1 

Developing Visual Literacy in the English Home Language Classroom 

Using a Documentary on Wildlife Conservation 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This is submitted in the fulfilment for the degree MEd in Education by 

 

In the: 

Department of Education 

Faculty of Humanities 

University of The Witwatersrand 

 

Submitted by: 

Elizabeth M. Terblanche 

2499795 

 

2023

 



 

 I 

 

 

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set for using Turnitin by the Department. 



 

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6. I acknowledge that I am allowed to use Turnitin to evaluate my own work prior 

to submission. 

 

Full names:   Elizabeth Maria Terblanche 

Student number: 2499795 

Date submitted: 14/03/2023 

Topic of work: Developing Visual Literacy in the English Home Language Classroom Using a 

Documentary on Wildlife Conservation 

Signature:   

Supervisor:  Dr. Visvaganthie. Moodley  

 



 

 III 

Abstract 

Visual literacy is considered as a set of analytical visual competencies that are developed 

through the seeing as the same time as experiencing other sensorial exposure (IVLA 

Conference, 1969). An increasingly visual world (Hill Bulman, 2017) demands for increasingly 

visual literate individuals. Current technological developments have subsequently led to the 

fast production of complicated, dynamic verbal, musical and visual texts. Such ensembles 

penetrate the lives of learners and yet national visual literacy High stakes assessments display 

a remaining repetitive nature of text-based sources – a preference some have argued to filter 

through to visual literacy teaching practices as well (Moodley, 2015). Present visual literacy 

research in education stresses the demand for visual literacy as a critical analytical skill 

(Matusiak, Heinbach, Harper & Bovee, 2019), however, little research refocuses the 

consideration of text choice in the teaching thereof.  

Documentary film is a text source included by the curriculum in the outcome of reading and 

viewing. As a text, documentary film arranges meaning-making tools: speech, music, images 

and more to organize viewer perceptibility. Through an interplay of information, account, 

feeling and imagination (Bondebjerg, 2014b) filmmakers of this genre create multi-sensorial 

experiences (van Munster & Sylvest, 2013). Although a form of diegesis, a documentary film 

remains fundamentally committed to the portrayal of truthfulness (McLane, 2012), however, it 

remains a re-representation of events. Such re-representations are powerful in their display 

(Bondebjerg, 2014b; Nichols, 2010) and McLane (2012) argues that such exclusive influence 

is accomplished through employing the following: 1) subjects and ideologies; 2) purpose, 

viewpoint, and approach; 3) forms; 4) production methods and techniques; 5) the experience 

they offer. Not only are documentaries the fastest growing genre (Torres, 2022) but they are 

also uniquely manipulatory – reasoning it as a vital text to include in the teaching of visual 

literacy.  

Through a qualitative content analysis, this study will show how visual literacy can be 

developed through a documentary on wildlife conservation. Subsequently, it indicates how 

non-speech sound is incorporated in the overall promotion of the documentary’s message and 

how verbal and visual aspects are used as rhetoric. The work hopes to add to the field of 

language learning and qualitative content analysis. In addition, it hopes to contribute to the 

academic study of meaning-making in filmic productions and the expansion of visual literacy 

text inclusion.  

  



 

 IV 

Acknowledgements 

I would like to thank my respected teacher and supervisor, Dr. Visvaganthie Moodley, 

University of The Witwatersrand whose worthy guidance and professional attitude was deeply 

appreciated in completing this report. 

  



 

 V 

Table of Contents 
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... III 

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... IV 

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................ VII 

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ VIII 

1. INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS .............................................................................................................................. 1 

1.2. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................................. 1 

1.3. RESEARCH PROBLEM ..................................................................................................................................... 3 

1.4. RATIONALE ................................................................................................................................................. 4 

1.5. RESEARCH AIMS........................................................................................................................................... 7 

1.6. PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................................... 7 

1.7. RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................................................................. 7 

1.8. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................. 7 

1.9. DATA AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 7 

1.10. DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................ 8 

1.11. DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................................................................10 

1.12. LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................................................................12 

1.13. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................13 

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................................................................. 14 

2.1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................14 

2.2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................................15 

2.3. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................33 

3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY........................................................................................... 35 



 

 VI 

3.1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................35 

3.2. RESEARCH CONTEXT ...................................................................................................................................35 

3.3. RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................37 

3.4. ETHICAL SOLUTIONS ...................................................................................................................................53 

3.5. METHODOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS ...................................................................................................................54 

3.6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................54 

4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................. 56 

4.1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................56 

4.2. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ..........................................................................................................................57 

4.3. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................71 

5. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 73 

6. REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................... 76 

 

  



 

 VII 

List of Figures 

Figure 1-1 Framework for visual literacy ................................................................................. 10 

Figure 2-1 Framework for visual literacy ................................................................................. 24 

