.com 1. Introduction Rural depopulation is an increasingly pressing issue in many parts of the world, characterized by the ongoing migration of people, particularly youth, from rural to urban areas in search of better economic opportunities. This demographic trend, as Brown and Schafft (2011) highlight, is predominantly driven by the decline of traditional agricultural industries, limited job prospects, and the appeal of urban amenities. Consequently, as rural populations dwindle, the ability to sustain essential services such as healthcare, education, and transportation becomes progressively compromised, leading to a diminished quality of life for remaining residents (Mlambo, 2018). The impacts of rural depopulation extend beyond economic challenges. Communities experiencing significant outmigration often struggle with a demographic imbalance, as younger and working-age populations leave, leaving behind an aging population with increased needs but fewer resources to meet them (Mthiyane, 2022). This imbalance places additional strain on already underfunded rural public services, particularly healthcare and social support systems (Meso, et al, 2016). Furthermore, the reduced tax base resulting from shrinking populations creates a self-reinforcing cycle, where declining public revenues make it increasingly difficult to sustain critical services (Mthiyane, ibid). Existing literature examines various aspects of rural depopulation, yet significant gaps remain in understanding how to ensure equitable service delivery in depopulating areas. This study addresses these gaps by employing Spatial Justice Theory to assess how service allocation disparities impact rural communities and to explore potential strategies for mitigating these inequities. This is because the theory emphasizes the fair and just allocation of resources across different geographic spaces (Soja, 2010). As a result, this allows for a nuanced understanding of how marginalized rural communities experience unequal access to essential. Unlike previous studies, which often focus on economic decline or demographic shifts in isolation, this paper integrates service delivery, economic revitalization, and policy considerations to provide a more comprehensive perspective. Addressing the challenges of rural depopulation requires a reimagining of service delivery models. Innovative approaches, such as telemedicine, e-learning, and mobile service units, can help bridge gaps where traditional models fall short (Gristy, 2021). Additionally, policies that incentivize businesses and professionals to relocate to rural areas, alongside targeted government interventions, can help alleviate the adverse effects of population decline (Kline, and Moretti, 2014). This paper investigates how rural depopulation is reshaping service delivery and explores potential strategies for sustaining essential services in these regions. By synthesizing insights from existing research and case studies, this study aims to illuminate the challenges of maintaining rural services and propose realistic approaches to address them. The paper is organized as follows: Methodological Approach, Theoretical Framework, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations. 2. Methodological approach 2.1. Research design and search strategy This review employs a semi-systematic approach, using a qualitative, secondary data-based methodology to synthesize literature on rural depopulation and service delivery, with a particular focus on healthcare, International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 ISDS www.isdsnet.com 415 education, and transportation. The research design aims to provide an in-depth understanding of how rural population decline impacts the accessibility and sustainability of essential services in rural areas. To ensure a systematic and transparent review, the search strategy followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, promoting thoroughness, replicability, and transparency. The search was conducted across several academic databases, Google Scholar, JSTOR, Springer, and the Social Science Citation Index (Web of Science), to capture a broad range of relevant literature. The selected databases were chosen for their comprehensive coverage of interdisciplinary topics related to rural studies, health services, and education. Predefined keywords, such as "rural depopulation," "service delivery," "rural healthcare access," "rural education access," and "shrinking populations," were used to ensure that all relevant studies were identified, in line with PRISMA’s guidelines for broad yet specific search terms. The screening and selection process included removing duplicates, evaluating titles and abstracts for relevance, and performing full-text reviews to ensure that only studies directly addressing the intersection of rural depopulation and service provision were included. 2.2. Screening and selection process The study selection process adhered to the PRISMA framework, ensuring a systematic and transparent approach. It began with the removal of duplicate records from the initial set of 450 articles. Following this, titles and abstracts were screened to exclude studies not directly addressing rural depopulation or service delivery. Full-text reviews were then conducted, focusing on the relevance to the research question and the methodological rigor of the studies. Through this thorough process, 45 studies were ultimately included in the final review, meeting the predefined inclusion criteria of methodological quality, relevance, and currency. This process is visually summarized in Figure 1 (next page), which presents the PRISMA flow diagram, outlining each stage of the screening and selection process to ensure transparency and reproducibility. 2.