Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect 

Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cresp 

Exploring the impact of the pandemic on the relationship between 

individual types and the natural environment: the role of mortality 

concerns 

Andrea Marais-Potgieter ∗ , Andrew Thatcher 

Department of Psychology, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, Private Bag 3, 2050 

a r t i c l e i n f o 

Keywords: 

Environmental threats 

Human-nature nexus 

Pandemic 

Terror management theory 

Worldviews 

Natural environment 

Environmental attitudes 

Environmental perceptions 

a b s t r a c t 

COVID-19 is a global event that has impacted every individual on earth in some way and can be viewed as a 

mortality salience trigger. Although there were reports of increased nature exposure across the world, research 

is needed to understand whether the pandemic event impacted the underlying psychology of the human-nature 

nexus. Given the likelihood of pandemics and environmental challenges increasing in frequency in the future, 

there is a need for a deeper understanding of how pandemics impact individuals’ relationship with the natural 

environment in South Africa. To achieve this, the study applied psychological types (grouping individuals based 

on homogeneity) to explore potential shifts as human nature is neither fixed, nor universal. The study asked: 

Given the multiple significant impacts of COVID-19 on the African continent, how have perceptions and attitudes 

towards the natural environment changed within and between types of individuals from 2016 (pre COVID) to 

2021 (COVID) in South Africa? In a longitudinal, quantitative study, separate samples 721 in 2016 and 665 

in 2021 were obtained. Participants in 2021 were grouped into the same six types using the same criteria, for 

comparison with the 2016 data. The results showed limited potential for pandemics to act as catalysts for long- 

term individual change towards increased pro-environmentalism. The study confirmed the main tenets of Terror 

Management Theory that individuals tend to be driven to uphold worldviews when confronted with mortality. 

Furthermore, there was a reduced experience of personal control over outcomes that increased reliance on sources 

of control outside the self as an attempt to buffer against mortality concerns. The study contributes towards Terror 

Management Theory’s application during pandemics, and how that relates to individual environmental attitudes 

and perceptions. 

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. Introduction 

Individual psychological distance from the environmental crisis has

ed humanity to a choice of either addressing our dysfunctional rela-

ionship with the natural environment or experiencing runaway cli-

ate change and ultimately societal collapse ( Spence et al., 2012 ;

cDonald et al., 2015 ). Psychological research is imperative to inform

nd address the relationship between individuals and environmental

ssues such as climate change ( Saunders et al., 2005 ; Clayton et al.,

015 ; Inauen et al., 2021 ). Environmental action is impacted by individ-

al characteristics such as attitudes, perceptions ( Lorenzoni and Whit-

arsh, 2014 ), worldviews ( Fisher, 2013 ), and mortality salience linked

o individual trait responses ( Arndt and Solomon, 2003 ; Wolfe and

ubi, 2018 ). Mortality salience refers to the increased awareness of one’s

wn mortality that can be triggered by reminders of death, such as those

xperienced during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Greenfield et al., 2021 ). 
∗ Corresponding author. 

E-mail address: andrea@plunge.co.za (A. Marais-Potgieter) . 

ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.cresp.2023.100096 

eceived 1 November 2022; Received in revised form 27 January 2023; Accepted 9 M

666-6227/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access 

 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ) 
The pandemic can be seen as a traumatic event that had the potential

o rupture the existential path of individuals ( Tomaszek and Muchacka-

ymerman, 2020 ) due to it functioning as a strong trigger for mortality

alience ( Pyszczynski et al., 2021 ). Singla et al. (2021) found that the

andemic was a transformative process for individuals due to increased

elf-awareness impacting moral values, empathy, and a sense of per-

onal and behavioral responsibility. According to research conducted by

vers et al. (2021) values are able to change rapidly during a collective

risis, and in the case of their study they observed increased collective

alues, rather than individualistic ones during the COVID-19 pandemic

seen by the instant collective response to the George Floyd incident,

ee Cappelli, 2020 ). 

There is a need to understand the pandemic’s influence on the

uman-nature nexus that relates to the affective relationship between

ndividuals and the natural environment. This study explored whether

 shift in the individual-nature nexus took place between 2016 and 2021
arch 2023 

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A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

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mongst different individual types of people treating the pandemic as a

ortality salience trigger. In this paper we build a research framework

iscussing the human-nature nexus, mortality salience, and how these

oncepts relate to the COVID-19 pandemic. The concept of type psychol-

gy is introduced, and the six types used in this study are explained. Our

ethods, procedure and materials discussion sections are followed by a

resentation and discussion of significant results at an overall and per

ype level. Finally, we discuss study limitations and ideas for future re-

earch. 

.1. Relationship between types of individuals and the natural environment 

As a result of the complex human-nature nexus, individual charac-

eristics and environmental challenges have a mutually reinforcing rela-

ionship. Individual attitudes and behaviours, such as having one fewer

hild, living car-free, avoiding airplane travel, and eating a plant-based

iet, are highly effective to reduce an individual’s impact on the natural

nvironment ( Wynes and Nicholas, 2017 ), but far too few people en-

age in these behaviors ( Steg and Vlek, 2009 ; Ertz and Sarigöllü, 2019 ;

ampedi and Ifegbesan, 2022 ). 