Figure 2-2 2015 Grade 7 EHL annual national assessment advertisement ........................... 30 

Figure 3-1 Framework for visual literacy ................................................................................. 44 

Figure 4-1 Examples of flat space ........................................................................................... 61 

Figure 4-2 Example of surface division ................................................................................... 61 

Figure 4-3 Examples of lighting ............................................................................................... 62 

Figure 4-4 Examples of object movement ............................................................................... 63 

Figure 4-5 Camera movement (panning shot) ........................................................................ 64 

Figure 4-6 Composition ........................................................................................................... 64 

Figure 4-7 Visual rhythm .......................................................................................................... 65 

Figure 4-8 Body language ....................................................................................................... 66 

Figure 4-9 Body language by extension .................................................................................. 66 

Figure 4-10 Camera focus ....................................................................................................... 67 

 

 

  



 

 VIII 

List of Tables 

Table 1-1 Sequence and emphasis adapted from Moodley 2019 ............................................ 9 

Table 1-2 Framework for authentic visual literacy assessment adapted from Moodley, 2014

.................................................................................................................................................. 11 

Table 2-1 CAPS reading and viewing skills ............................................................................. 20 

Table 3-1 Framework for authentic assessment of visual literacy Moodley, 2014 ................. 41 

Table 3-2 Sequence and emphasis adapted from Moodley 2019 .......................................... 43 

Table 3-3 Open coding units .................................................................................................... 45 

Table 3-4 Axial coding units ..................................................................................................... 46 

Table 3-5 Selective coding units .............................................................................................. 47 

Table 3-6 Coding frame ........................................................................................................... 49 

Table 4-1 Grammatical divergences taken from Moodley, 2019 ............................................. 58 

Table 4-2 Additional grammatical features taken from Moodley, 2019 ................................... 59 

Table 4-3 Rhythmic cadences ................................................................................................. 69 

 

 



 

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1. Introduction Chapter 

1.1. Introductory remarks 

Recent technological advances are facilitating an unmatched growth in the publishing of 

information as digital images and other non-textual formats (Matusiak, Heinbach, Harper & 

Bovee, 2019) which in turn has increased the importance of visual literacy (VL) skills in modern 

education. VL is described as a vital language competency (Dondis, 1973) particularly in what 

is largely considered ‘21st century literacy’ – a working definition coined at the 21st Century 

Literacy Summit in 2005. Being a multidisciplinary field, VL holds many definitions, although 

this report supports the idea that VL is necessary for the receival, analysis as well as 

processing of information (Stokes, 2005). Located within the field of language research, the 

idea of using as well as reading visuals is here considered a form of language which requires 

specific teaching and learning of universal symbols (Stokes, 2005). Studies on image and 

visual media in academic settings found that such resources hold multiple benefits including 

enhanced learner interest, the fostering of culturally authentic experiences (Roell, 2010) as 

well as the promotion of critical consciousness (Charlebois, 2008) through providing multi-

sensory exposure. However, research on the topic of VL development largely cites visual texts 

in the form of graphic novels (Jaffe & Hurwich, 2019) and fictional films (Parry, 2013; Hill 

Bulman, 2017) with very little exploration of alternative film genre such as documentary. 

Although documentary film is proposed in the South African curriculum policy as a non-literary 

text for the development of VL in the Senior Phase (SP), it is argued that this valuable resource 

remains overlooked in teaching practice where educators tend to teach-to repetitive genres of 

literacy (Moodley, 2015). The rationale for the employment of documentaries in the 

development of VL emphasizes three points. The first being that documentaries are 

characterised by authenticity which is identified as a necessary text-element for successful VL 

learning; the second highlights the rapid proliferation of this specific genre in current society 

and the third recognises the social power of documentary films.  

This chapter provides a brief outline of the background in which this study takes place. The 

section will place the study in context before the rationale and justification is discussed. 

Thereafter the research aims and questions of my study will be offered before the data and 

methodology section is presented. 

1.2. Background 

In previous decades the idea of literacy was limited to the reading and writing of traditional 

print-based texts. Modern society however recognises the need for a broader sense of literacy 

and thus embodies various knowledges including technological literacy, cultural literacy as 

well as visual literacy (Kress, 2003; Pettersson, 1999). Although still considered to be a multi-

faceted concept VL largely includes a group of visual competencies developed through 

experiencing a visual text accompanied by the simultaneous experience, and integration of 

one’s other senses (Avgerinou & Ericson, 1997).  



 

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Such skills allow an individual to both interpret and distinguish various symbols, objects as 

well as actions witnessed within their environments (IVLA Conference, 1969). In a society 

where the omnipresence of visual mass-media is clear the teaching and refining of VL is 

becoming an increasingly pertinent task.  