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria Inclusion criteria specified that studies must focus on the impact of rural depopulation on service delivery for (e.g., healthcare, education, transportation), and include a clear methodological framework (qualitative or quantitative). Eligible studies were restricted to peer-reviewed journal articles, policy reports, and book chapters published in English between 2013 and 2023. Studies that did not meet these criteria, lacked methodological clarity, or failed to adequately address the research question were excluded, ensuring a focus on the most relevant and methodologically sound studies. 2.4. Data management and data analysis Zotero, a reference management tool, was used to organize citations and store full-text articles, facilitating efficient literature management. This allowed for a systematic process of tracking and referencing sources while maintaining an organized database of resources for easy retrieval. Data analysis was conducted using qualitative thematic analysis. A codebook was developed to identify key themes related to rural service delivery in the context of depopulation. Each study was manually coded, and recurring patterns were identified regarding the challenges and solutions related to healthcare, education, and International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 416 ISDS www.isdsnet.com transportation services in depopulated rural areas. The data were synthesized into a framework that provided a comprehensive summary of the primary themes, challenges, and solutions identified across the selected studies. Figure 1. PRSIMA flow diagram 2.5. Theoretical framework This paper applies Spatial Justice Theory to analyse the impact of rural depopulation on access to essential services, such as healthcare, education, and transportation. Originating from urban studies and geography, the theory explores how the spatial distribution of resources contributes to social inequality, particularly in Records identified from*: Databases (n = 450) Registers (n = 0) Records removed before screening: Duplicate records removed (n =50) Records marked as ineligible by automation tools (n = 20) Records removed for other reasons (n = 30) Records screened (n = 350) Records excluded** (n = 335) Reports sought for retrieval (n = 100) Reports not retrieved (n = 10) Reports assessed for eligibility (n =90) Reports excluded: Reason 1: Lacked methodological rigour (n =109) Reason 2: Not relevant for the research (n = 226) Reports of included studies (n = 45) Identification of studies via databases and registers Id e n ti fi c a ti o n S c re e n in g In c lu d e d International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 ISDS www.isdsnet.com 417 marginalized communities (Soja, 2010; Roberts and Green, 2013). It asserts that justice requires not only fair resource distribution but also addressing inequalities arising from geographical disparities, especially in depopulating rural areas (Norberg, 2017). Spatial Justice Theory is crucial in the context of rural depopulation, where declining populations lead to reduced service availability. As rural populations shrink, services in these areas are often reduced or closed, while urban centres, with higher demand, receive priority in resource allocation (Glauber, 2022). This creates “spatial injustice,” as rural areas experience unequal access to services due to both physical distance and the unequal distribution of policies and resources (Yu et al. 2022). The theory serves as a tool to examine how depopulation exacerbates spatial inequalities in service delivery and to inform policies that address these disparities. By focusing on geographic location, the theory stresses that fairness in service provision requires addressing the structural disadvantages faced by rural communities (Hlalele, 2012). It advocates for policies that ensure rural areas continue receiving essential services, even as populations decline. Historically, service provision has favoured urban areas due to the concentration of resources in densely populated regions (Harvey, 2010). Spatial Justice Theory challenges the assumption that service delivery should be based solely on population numbers or market-driven models, advocating for approaches that consider both the needs and geographical challenges of rural populations (McGuire et al, 2024). Rural areas often lack healthcare, transportation, and educational opportunities, creating a cycle of deprivation worsened by population decline (Furuseth, 2014). This paper argues that rural depopulation requires innovative policies to sustain service delivery, such as leveraging technology (telemedicine and online education) to overcome geographic barriers (Alabdali et al., 2023). Additionally, transportation and healthcare systems must prioritize equity, ensuring even sparsely populated areas maintain access to essential services. Spatial Justice Theory also offers a critical lens to examine the role of local governments and policymakers in promoting spatial justice. It advocates for regional development plans that address rural areas’ needs, such as investing in infrastructure, incentivizing local businesses, and expanding digital services (Garvey, et al). By moving beyond population size, the theory supports creating opportunities for rural communities to thrive despite demographic decline. Lastly, Spatial Justice Theory provides a framework for understanding how rural depopulation exacerbates service delivery inequalities. This paper argues that service provision should prioritize equitable access, ensuring rural areas are not left behind in a globalized world. It emphasizes the importance of inclusive policies that address demographic challenges, fostering resilience and sustainable service delivery in rural communities. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Overview of rural depopulation Rural depopulation is a multidimensional phenomenon driven by interrelated economic, social, and demographic factors. Economically, the decline of agriculture, once the backbone of rural livelihoods, has been International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 418 ISDS www.isdsnet.com exacerbated by the growth of industrialization in urban centres, offering more diverse and lucrative opportunities (Johnson, 2019). This economic shift not only undermines traditional rural economies but also perpetuates a migration trend among younger generations seeking financial stability. Socially, the lack of quality healthcare, education, and other essential services in rural areas creates stark contrasts with urban living conditions, further incentivizing migration (Christiaensen, and Kanbur, 2017). The disparity in service provision highlights a systemic neglect of rural development priorities, deepening inequalities between urban and rural regions. Demographically, aging populations and declining birth rates compound the challenges of maintaining vibrant rural communities, as young people form a diminishing proportion of the population (Millington, and Cleland, 2017). These factors collectively create a self-reinforcing cycle of decline. As rural depopulation weakens the tax base, local governments face reduced revenue, limiting their capacity to deliver essential services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure development (Beintema et al., 2024; Gimeno, 2024). The deterioration of services, in turn, accelerates rural-urban migration, particularly among younger and more economically active populations, leaving behind an aging and dependent demographic (Visagie and Turok, 2020). This interconnectedness highlights the dual nature of rural depopulation as both a cause and consequence of rural neglect and economic stagnation (Hall and Ntsebeza, 2007). Without targeted interventions to break this cycle, the challenges of rural poverty, inequity, and marginalization are likely to deepen (Aliber and Hart, 2009). 3.2. Impacts of rural depopulation According to recent literature, the economic repercussions of rural depopulation are profound. Shrinking populations reduce local demand and workforce availability, stalling economic activity and discouraging investment (Jackson and Jabbie, 2021). This results in a deteriorating economic environment, with fewer opportunities to attract or retain skilled professionals (Sutton et al. 2024). Socially, the departure of younger generations greatly disrupts family and community structures, often leaving elderly residents isolated and dependent on increasingly limited social services (Hagestad, 2018). The erosion of community cohesion amplifies feelings of abandonment and hopelessness among remaining residents (Jeon and Kim, 2023). And economically, rural areas are transitioning from agrarian to service-oriented economies, importantly, this shift often fails to deliver sustainable livelihoods due to limited diversification and vulnerability to external shocks (Jeon and Kim, ibid). The lack of robust rural economic structures perpetuates poverty and stifles long-term regional development, leaving rural areas in a precarious state. 3.3. Global and regional perspectives on rural depopulation: drivers, impacts, and challenges Literature reviews reveal that rural depopulation is not confined to specific regions, including Africa. In fact, it is part of a larger global trend influenced by a variety of economic, social, and demographic factors (OECD, 2020). The shift from agrarian-based economies to industrial and service-oriented economies has been a significant contributor to rural depopulation worldwide (Serra et al., 2023). In many parts of Asia and Africa, rural migration to urban areas has been especially pronounced as industrialization and urbanization offer more economic opportunities (Fox, 2012). The International Labour Organization (ILO) reports that urban International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 ISDS www.isdsnet.com 419 areas in these regions attract a substantial portion of the younger, economically active population, drawn by the promise of higher-paying jobs and better living standards (ILO, 2020). In Europe and North America, rural depopulation is also closely tied to the decline of traditional agricultural industries (ILO, 2020). In these regions, the impact is compounded by aging populations, with rural areas often facing limited social services, which further discourage younger generations from settling there. A case study in Italy, for instance, highlights how southern regions, once dominated by agriculture, now experience significant population loss. Many young people have migrated to northern cities or abroad in search of better opportunities (Simard, 2016). Similarly, rural areas in Eastern Europe have experienced substantial depopulation, largely due to emigration, as younger individuals seek improved prospects in wealthier EU countries. Rural depopulation is not only driven by migration; it is also the result of uneven development (Mendola, 2012). The author argues that as rural areas fall behind in providing essential services, they face further disinvestment, perpetuating a cycle of decline. In Japan, which has one of the fastest-aging populations globally, rural communities grapple with both depopulation and the challenge of caring for an elderly population with insufficient resources (Forgach, 2009). This issue is similarly observed in rural regions of the United States, where an aging population combined with inadequate healthcare infrastructure creates a vulnerable and economically stagnant demographic (Cohen, 2023). Ultimately, the challenges of rural depopulation are deeply interconnected with global economic shifts, migration patterns, and demographic transitions. 