The development of individual types is a pragmatic approach to

nderstand the key differences and similarities between individuals

egarding their attitudes that drive perceptions and subsequent be-

aviors, while not ignoring the complexity inherent in human na-

ure ( Doty and Glick, 1994 ; Fiss, 2011 ). Types can be constructed

n a micro (individual) or macro (cultural) level ( McKinney, 1969 ).

ary Douglas was one of the seminal researchers in type work, based

n her cultural theory, and she developed types based on how indi-

iduals perceive risk based on social aspects and cultural adherence

 Thompson, 1980 ). The types included the Individualistic where na-

ure is experienced as benevolent and full of potential, Egalitarian

hat perceived nature is fragile, Hierarchical in which nature is per-

erse/tolerant, and Fatalistic that experienced nature as unpredictable

 Douglas and Wildavsky, 1982 ; Oltedal et al., 2004 ). Since then, the

eld of type psychology has expanded rapidly with more individu-

lised understandings of the human-nature nexus that has included vari-

bles such as beliefs, values, worldviews, attitudes, religion, etc. (e.g.,

efra, 2008 ; Leiserowitz et al., 2009 ; Poortinga and Darnton, 2016 ;

ernstein and Szuster, 2018 ; MacDonald et al., 2019 ). The study by

eiserowitz et al. (2009) explored the human-nature nexus by look-

ng at beliefs about global warming, associated risk perceptions, behav-

or, traits, relationship to information and policy. They identified six

ypes namely the: Alarmed, Concerned, Cautious, Disengaged, Doubt-

ul, and Dismissive ( Leiserowitz et al., 2009 ). Other studies have used

ype psychology to explain climate change beliefs ( Hall et al., 2018 ),

eliefs about biodiversity and ecosystems ( Buijs et al., 2008 ), pro-

nvironmental behavior ( MacDonald et al., 2019 ), relationships with

nimals ( Teel and Manfredo, 2010 ), and the relationship between in-

ividuals and the natural environment ( Bernstein and Szuster, 2018 ).

ype research could provide a deeper understanding of different indi-

idual characteristics that influence how they perceive risk and react to

ortality threats. 

.2. Terror management theory and the human-nature nexus 

Terror Management Theory (TMT) was developed by social psychol-

gists Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon, and Tom Pyszczynski in the

980 ′ s ( Pyszczynski, et al., 2015 ). It draws on the work of cultural an-

hropologist Ernest Becker’s ideas about the relationship between mean-

ng in life, cultural beliefs, self-esteem, and how these coalesce to in-

uence anxiety about one’s mortality ( Becker, 1973 ). TMT posits that

umans have a unique and innate need for self-preservation and there-

ore engage in behaviors to help manage existential terror related to

he, generally unconscious, awareness of death ( Greenberg et al., 1986 ;

olomon et al., 1991 ). This terror of death is largely repressed until
2 
ade salient ( Solomon et al., 1991 ). Mortality salience is a fear that in-

uences thoughts, affect, and behavior using a range of psychological

echanisms ( Solomon et al., 2015 ). Therefore, TMT deals with death-

nxiety that is the general fear or anxiety related to the thought of one’s

wn death ( Rosenblatt et al., 1989 ) which is different to death uncer-

ainty that is focused on the lack of certainty about a particular situa-

ion or outcome typically observed in patients with advanced diseases

 Mishel, 1999 ). Death uncertainty has been found to interact with hope

n advanced lung cancer patients where they hold onto hope indirectly

uch as leaving a legacy or holding onto values ( Borneman et al., 2014 ).

eath uncertainty evolves over time ( Wright et al., 2009 ) whereas

eath-anxiety exists regardless of whether individuals are chronically

ll or not ( Rosenblatt et al., 1989 ). Studies related to death-anxiety have

hown that moral principles, as part of psychological structures, assist

o reduce anxiety about death ( Rosenblatt et al., 1989 ; Greenberg et al.,

997 ). 

.2.1. Self-esteem and cultural worldviews 

The mechanisms of self-esteem and cultural worldviews act as

nxiety buffers against existential threat ( Greenberg et al., 1997 ). A

ultural worldview is a symbolic understanding of reality that at-

ributes order, perpetuity, and constancy to the world. A sense of per-

onal value and immortality can be achieved by following cultural

uidelines ( Pyszczynski et al., 1999 ). Self-esteem is the knowledge

hat one is meeting the standards inherent in one’s cultural world-

iew ( Pyszczynski et al., 1999 ). The anxiety-buffer hypothesis pro-

oses that increased self-esteem or faith in one’s cultural worldview

educes anxiety and related behavior in response to mortality threats

 Greenberg et al., 1997 ). The mortality salience hypothesis posits that

hen psychological mechanisms provide protection against the terror

f one’s mortality, then mortality reminders would increase the desire

o maintain these mechanisms ( Greenberg et al., 1997 ). 

When people are reminded of their own mortality, their attachment

o their cultural worldviews is enhanced triggering the terror manage-

ent effect ( Solomon et al., 1991 ). The range of mortality salience ef-

ects include in-group bias and prejudice against out-groups, aggression,

rosocial behavior, social unanimity, striving for belonging and unique-

ess, meeting cultural standards of value, and avoidance of self-focused

ttention ( Greenberg et al., 1997 ). The buffering mechanism of cultural

orldviews to protect individuals from anxiety about death was first

emonstrated in studies by Rosenblatt et al. (1989) that showed that

hen mortality salience is activated, people are encouraged to main-

ain their cultural-anxiety buffer and therefore are likely to be punitive

owards those that oppose their worldviews, and are munificent towards

hose that uphold it. 

.2.2. Individual traits and mortality salience 

Individual traits moderate mortality salience effects. Individuals

ho are high in authoritarianism responded to mortality salience

ith increased prejudice against those who have different attitudes

 Greenberg et al., 1990 ; Motyl et al., 2010 ). Depressed individuals tend

o defend their worldview more intensely when mortality is made salient

ecause of their fragile relationship with cultural worldviews and self-

steem ( Greenberg et al., 1997 ). Arndt and Solomon (2003) found that

hen mortality salience is activated, individuals high in neuroticism

ave a decreased need for personal control compared to those low in

euroticism who report an increased need for personal control indicat-

ng the complex relationship between mortality salience and individual

raits. 

.2.3. Proximal and distal defenses 

The dual-process model in TMT deals with the proximal or distal

ature of defenses based on the accessible conscious and unconscious

eminders of mortality ( Pyszczynski et al., 1999 ). The mechanisms em-

loyed aim to manage the fear of death that is overwhelming and dis-

urbing, and to maintain psychological equanimity. Proximal defenses



A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

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Table 1 

Summary of key differences between types. 