Although a language skill, investigations into visual analysis has often fallen outside of the 

schooling field where many studies are located in visual anthropology (Collier, 2011), media 

studies (Bell, 2011) and social gender studies, however, the need for intellectual discourse on 

visual language in language education has long been alluded to by such investigations (Bell, 

2011).  

The National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) describes reading and 

viewing skills - including VL - as being vital to successful cross-curriculum learning. The 

document mandates that learners are exposed to a wide range of literary, as well as non-

literary texts such as documentaries, film, advertisements, and other sources of graphic 

media. Such exposure is deemed necessary in creating critical, independent thinkers 

(National Curriculum Statement, 2011) and once a learner completes the SP, the document 

outlines that they should be able to ‘intensive[ly] read visual texts’ (National Curriculum 

Statement, 2011, p. 30) through applying their knowledge of pictorial elements. Furthermore, 

learners are expected to demonstrate an understanding of how the integration of such features 

in combination with written text act as rhetoric and how this amalgamation affects a viewer’s 

emotional response and behavioural reactions. 

Although the inclusion of various visual texts is firmly founded within CAPS, Moodley (2014) 

argues that there is a sharp departure from curriculum guidelines indicated by text selections 

for the assessment of VL in high-stakes testing across the country. Her research indicates that 

poor quality papers are characterised by - amongst other things - poor text selection. Such 

assessment designs are consequently leading to a narrowed down teaching of VL where 

preference is given to text-based visual sources. In addition to the former, a review of the 

literature indicates the importance of the element of authenticity within visual texts to 

fundamentally develop VL skills. Since realism and authenticity are key features of the 

documentary genre it is a particularly befitting VL resource to incorporate in this study. 

Documentary films are not only very powerful in their rhetoric (Nichols, 2001; Nichols, 2010; 

Bondebjerg, 2014a; Plantiga, 1997), but are also currently the fastest growing genre (Torres, 

2021). The use of film in the teaching of selected visual literacy skills is not a new concept and 

past studies have included animation film as well as other fictional genres of fiction film 

(Stewart, 2006; Chapple & Curtis, 2000), yet studies investigating documentary film as a 

valuable text source for VL have yet to enjoy academic attention. My study will be guided by 

a qualitative methodology as I undertake an unobtrusive line of inquiry through a content 

analysis. The basis of the content analysis is steered by Mayring’s (2000) model for a 

qualitative content analysis where the research employs an interpretivist research philosophy 

proposing that reality is constructed through individual experience (Levers, 2013).  

 



 

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Appropriately, the study adopts an inter-subjectivist epistemology and a relativist ontology. A 

content analysis is befitting to my line of inquiry as it has long been associated with 

investigations pertaining to the social representation of common concerns in mass media 

(Ledema, 2011). 

The study unit is a secondary data source which exists as a recorded social communication 

article accessible on the public platform GoWay. Through using a framework based on an 

established visual literacy framework (Moodley, 2015), as well as a framework for 

cinematographic syntax (Brown, 2012) I explore how a documentary on wildlife conservation 

can support the development of VL skills in an English home language (EHL) senior phase 

classroom. The analysis includes specifically investigating how verbal elements and visual 

features in a documentary contribute to VL as well as how non-speech sounds contribute to 

the message of a documentary and rhetoric overall. ‘The Pastry Chef’ is a non-fiction short 

film following the story of a real person (Peter) as he narrates his journey from being a poacher 

to a pastry chef. The different segments of the documentary include various visual landscapes 

as well as audio soundscapes accompanied by verbal narration.  

This introduction chapter serves as a brief contextualisation and background for the research 

whilst the remainder will summarise the research problem, rationale, aims, questions, 

methodology and limitations of the study.  

1.3. Research problem 

We live in a world rich in moving image (Hill Bulman, 2017). It therefore becomes crucial that 

we become as confident in both the use and understanding of moving image, as of the printed 

word since both are essential aspects of literacy (Hill Bulman, 2017). The recognition of visual 

literacy (VL) as a multidimensional concept has been evident in research literature since late 

2000. Present research on VL in education emphasizes the demand to teach VL in modern 

schooling (Matusiak, Heinbach, Harper & Bovee, 2019) whilst previous focus on the topic fell 

under the concept of media literacy (Baran, 2013; Potter & McDougall, 2017) or developing 

VL through subjects such as the arts (Stafford, 2011).  