3.4. Challenges in rural service delivery The challenges of service delivery in rural areas are deeply intertwined with the phenomenon of depopulation. Poor governance, resource mismanagement, and minimal community participation have contributed to persistent service delivery failures (Meijer, 2018). These issues are often more pronounced in rural municipalities, where limited administrative capacity and corruption further erode public trust and government accountability. Inadequate infrastructure and lack of basic services, such as water, electricity, and healthcare, intensify dissatisfaction among rural residents, compelling many to seek better living conditions in urban areas (Banerjee et al., 2012; Crisp et al., 2012). This migratory trend, in turn, reduces the rural tax base, exacerbating financial and resource constraints for municipalities (Tacoli et al., 2015). Moreover, limited community engagement in decision-making processes fosters disconnection, as development plans fail to address the specific needs of rural populations. In addition to governance and resource challenges, rural service delivery is further compounded by the geographic isolation of many rural areas. The vast distances between communities and urban centres create logistical difficulties in delivering services efficiently, particularly in regions with underdeveloped transportation networks (Njwambe et al., 2019). This isolation does not only hinder access to essential services like healthcare and education, but it also limits economic opportunities and job creation, reinforcing the cycle of rural depopulation (Njwambe et al., 2019). Furthermore, rural areas often face difficulties in attracting skilled professionals, such as doctors, teachers, and technicians, due to limited career prospects and lower salaries, contributing to a persistent shortage of qualified personnel (Rose and van Rensburg-Bonthuyzen, 2015). International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 420 ISDS www.isdsnet.com These compounded challenges not only affect the immediate well-being of rural inhabitants but also undermine long-term development prospects, leading to a deeper socio-economic divide between rural and urban areas. Addressing these issues requires multi-faceted approaches that can integrate improved governance, infrastructure investment, and greater community involvement in the planning and execution of service delivery programs. 3.5. Spatial inequalities and service gaps in rural areas: the south african context Research highlights that South Africa’s rural-urban divide continues to be a prominent legacy of apartheid-era spatial planning. The underdeveloped rural homelands, established during this time, still suffer from significant service delivery deficits, particularly in healthcare, education, and infrastructure, perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality (Miya, 2018). Provinces like the Eastern Cape and Limpopo face critical challenges in meeting basic needs, contributing to high child mortality rates and low educational outcomes, which further entrench socio-economic disparities (Mfumu, 2024). These deficiencies in services leave rural populations disproportionately vulnerable and unable to access opportunities for upward mobility. The healthcare system, for instance, remains skewed, with a mere 12% of the nation's medical professionals working in rural areas, despite these regions accounting for nearly half of the country's population (Mfumu, ibid). Additionally, poor transportation networks limit rural residents' ability to participate in the economy, exacerbating unemployment and stifling local development (Chikengezha and Thebe, 2022). Furthermore, these spatial disparities drive rural depopulation, especially among younger individuals seeking better prospects in urban centres. The absence of essential infrastructure, such as schools and healthcare facilities, significantly diminishes the quality of life in rural areas and weakens their long-term viability. As young people leave in search of opportunities, rural areas lose their most dynamic and productive members, resulting in a further decline in economic activity and reinforcing the neglect faced by these regions. This migration, coupled with the lack of development, continues to deepen the spatial inequalities between rural and urban areas, leaving rural communities increasingly marginalized and underdeveloped. 3.6. Historical marginalization of rural areas in policy and resource distribution Existing literature shows that the colonial and apartheid policies systematically marginalized South Africa's rural areas, confining black communities to under-resourced homelands. The 1913 Natives Land Act, which restricted land ownership to 13% of the country, entrenched rural underdevelopment and inequities (Seroto, 2004). Despite post-apartheid efforts like the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) and Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP), progress has been hampered by corruption, inefficiencies, and poor intergovernmental coordination (Mkhutshulwa, 2017). Additionally, land reform efforts, central to rural economic revitalization, have faced slow implementation and limited impact, leaving many rural residents without secure land tenure or access to productive resources (Lahiff, 2007). These structural constraints have left rural areas increasingly vulnerable to poverty and outmigration, further deepening their economic and social marginalization. This persistent stagnation underscores the need for more targeted and transparent policy interventions that address the historical roots of rural deprivation. Furthermore, the inability to effectively tackle these structural challenges has contributed to outmigration, as rural residents seek better opportunities in urban International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 ISDS www.isdsnet.com 421 centres, exacerbating rural depopulation and reinforcing the cycle of poverty and neglect. This highlights the critical need for cohesive, accountable governance to bridge the historical divide and promote equitable rural development. 