Type Summary of key differences 

Disconnected type Poorly connected to nature 

Lacked an environmental worldview 

Apathetic 

Survivalist 

Uncommitted type Moderate concern about the natural environment 

Concern about animal exploitation and extinction 

Reduced sense of personal accountability 

Alarmed type Moderate-high affective relationship with the natural 

environment 

Low-moderate apathy 

Perceived urgency in both environmental and animal issues 

Believer type Affective relationship to the natural environment 

contrasted with their dominant social paradigm 

Belief in human ingenuity through technology to solve 

environmental and animal issues 

Shift responsibility for issues to future generations 

Concerned type Closest relationship with the natural environment 

Strongest environmental worldview 

Pleasure-seeker type Weak affective relationship with the natural environment 

Low environmental worldview 

Not concerned about environmental issues 

Individuals not responsibility for environment issues 

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re logical, deal with conscious reminders of morality, repress, create

ognitive distortions, or deny thoughts, tend to occur directly after the

nduction of mortality salience, and do not get activated by subliminal

eath stimuli ( Pyszczynski et al., 1999 ). Distal defenses are experiential

n nature, activated by the implicit knowledge of death, occur after a

istraction from mortality salience, but immediately in response to sub-

iminal death stimuli, and embed the person as a valuable member of

n eternal immortal reality ( Pyszczynski et al., 1999 ). 

Global crises such as natural disasters, wars, and pandemics are

eath cues that emphasize individual mortality. The COVID-19 pan-

emic made mortality highly salient with an onslaught of fear-inducing

nformation, combined with potential personal threats such as loss of

ncome, and lack of social contact, making it difficult for individuals

o manage the terror of death ( Pyszczynski et al., 2021 ). This had an

mpact on both proximal and distal defenses. Proximally the pandemic

ncreased death anxiety through explicit awareness of personal vulner-

bility, while undermining distal defenses that hampered the anxiety-

uffering mechanism that people would typically use to defend against

ortality threats ( Pyszczynski et al., 2021 ). The contrasting impacts of

he pandemic was that the behaviors that would reduce personal vul-

erability, impeded the ability of individuals to find meaning and self-

steem in their lives ( Pyszczynski et al., 2021 ). 

.2.4. Mortality salience and human-nature nexus 

Research has shown that mortality salience impacts the relation-

hip between individuals and the natural environment by, for ex-

mple, increasing exploitation and consumption of natural resources

 Kasser and Sheldon, 2000 ). Combined with self-esteem it increased ma-

erialism ( Rahimah et al., 2020 ), impacted consumer choices ( Akil et al.,

018 ), created a reduced connection to non-humans ( Goldenberg et al.,

001 ), increased climate change denial ( Dickinson, 2009 ), was capa-

le of both limiting as well as advancing climate action ( Wolfe and

ubi, 2018 ), impacted pro-environmental behavior based on norm

alience ( Fritsche et al., 2010 ), reduced motivation to protect the natu-

al environment for its intrinsic value ( Fritsche and Häfner, 2012 ), and

mpacted environmental concern depending on whether or not the nat-

ral environment was a source of self-esteem ( Vess and Arndt, 2008 ).

or a systematic review of TMT and nature/ environmental research

ee Smith et al. (2022) . From a TMT perspective the pandemic can be

reated as a mortality reminder (Pyszczynski et al., 2021; Evers et al.,

021 ). The pandemic provided an opportunity for the exploration of

ortality salience in relation to the relationship between individuals

nd the natural environment. 

.3. The pandemic and the human-nature nexus 

Although not mortality salience studies per se, research conducted

uring the pandemic explored the relationship between individuals

nd nature. The pandemic impacted nature activities based on “Nur-

ure and Recreation ” values and “Inspiration and Nourishment ” val-

es. ( Morse et al., 2020 ). The pandemic also had a positive impact

n the relationship between intention and pro-environmental behavior

 Zebardast and Radaei, 2022 ), and increased environmental awareness

ependent on the belief that the pandemic was caused by human in-

rusion into nature ( Daryanto et al., 2022 ). An exploratory study by

aasova, et al. (2020) showed a relationship between connectedness

ith nature, individual representations, behavioral tendencies, and the

erceived impact of the pandemic on one’s life and the lives of oth-

rs. According to Lucarelli et al. (2020) , there were no differences in

nvironmental intentions or pro-environmental behavior prior to and

ollowing COVID-19. A study by Stahl (2022) suggested that increased

nteractions with nature did not correspond to an increase in human-

ature connection during COVID-19. As a result of this inconsistency

n findings, it is likely that the impact of the pandemic on the nexus

etween humans and nature requires further investigation. 
3 
.4. The current study 

This study extends previous work done on the human-nature nexus

n South Africa that identified six types of human-nature relation-

hips in 2016 through K-means cluster analysis ( Marais-Potgieter and

hatcher, 2020 ). Table 1 provides a summary of the main differences

etween the Disconnected, Uncommitted, Alarmed, Believer, Concerned

nd Pleasure-seeker types. 

COVID-19 had multiple significant impacts on mortality beliefs with

educed hospital beds, lower GDP, diabetes as a co-morbidity, and

igher average age being significant risk factors for mortality on differ-

nt continents ( Zahid and Perna, 2021 ), 9.1% of the population in sub-

aharan Africa being plunged into extreme poverty, and 31.8 million

eople severely food deprived after an 8-week lockdown ( Teachout and

ipfel, 2020 ), food security impacts due to reduced seed availabil-

ty, reduced labor, finance, and farm input access ( Nchanji and Lu-

omia, 2021 ), mental health related to anxiety, depression and post-

raumatic stress disorders ( Semo and Frissa, 2020 ), gender-based do-

estic poly-violence ( Nduna and Tshona, 2021 ), and litter which am-

lified three times as lockdowns were alleviated ( Ryan et al., 2020 ) on

he African continent. Given these broad social and individual impacts,

his study asked how the individual types’ perceptions and attitudes to-

ards the natural environment have changed from 2016 (pre COVID)

o 2021 (COVID) in South Africa. 

Although there are various criticisms leveled against TMT by Martin

nd van den Bos (2014) and responded to by Pyszczynski et al. (2015) ,

his study aimed to add to existing TMT literature related to critique

egarding applicability across cultures, and that the theory aims to ex-

lain the smorgasbord of human behavior. Our study aimed to extend

he theory’s applicability to South Africa (rather than mostly in western,

ducated, industrialized, rich, democratic countries), and more specifi-

ally to individual relationships with the natural environment. Further-

ore, by applying individual types to understand shifts, it expands TMT

o include individual worldviews. 

. Method 

Two surveys were conducted online. One pre-pandemic in 2016 and

nother during the pandemic in 2021 in South Africa. The purpose of

he 2016 study was to develop types to understand the relationship that

ndividuals have with the biosphere in South Africa forming a base for

urther exploration in 2021. 



A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

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.1. Participants 

Convenience sampling was used that is a non-probability sampling

echnique where individuals participate based on their accessibility and

illingness to participate ( Creswell, 2018 ). Due to the data gathering

ethod, the sample included mainly urban, literate individuals with In-

ernet access, and was likely to include individuals with higher carbon

ootprints (rural and those with reduced incomes are likely to lack desk-

op internet access), but potentially excluded those living in remote ru-

al areas or informal urban settlements. No criteria were set regarding

nclusion to obtain the maximum variation possible. 721 respondents

ere retained for analysis in 2016 and 655 in 2021. The sample from

021 was post-weighted by age, gender, and ethnicity to match the de-

ographic profile of 2016 to compare the two study periods. The partic-

pants were not the same individuals in 2021 as in 2016, but they were

rouped into the same types based on their responses to the survey. 

.2. Procedure 

For both studies social media marketing was used to invite individ-

als across South Africa (no limitations were placed on areas) to par-

icipate. Invitations were made through an advertising banner placed

n Facebook. Using social media as a recruitment tool is becoming in-

reasingly popular ( Topolovec-Vranic and Natarajan, 2016 ). Social me-

ia have a wide reach, with Facebook being the fourth most visited site

n South Africa according to Alexa.com (American web traffic analysis

rganization), with 21 million users ( Pienaar, 2018 ). A risk of Facebook

ecruitment is cross-participant communication ( Gelinas et al., 2017 ).

his possible risk was managed by switching off the comment function

n the Facebook invitation. An online survey tool (Alida) was used to

eploy the participant information sheet and survey. Individuals could

ither scroll past, or click on the banner to be directed to the participant

nformation sheet. If participants agreed to participate, they were guided

o the online questionnaire battery. Questionnaires and questions were

otated. Data quality was checked and duplicate information removed

rom the data set, and all those with identical responses across items

ere removed. A lucky draw, as a separate survey option, was offered

s compensation for their time. The fieldwork took place between 26

ebruary and 31 May in 2016 and 21 May and 10 June in 2021. Due

o anonymity, matching participants between 2016 and 2021 was not

ossible. 

.3. Materials 

.3.1. The environmental issues and attitudes questionnaire (EIAQ) 

To understand environmental awareness, attitudes, and concern

he EIAQ was self-developed to include global concerns (i.e., climate

hange) and issues specific to South Africa (i.e., canned lion hunting).

he sections included ratings of environmental and animal (awareness,

oncerns, and accountability) and general attitudes. 

The awareness sections explored environmental and animal issues

here 1 = I am now less aware (where an individual might have stopped

ollowing latest developments on an issue) than before to 3 = I am more

ware than before. The concerns sections explored environmental and

nimal issues (e.g. biodiversity loss; vivisection), from 1 = Not at all con-

erned to 5 = Extremely concerned. The accountability sections asked

he extent to which participants felt they had control over the items,

rom 1 = I have no control over this to 3 = I have a direct impact. Atti-

udes explored, for example, whether participants believed individuals

ould contribute to a better environment or it is government’s respon-

ibility, from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree. The 3-point

cales were used based on need for simplicity, less cognitive burden,

ore accurate categorical data versus the 5-point scales which were

sed in instances were more granularity was required, and a greater

ange of measurement was needed (for an analysis see Joshi et al.,

015 ). 
4 
Varimax (orthogonal) rotation factor analysis was conducted on the

IAQ in 2016 to determine underlying dimensions in the data for fur-

her analysis. The environmental concern subscale yielded four factors

shown as 𝛼 = 2016 and 2021): human-centric ( 𝛼 = 0.781 and 0.813),

limate-centric ( 𝛼 = 0.816 and 0.855), resource-centric ( 𝛼 = 0.737 and

.829), and science-centric ( 𝛼 = 0.643 and 0.704). The animal concern

ubscale yielded two factors (shown as 𝛼 = 2016 and 2021): animal ex-

loitation ( 𝛼 = 0.890 and 0.874) and animal extinction ( 𝛼 = 0.886 and

.875). The attitudes subscale had five factors (shown as 𝛼 = 2016 and

021): shifting responsibility ( 𝛼 = 0.896 and 0.914), individual contri-

ution ( 𝛼 = 0.703 and 0.689), government’s responsibility ( 𝛼 = 0.810

nd 0.808), technological solutions ( 𝛼 = 0.815 and 0.854), and apathetic

ttitudes ( 𝛼 = 0.712 and 0.811). The EIAQ appeared to have sufficient

ace validity (that it measures what it was intended to measure) based

n the self-explanatory nature of the items. 

.3.2. The connectedness to nature scale (CNS) 

Measuring affect allows for the understanding of the underlying

motional processes that impact environmental attitudes and percep-

ions. Affect in the form of empathy impacts the relationship between

ertain personality traits and connectedness to nature ( Di Fabio and

enny, 2021 ). The CNS ( Mayer and Frantz, 2004 ) measured these as-

ects as connectedness to nature using 14 items that included feelings

uch as a sense of community, egalitarianism, and belongingness to na-

ure. Participants responded on a 5-point scale, where 1 = strongly dis-

gree and 5 = strongly agree. The test–retest reliability was r = 0.79

 Mayer and Frantz, 2004 ). In 2016 the Cronbach 𝛼 = 0.826 and in 2021

= 0.825. 