3.7. Trends in rural depopulation in South Africa (2001–2023) Table 1 illustrates the steady decline in South Africa’s rural population over two decades. Table 1. Trends in Rural depopulation in South Africa Year Rural Depopulation Percentage of total population 2001 20,134,972 42.63% 2011 19,537,236 37.25% 2021 19,096,392 32.15% 2023 18,837,844 31.18% Source: Compiled by author (Adapted from Stats SA, 2024) Table 1 shows a clear decline in South Africa’s rural population from 2001 to 2023 highlights significant socio-economic and environmental challenges. In 2001, the rural population was approximately 20.13 million, accounting for 42.63% of the total population. By 2023, this had dropped to 18.84 million, representing only 31.18%. This trend demonstrates the ongoing rural-to-urban migration driven by economic, social, and environmental factors, as highlighted by Mlambo, (2018); Aliber and Hart (2009); and Mthiyane et al. (2022). This simply implies that rural depopulation in South Africa reflects broader structural inequalities. While urbanization has its benefits, neglecting rural areas risks perpetuating inequalities and undermining sustainable development. Policymakers must adopt comprehensive strategies that address the root causes of rural depopulation, balancing urban and rural development to ensure equitable progress across the country. 3.8. The role of community-driven approaches in sustaining services 3.8.1. Grassroots initiatives to maintain local infrastructure and services Community-driven approaches have been pivotal in sustaining services in South Africa's rural areas, especially amid the challenges of shrinking populations. Primarily, local rural communities often organize grassroots initiatives to address service delivery gaps left by limited government intervention (Human Sciences Research Council, 2020; Mnguni and Mdiniso, 2024). Recent studies highlight the pivotal role of cooperatives and self- help groups in managing small-scale water projects, maintaining rural schools, and supporting basic healthcare delivery in South Africa. For instance, Alam, (2022) argues that community-based organizations have effectively managed local water resources, leading to improved access and sustainability. Similarly, research by Desai, and Joshi (2014). argues that self-help groups have been instrumental in maintaining and enhancing the quality of education in rural schools through collective efforts and resource mobilization. In the healthcare sector, Majee et al. (2015) report that community cooperatives have International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 422 ISDS www.isdsnet.com successfully supported basic healthcare delivery by organizing health awareness campaigns and facilitating access to medical services in underserved rural areas. These efforts promote a sense of ownership and collective responsibility among residents, which is vital in areas with limited public resources. However, as noted by The World Bank (2021), the sustainability of such initiatives hinges on external support in the form of training, financial resources, and access to technical expertise. Without these, the burden on communities becomes unsustainable, exacerbating outmigration and further weakening the viability of rural settlements. 3.8.2. Collaborative approaches to strengthening rural resilience Recent academic research continues to emphasize the importance of collaboration among governments, NGOs, and local communities in tackling rural depopulation and ensuring sustainable service delivery in South Africa. For instance, Phiri (2023) and Sikombe et al. (2024) highlights the success of public-private partnerships in agriculture. Hereon it is argued that these initiatives can improve rural farmers' livelihoods through access to markets, adoption of modern farming technologies, and skills development. Similarly, the Rural Education Access Programme (REAP) remains pivotal in addressing educational disparities, as highlighted by Mabaso et al. (2023) in the South African Education Review. REAP’s scholarship programs and mentorship initiatives have enabled rural youth to access higher education opportunities, fostering upward mobility and reducing migration pressures. In a 2023 report by the Centre for Rural Development and Innovation it is emphasized that integrating local knowledge with external resources enhances the adaptability of rural communities to external shocks, such as economic downturns or environmental crises. These collaborative models, particularly in areas with dwindling populations, address structural challenges while fostering conditions that retain residents and promote long-term sustainability. 