.3.3. The new ecological paradigm scale (NEP) 

Worldviews represent an individual’s inner experience of the outer

orld ( Dunlap, 2008 ). The NEP was selected based on its extensive

se for measuring environmental worldviews, and use in emerging

conomies ( Hawcroft and Milfont, 2010 ). It used 15 items to determine

he ecological paradigm (8 items) versus the dominant social paradigm

7 items) ( Dunlap, 2008 ). Participants responded on a 5-point scale,

here 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. In 2016 Cronbach

= 0.726 and in 2021 𝛼 = 0.737. 

.4. Ethical considerations 

Ethical clearance (number H15/11/15 and H21/03/14) was granted

rom the University of the Witwatersrand’s Human Research Ethics Com-

ittee. The participant information sheet contained detailed informa-

ion about the study and contact details of the lead researcher should

articipants have any questions before participating. Participation was

oluntary. All records were anonymised. 

.5. Data analysis 

For the EIAQ, CNS and NEP scales, respondents who had identical

esponses across all items in a question batch were excluded. For the

IAQ environment and animal subscales, responses of ‘no opinion’ were

ecoded as ‘ not at all concerned’. For the EIAQ attitudes subscales, re-

ponses of ‘don’t know’ were recoded as ‘neither agree/disagree’. The

nal subscales were formed by averaging the scores of the items mak-

ng up the subscale. 

For 2021, respondents were classified into one of six types

ased on a discriminant analysis model developed in 2016 ( Marais-

otgieter, 2020 ). The seven scales used for the discriminant analysis

odel to group individuals into a type were connectedness to nature,

nd the EIAQ shifting responsibility, individual contribution, apathetic

ttitudes, human-centric, resource-centric, and science-centric. Respon-

ents who did not have scores for one or more of the seven scales used

o classify respondents into a type were excluded. Appendix 1 shows the

emographics between study periods and that there were no significant



A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

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Table 2 

Overall and type shifts between 2016 and 2021. 

ENVIRONMENTAL 

AWARENESS 

Overall 

2016 2021 

n 721 665 

% % p 

More aware 65.1 ∗ 58.2 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.11) Same aware 28.6 ∗ 36.1 ∗ 

Less aware 2.6 4.1 

I don’t know 3.7 1.5 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Concerned 

2016 2021 

n 170 153 

M M p 

Climate-centric 4.4 

(3.8–4.6) 

4.6 

(4.0–5.0) 

< 0.00 ∗ 

( r = 0.22) 

Pleasure-seeker 

2016 2021 

n 76 93 

M M p 

Resource-centric 3.5 

(2.8–4.0) 

2.8 

(2.5–3.5) 

< 0.00 

( r = 0.28) ∗ 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 

ACCOUNTABILITY 

Overall 

2016 2021 

n 677 587 

% % p 

Water scarcity 

Direct impact 37.4 ∗ 27.1 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.14) Small impact 42.5 43.3 

No control 19.7 ∗ 27.6 ∗ 

I don’t know 0.4 2.0 

n 562 502 

Climate change 

Direct impact 10.5 ∗ 15.6 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.11) Small impact 35.1 ∗ 40.6 ∗ 

No control 48.6 ∗ 39.5 ∗ 

I don’t know 5.9 4.2 

n 631 541 

Natural resource depletion 

Direct impact 26.6 ∗ 17.5 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.11) Small impact 41.8 4.,9 

No control 28.1 32.9 

I don’t know 3.5 3.7 

n 483 435 

Over consumption 

Direct impact 45.1 ∗ 29.5 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.18) Small impact 40.2 ∗ 53.9 ∗ 

No control 13.0 15.6 

I don’t know 1.7 1.0 

n 353 388 

Natural disasters 

Direct impact 4.3 8.5 < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.18) Small impact 8.2 ∗ 17.8 ∗ 

No control 82.7 ∗ 71.0 ∗ 

I don’t know 4.8 2.8 

( continued on next page ) 
ifferences between surveys within any of the types for age, gender, or

thnicity. There was a significant, weak, association, between type and

urvey year ( p = 0.013; Cramer’s V = 0.12): 2021 had a greater pro-

ortion of Believers, and a lower proportion of Alarmed respondents.

urthermore, the 2021 study had a greater proportion of unemployed

nd self-employed individuals. 

The association between survey (2016/2021) and the other study

ariables was determined as follows: The X 

2 test was used to assess

he relationships between survey and categorical variables. Fisher’s ex-

ct test was used for 2 × 2 tables or where the requirements for the

 

2 test could not be met. The strength of the associations was mea-

ured by Cramer’s V and the phi coefficient respectively. The following

cale of interpretation was used: > 0.50 indicated a high/strong asso-

iation, 0.30 to 0.49 a moderate association, 0.10 to 0.29 a weak as-

ociation, and below 0.10 little if any association. The relationship be-

ween survey and continuous variables was assessed by the indepen-

ent samples t -test. Where the data did not meet the assumptions of

he t -test, a non-parametric alternative, the Wilcoxon rank sum test was

sed. The strength of the associations was measured by the Cohen’s d

or parametric tests and the r-value for non-parametric tests. The fol-

owing scale of interpretation was used: > 0.80 indicated a large effect,

.50 to 0.79 a moderate effect, 0.20 to 0.49 a small effect, and below

.20 a near zero effect. Overall, the false discovery rate was controlled

y the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure. The 5% significance level was

sed. 

. Results 

Table 2 shows significant results at an overall level, as well as per

ndividual type. Significant shifts occurred at an overall level for envi-

onmental awareness, environmental concerns and accountability (wa-

er scarcity, climate change, natural resource depletion, over consump-

ion, natural disasters), animal concerns, as well as attitudes and per-

eption environment (shifting responsibility, role of technology). Sig-

ificant shifts per type occurred for environmental concerns (climate-

entric and resource-centric), natural disasters, animal concerns, animal

oncerns accountability (domestic welfare), attitudes and perception en-

ironment (shifting responsibility, role of technology), and connection

o nature. 

.1. Environmental awareness 

Table 2 shows that there was a significant, weak, association, be-

ween environmental awareness and year ( p < 0.00; Cramer’s V = 0.11)

here 2021 had a greater proportion of “same level of awareness ”, and

 lower proportion of “more awareness ”, compared to 2016. There were

o significant differences between type. 

.2. Environmental concerns and accountability 

Overall, there were no significant shifts in the median scores for en-

ironmental concerns. For the climate-centric scale there was a signif-

cant, but small, increase in the median score for the Concerned type.

lthough the resource-centric scale was used to classify respondents into

ypes, there was a significant, but small, decrease in median score for

he Pleasure-seeker type. 

For environmental concerns accountability, there was a signifi-

ant, weak, association between concern about water scarcity and year

 p < 0.00; Cramer’s V = 0.14) where 2021 showed a lower level of per-

onal accountability compared to 2016. This shift was not significant

ithin any of the types. Similar results were found for natural resource

epletion, and overconsumption. There was a significant, weak, associa-

ion between concern about climate change and year ( p < 0.00; Cramer’s

 = 0.11) where 2021 showed a higher level of personal accountability

ompared to 2016. There was a significant, weak, association between
5 



A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

Table 2 ( continued ) 

Concerned 

n 353 388 

Natural disasters 

Direct impact 3.2 ∗ 12.8 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.27) Small impact 5.4 ∗ 15.9 ∗ 

No control 86.0 ∗ 70.4 ∗ 

I don’t know 5.4 1.0 

ANIMAL CONCERNS Overall 

2016 2021 

n 673 583 

M M p 

Animal exploitation 3.8 

(3.0–4.3) 

3.9 

(3.1–4.6) 

< 0.00 ∗ 

( r = 0.10) 

Uncommitted 

2016 2021 

n 113 76 

M M p 

Animal exploitation 3.8 

(3.1–4.3) 

4.1 

(3.6–4.6) 

< 0.00 ∗ 

( r = 0.24) 

ANIMAL CONCERNS 

ACCOUNTABILITY 

Alarmed 

2016 2021 

n 129 91 

% % p 

Domestic animal welfare 

Direct impact 48.1 ∗ 27.2 ∗ < 0.00 ∗ 

( V = 0.26) Small impact 45.7 ∗ 53.1 ∗ 

No control 5.4 ∗ 18.4 ∗ 

I don’t know 0.8 1.3 

ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTION 

ENVIRONMENT 

Overall 

2016 2021 

n 721 665 

M M p 

Shifting responsibility 2.3 (0.9) 2.6 (1.0) < 0.00 ∗ 

( d = 0.32) 

Role of technology 2.7 (0.8) 2.9 (0.9) < 0.00 ∗ 

( d = 0.24) 

Believer 

2016 2021 

n 104 137 

M M p 

Shifting responsibility 3.4 

(3.0–3.9) 

3.8 

(3.2–4.3) 

< 0.00 ∗ 

( r = 0.23) 

Role of technology 3.2 (0.8) 3.6 (0.9) < 0.00 ∗ 

( d = 0.47) 

CONNECTION TO NATURE Disconnected 

2016 2021 

n 75 71 

M M p 

Connection to nature 3.8 (0.7) 4.1 (0.6) < 0.00 ∗ 

( d = 0.46) 

EIAQ: Environmental Issues and Attitudes Questionnaire. 

CNS: Connectedness to Nature Scale. 
∗ p < 0.05. 

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6 
oncern about natural disasters and year ( p < 0.00; Cramer’s V = 0.18)

here 2021 showed a higher level of personal accountability compared

o 2016. This shift was significant within the Concerned type. There

ere no shifts for air pollution, rising sea levels, global warming, ozone

ayer depletion, human overpopulation, loss of nature areas, nuclear en-

rgy, waste generation, water pollution, urbanization, use of pesticides,

MOs, biodiversity loss. 

.3. Animal concerns and accountability 

There was no significant association between animal concerns

wareness and year overall or within any of the types. There was a sig-

ificant increase in the median score of the Animal Exploitation scale

 p < 0.00; r = 0.10). This was significant also for the Disconnected type.

here was no significant shift in the Animal Extinction score, overall or

ithin any of the types. 

For the animal concerns accountability responses there was no signif-

cant association between concern about domestic animal welfare and

ear, however there was a shift towards lower personal accountabil-

ty within the Alarmed type. There were no shifts for animals used in

ntertainment, canned lion hunting, legal rights and protection, domes-

ic animal breeding, wild animal breeding, deforestation, over-fishing,

hale hunting, dolphin capturing, animal cruelty, factory farming, farm

nimal welfare, poaching, trophy hunting, animals used for testing or

onsumer products. 

.4. Attitudes and perception environment 

Environmental attitudes and perception had a significant increase in

he mean scores of the Shifting Responsibility and Role of Technology

ubscales p < 0.00 ( d = 0.32) and p < 0.00 ( d = 0.24) respectively. These

hifts were significant also within the Believer typology. There were

o significant shifts in the median Role of Individual, Government or

pathetic Attitudes overall or within any of the types. 

.5. Connectedness to nature 

Overall, there were no significant shifts in the mean CNS and NEP

cores. Although the CNS score is used to classify respondents into types,

here was a significant, small, increase in mean score for the Discon-

ected type. There was no significant shift in the mean NEP score for

ny of the types. 

. Discussion 

Disasters have the ability to act as catalysts for social change

 Cohen, 2020 ) or to change the existential path of individuals

 Tomaszek and Muchacka-Cymerman, 2020 ). Little research has been

onducted, particularly in Africa, that explores the impact of the pan-

emic on the human-nature nexus, and what that means for environ-

ental challenges. The pandemic did not only function as a distraction

rom the climate crisis but had the added potential to improve our un-

erstanding of the human-nature nexus under times of extreme threat

nd heightened mortality salience. The study asked: Given the multi-

le significant impacts of COVID-19 on the African continent, how have

erceptions and attitudes towards the environment changed within and

etween types of individuals from 2016 (pre COVID) to 2021 (COVID)

n South Africa? 