4. Conclusions The phenomenon of rural depopulation is deeply rooted in structural inequalities and historical neglect. As people migrate to urban areas in pursuit of better economic opportunities, rural communities are left with shrinking populations that primarily consist of older residents. This demographic imbalance exacerbates service delivery challenges, as healthcare, education, and public transport systems become economically unviable in these areas. The diminished tax base further compounds the issue, creating a feedback loop of declining services and continued outmigration. One central theme across the paper is the concept of spatial justice, which offers a powerful lens to analyse these challenges. Spatial Justice Theory emphasizes that equitable access to services should not be determined solely by population density or market viability but should account for the structural disadvantages faced by rural communities. This perspective challenges conventional approaches to resource allocation, advocating for policies that prioritize equity and resilience in service delivery. Another critical insight is the role of innovative solutions in bridging service gaps. Telemedicine, e-learning platforms, and mobile service units are promising tools for overcoming geographic barriers. These technologies can ensure that even sparsely populated areas retain access to critical services. However, their International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 ISDS www.isdsnet.com 423 implementation requires significant investment in digital and physical infrastructure, alongside capacity- building initiatives to empower communities to utilize these tools effectively. Economic revitalization is another essential component of addressing rural depopulation. Diversifying rural economies through investments in small-scale industries, agro-processing, and eco-tourism can create employment opportunities and encourage population retention. Public-private partnerships and incentives for businesses and professionals to operate in rural areas can further stimulate local economies. The discussions also highlight the importance of community-driven approaches. Grassroots initiatives, participatory planning, and local governance are vital for ensuring that development strategies align with the unique needs of rural communities. Empowering these communities to take ownership of their development fosters resilience and sustainability. Despite these promising solutions, the discussions reveal significant gaps in policy implementation and governance. A lack of intergovernmental coordination, inadequate funding, and historical neglect have left rural areas vulnerable to depopulation. Addressing these gaps requires a paradigm shift in policy and governance, with a focus on transparency, accountability, and long-term planning. In conclusion, rural depopulation is not merely a demographic issue but a manifestation of deeper systemic inequalities. Tackling this challenge requires a holistic approach that combines innovative service delivery, economic revitalization, and community empowerment, guided by the principles of spatial justice. By adopting inclusive, equitable, and evidence-based strategies, policymakers can mitigate the impacts of depopulation and ensure the sustainability of rural communities. 5. Recommendations To address rural depopulation and sustain essential services, the paper recommends several strategies. First, governments must adopt spatially just policies by prioritizing spatial equity in resource allocation. This involves ensuring rural communities receive adequate support regardless of population density. Policies should target long-term sustainability by addressing the unique challenges of rural areas rather than focusing solely on economic viability. Investing in infrastructure and technology is also crucial. Expanding digital infrastructure can enable telemedicine, e-learning, and remote work. Additionally, improving transportation networks will help connect rural areas with urban centres, facilitating better access to healthcare, education, and markets. Promoting economic diversification is another key recommendation. Local industries such as agro- processing, eco-tourism, and renewable energy can revitalize rural economies. Financial incentives, tax breaks, and support for small businesses can encourage investment and create job opportunities. Collaboration through public-private partnerships can further these efforts. Private organizations can co-invest in infrastructure and innovate service delivery models. Businesses should also be encouraged to undertake Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects that benefit rural communities. Strengthening community participation is essential to ensure policies align with local needs. Involving residents in decision-making processes and empowering grassroots organizations and cooperatives can foster social cohesion and community-led development. Innovating service delivery models can help address access gaps. Mobile units for healthcare, education, and government services, as well as telemedicine and online International Journal of Development and Sustainability Vol. 14 No. 5 (2025): 413-428 424 ISDS www.isdsnet.com education platforms, should be expanded. Decentralized service models can ensure equitable resource distribution across rural areas. Programs tailored to address the needs of aging populations should also be prioritized. Accessible healthcare and transportation services, along with training healthcare professionals in geriatric care and deploying them to rural areas, can enhance support for older adults. Enhancing rural education systems is another vital step. Rural schools require adequate staffing, resources, and access to modern learning tools. Incentives to retain teachers and students, as well as targeted scholarships, can strengthen rural education. Monitoring and evaluating progress are critical for ensuring the effectiveness of these policies. Robust monitoring frameworks and data-driven approaches can help assess impacts and identify areas for improvement. Finally, rural areas should be marketed as desirable places to live and work. Emphasizing their cultural and environmental appeal, along with offering housing incentives, youth programs, and skill-building workshops, can attract younger populations and promote rural attractiveness. References Alabdali, S.A., Pileggi, S.F. and Cetindamar, D. 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