In this section we discuss the significant shifts that occurred between

016 and 2021 at an overall and individual type level looking at envi-

onmental awareness, environmental concerns and accountability, ani-

al concerns and accountability, attitudes and perception environment,

nd connectedness to nature. The results from this study contribute to

xisting research that explored the human-nature nexus, pandemic, and

ther variables for example that the pandemic had a positive impact on



A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

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ome aspects of the human-nature nexus depending on whether there

as a belief that the pandemic was caused by human intrusion into na-

ure ( Daryanto et al., 2022 ) or whether connectedness to nature impacts

upport for COVID-19 travel restrictions ( Pensini and McMullen, 2022 ),

r how the pandemic relates to the relationship between intention and

ro-environmental behavior ( Zebardast and Radaei, 2022 ). For many

f the variables assessed no significant shifts occurred suggesting that

hen faced with disaster, individuals prioritize areas of concern that

lign with their existing worldviews, supporting the main tenets of

MT. 

.1. Environmental awareness 

There was a significant decrease in those that were “more aware ”

nd a significant increase in those that had the “same level of aware-

ess ” of environmental issues. This compared to a study that showed

OVID-19 having had the greatest impact on sustainable consumption

n Brazil and Portugal, followed by environmental awareness and to a

esser extent, social responsibility ( Severo et al., 2021 ). A similar study

n Malaysia found a significant and positive impact on environmental

wareness, sustainable consumption, and social responsibility ( Ali et al.,

021 ). As a result of COVID-19, public awareness of natural resources

uch as forests and birdlife increased, while awareness of environmental

ssues such as climate change did not change according to Rousseau and

eschacht (2020) . The lack of increased awareness of environmental is-

ues in our study could potentially be attributed to a decrease in media

overage on key environmental issues, like climate change, while there

as increased human-centric pandemic coverage (see Mocatta and Haw-

ey, 2020 ; Nacu-Schmidt et al., 2020 ; Rauchfleisch et al.,2021 ). This

nding could also be attributed to the lack of individuals seeing the

irus as an indication of environmental stressors (see Tsantopoulos et al.,

021 ) or that variances in connectedness with nature impacted rep-

esentations about the pandemic (see Haasova et al., 2020 ) there-

ore those more connected already had high environmental aware-

ess prior to the pandemic, and those less connected were guided by

ther areas of focus (financial, mortality) during the pandemic. Fi-

ally, the finding could be a result of the complex social context in

hich environmental issues are psychologically contrasted with issues

f social justice in South Africa (see Marais-Potgieter and Thatcher,

022 ). 

.2. Environmental concerns and accountability 

For environmental concerns only the Concerned type was more trou-

led about climate-centric issues and the Pleasure-seeker type was less

oncerned about resource issues (they were also the least concerned in

016). These findings support the idea that individuals were driven to

phold worldviews, and when in a situation where mortality is made

alient, they tended to respond with predictable, and replicable defenses

see Wolfe and Tubi, 2018 ). The result for the Concerned type con-

rmed that COVID-19 increased environmental concern that expands

n studies that indicated shifts in environmental concern during the

andemic. Jian et al. (2020) found that fear and uncertainty during

he pandemic increased environmental concern and green hotel brand

rust, Kenward and Brick (2021) showed higher environmental priori-

ization was determined less by social identity and more by individual

ell-being. Schiller et al. (2022) used pre-lockdown data and followed-

p during the lockdown and found that mental health was reduced, en-

ironmental concern increased, and prejudice against asylum-seekers

ecreased. This is aligned with the overall worldview profile described

er type ( Table 1 ) that indicated the Concerned who had strong envi-

onmental worldviews compared to the Pleasure-seeker who had weak

nvironmental worldviews. This finding confirms one of the main tenets

f TMT in that when faced with mortality salience, individuals tend to

phold their worldviews ( Pyszczynski et al., 2015 ). 
7 
For environmental concerns accountability, there was an overall de-

rease in the experience of control where participants either felt no con-

rol or that they could have a small impact on water scarcity, natural

esource depletion, and over consumption suggested individuals felt that

he world was not predictable or controllable. These findings could point

o memories and perceived lack of control based on the significant water

hortages ( “day zero threats) experienced in South Africa between 2016

nd 2020 ( Robins, 2019 ). Atalay and Meloy (2020) showed that mortal-

ty salience after exposure to natural disasters and extreme events had

n impact on the appeal of evacuation due to reduced locus of control. 

For natural disasters the Concerned type showed an increase in “di-

ect ” or “small impact ”, but 70.4% still felt like they had no control in

021. There was an increase in individuals that felt like they could have

 direct impact on climate change, but most of the sample (83.7% in

016, 80.1% in 2021) still felt they could only have a small impact or

elt like they had no control. A drop in media focus on the climate crisis

uring the pandemic did not correspond to a decline in public concern,

ut perhaps only a temporal shift in focus ( Leiserowitz et al., 2020 ). The

ncrease in perceptions of control in our study might be because some

ndividuals felt that behavioral adjustments (masks, social distancing,

anitizing) gave protection during COVID. This finding can also be com-

ared to that of Arndt and Solomon (2003) who found that individual

raits impacted the sense of, or need for control. In their study the re-

ponse to mortality becoming salient, individuals who had high neuroti-

ism reported reduced need for personal control, whereas those low in

euroticism reported the opposite. 

.3. Animal concerns and accountability 

The significant increase in concern regarding animal exploitation

as potentially linked to the media coverage of how zoonotic diseases

riginate (see Mocatta and Hawley, 2020 ). This aligned with the signifi-

ant increase for the Uncommitted type who tended to be influenced by

ocial dialogues and media (see Marais-Potgieter and Thatcher, 2020 ).

he significant decrease in “direct impact ” and “no control ” and increase

n “small impact ” for the Alarmed type pointed to their concern for ani-

als and how the pandemic potentially made them feel more hopeless.

.4. Attitudes and perception environment 

The decreased sense of control possibly explained the increased shift

n responsibility, and the role of technology at an overall level, and for

he Believer type specifically, as they looked for sources of control out-

ide the self. Again, the significant movement for the Believer type con-

rmed that their existing worldviews were upheld during the pandemic

see Table 1 ). 

.5. Connectedness to nature 

Interestingly, while connectedness to nature increased for the Dis-

onnected type, they were still the least connected out of all the types.

he fact that their environmental worldviews did not shift meaningfully

as in line with TMT that individuals maintain worldviews to protect

hemselves from the terror of mortality and therefore tended to be de-

ended during times of mortality salience ( Greenberg et al., 2014 ). The

isconnected type most likely experienced increased survival concerns

hich could be seen as a subset of mortality salience ( Greenfield et al.,

021 ) 

The study contributed to existing TMT in that it demonstrated a

ange of different impacts the pandemic had on individual types based

n their worldviews and relationship with the natural environment.

he study confirmed that individuals tend to uphold worldviews, and

hen there is potential mortality salience, respond with substantial, pre-

ictable, and replicable defenses (see Wolfe and Tubi, 2018 ), depend-

ng on type. The results related to other work that showed that during

imes of crisis, like the pandemic, individual worlds become tighter and



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maller, similar to subsistence communities ( Greenfield et al., 2021 ).

ithin the context of Greenfield et al. (2021) our results posit that if

he environment was already important to a particular type, the clos-

ng in of their world would include the natural environment. This can

e contrasted with a type where survival was important, and there-

ore, COVID-19 impacted those individuals to focus even more closely

n their personal survival. Additionally, Greenfield et al. (2021) sug-

ested that when there are significant sociodemographic changes, those

hanges impact all other areas of living that could mean that the higher

nemployment in our sample during 2021 compared to 2016 had fur-

her impacted mortality salience and the ability of certain types of in-

ividuals to manage the potential threat of death ( Pyszczynski et al.,

021 ). 

The implication for psychology’s role in supporting action against en-

ironmental issues is that nuanced approaches are required to deal with

he psychological responses from individuals, and that working within

he worldviews of individuals is likely to be more effective than trying to

hange them. Additionally, this study suggested that mortality salience,

nd individual traits and processes could have a significant impact on

esponses to climate change. Furthermore, it highlights that climate in-

ction, and the perception of general apathy should be challenged as

t cannot be explained as a universal and unchanging human nature

s aspects such as mortality salience, worldviews, and other human-

ature nexus aspects are complex. A generalised approach reduces the

mportance of psychological variability between populations, oversim-

lifies psychological research and its ability to guide policy, does not

ake aspects of culture into account in individual behavior, and justifies

naction ( Atkinson and Jacquet, 2021 ). 

The study had various limitations. The first is that we did not mea-

ure behaviors in 2021 that could have provided a broader picture re-

arding the impact of the pandemic on claimed behaviors. Another lim-

tation was that we were not able to use the same sample of individuals

rom 2016 due to anonymity, and that there was no qualitative com-

onent in 2021 that explored in-depth responses in relation to the pan-

emic. It is also possible that other social concerns from COVID-19 could

ave had a greater influence than the health-mortality concerns. We also

ecommend caution that we did not have data that conclusively linked

MT (or COVID-19) to the trends in the 2016 and 2021 data. Future

esearch could focus on establishing pre-existing worldviews, trigger-

ng a pandemic reminder, and then conducting a follow-up measure of

orldviews after a delay (see Cox et al., 2020 ; Smith et al., 2022 for

ethods). 

. Conclusion 

The pandemic had an impact on certain aspects of the human-nature

exus and for specific types. The results suggested that individuals are

riven to uphold worldviews, and when threatened they tend to re-

pond with considered, predictable, and replicable defenses as suggested

y TMT ( Wolfe and Tubi, 2018 ). The results conclude that psychology

eeds to work within the psychological boundaries of types for maxi-

um efficacy when addressing environmental challenges. 

thics & informed consent statement 

∗ The authors declare that ethical approval was received from the

niversity (H210314 – attached) 
∗ The authors confirm that all participants provided informed con-

ent for participation 

ppendix 
8 



A. Marais-Potgieter and A. Thatcher Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 4 (2023) 100096 

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eclaration of Competing Interest 

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

nterests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence

he work reported in this paper. 

RediT authorship contribution statement 

Andrea Marais-Potgieter: Conceptualization, Data curation, For-

al analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Re-

ources, Visualization, Writing – original draft. Andrew Thatcher: Con-

eptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. 

ata availability 

Data will be made available on request. 

cknowledgement 

This study was made possible by the University of the Witwatersrand

esearch Committee Postdoctoral Fellowship. 

upplementary materials 

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in

he online version, at doi: 10.1016/j.cresp.2023.100096 . 

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	Exploring the impact of the pandemic on the relationship between individual types and the natural environment: the role of mortality concerns
	1 Introduction
	1.1 Relationship between types of individuals and the natural environment
	1.2 Terror management theory and the human-nature nexus
	1.2.1 Self-esteem and cultural worldviews
	1.2.2 Individual traits and mortality salience
	1.2.3 Proximal and distal defenses
	1.2.4 Mortality salience and human-nature nexus

	1.3 The pandemic and the human-nature nexus
	1.4 The current study

	2 Method
	2.1 Participants
	2.2 Procedure
	2.3 Materials
	2.3.1 The environmental issues and attitudes questionnaire (EIAQ)
	2.3.2 The connectedness to nature scale (CNS)
	2.3.3 The new ecological paradigm scale (NEP)

	2.4 Ethical considerations
	2.5 Data analysis

	3 Results
	3.1 Environmental awareness
	3.2 Environmental concerns and accountability
	3.3 Animal concerns and accountability
	3.4 Attitudes and perception environment
	3.5 Connectedness to nature

	4 Discussion
	4.1 Environmental awareness
	4.2 Environmental concerns and accountability
	4.3 Animal concerns and accountability
	4.4 Attitudes and perception environment
	4.5 Connectedness to nature

	5 Conclusion
	Ethics & informed consent statement
	Appendix
	Declaration of Competing Interest
	CRediT authorship contribution statement
	Acknowledgement
	Supplementary materials
	References