Research on the use of visual information lies largely outside the field of language education 

where much work is done by the Health Sciences investigating the benefits of visual 

information using graphic symbols (Mejía & Chu, 2014). Krampen (1965) discusses the use 

of graphic symbols with individuals embodying limited literacy in developing countries where 

Kandula, Siah-Kumi, Makoul, Sager, Zei, Glass, Stephens, and Baker (2009) have researched 

the benefits of using visual texts in the treatment of diseases such as diabetes. Studies 

examining the use of digital moving images in an educational context is relatively new and 

often multidisciplinary (Matusiak et al.). Studies on VL presents a somewhat logical timeline 

where early research groundbreakingly introduced graphic novels as text sources (Jaffe & 

Hurwich, 2019) before the emergence of the technological wave encouraged investigating VL 

development through the incorporation of digital images (Potter & McDougall, 2017). Following 

the former, the phenomena of globalisation and further technological advances in moving 



 

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visuals led to the identification of fictional film as a golden egg of VL development (Parry, 2013; 

Hill Bulman, 2017).  

Documentary film is outlined as a vital visual text in the South African curriculum, although, as 

a Moodley (2015) argues, there is a preference given to text-based resources when it comes 

to VL teaching practice. Furthermore, the literature has shown the importance of authenticity 

in visual texts to fundamentally develop VL which happens to be a key feature of the 

documentary genre (Nichols, 2010).  

I hope to expand the discussion around text choices through studying the potential of a modern 

film media source – a wildlife documentary – in the development of VL. The shortcoming of 

critical academic studies on such cinematographic productions is very notable (Morgan, 2011) 

where critical aspects of film are blanketed under narrative studies on themes and messages. 

Although film analysis is quickly growing in population, there is a need to stress how technical 

aspects (as investigated through visual literacy) are arranged in images with the purpose of 

manifesting the comprehension of a given message (Mamula, 2008).  

This study, therefore, presents a study of VL development through documentary film. The work 

hopes to contribute to a growing field of research that acknowledges the relationship between 

popular media and children’s literacies as well as the exploration of content analysis through 

a qualitative methodology.  

1.4. Rationale 

My research is rooted within my love for language teaching, my recognition of the increasing 

need for VL, and my passion for wildlife conservation. Based on my experience as a First 

Additional Language (FAL) educator in the senior phase I have come to realise how little 

variation of non-literary texts are included within our teaching practices. Often the inclusion of 

an advertisement, a cartoon or a comic-strip is discussed but very rarely do we deliberate the 

inclusion of cinematographic media such as a documentary to be included as a VL resource. 

A possible explanation for this is that most film-like sources could prove to be too difficult for 

the level of language proficiency at which our senior phase FAL operate. However, when one 

reviews the VL component of examination papers in other levels and phases, such as the 

Home Language (HL) level and Further Education and Training (FET) phase, an 

advertisement or a cartoon overshadows as text-choices as well. 

Countless forms of visual communication exist within our world and current society has 

become progressively dependent on image (Bamford, 2005). The creation of visual media 

implicates not only how information is obtained but how knowledge is constructed and 

expressed as well. It is based on the former that Oring (2000) argues for the urgent acquisition 

of VL skills as it affects all of society on different levels. Almost every sector of humanity 

employs pictorial media to communicate intended messages. We see this in the increasing 

visual material major divisions such as the educational, financial, medical, and political publish 

daily. Despite the diversity of visual text our learners encounter outside school settings, in-



 

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class VL education largely includes the repetitive two-dimensional advertisement or comic-

strip (Moodley, 2014). It is important to note that graphic media does not subscribe to a 

permanent vocabulary and no dictionary of meaning for it exists.   

It is for reasons such as this that our learners should be exposed to different versions of non-

literary media to equip them with the adequate VL skills necessary to navigate their visual-

filled universes (Bamford, 2005). Not only does classroom VL teaching not reflect the multi-

text world in which our learners exist, but it also contradicts the literature on the subject of 

authenticity within texts.  

Research indicates that the degree to which a VL skill is developed relies primarily on the 

relevance of the text. According to researchers (see for example Reynolds-Myers, 1985; 

Avgerinou et al., 2011; Stafford, 2011) text relate-ableness should be a primary consideration 

amongst educators as text-selectors. Engagement with authentic non-literary sources allow 

learners to analyse graphics beyond a superficial level and make connections between the 

visual and their universal realities. In support of this view, CAPS identifies numerous 

multimedia texts suitable for the incorporation of the integrated teaching of language skills in 

the senior phase. Amongst many text examples, documentaries are listed as suitable non-

literary text sources which ironically is not only an increasingly popular visual arrangement, 

but a genre primarily categorized by the element of authenticity.  

Incited by the former, I have chosen to include a documentary as visual text in this study for 

two fundamental reasons. Firstly, authenticity is a key characteristic of this genre and as the 

literature argues should therefore facilitate effective VL learning. The content of the selected 

documentary relates to social concerns recognisable to any individual in the continent of study 

(Africa). Furthermore, the genre of documentary is CAPS compliant and documentaries are 

becoming increasingly popular in communicating various agendas (Moodley, 2019; Nichols, 

2010). I argue for the inclusion of this powerful visual source in VL education as it holds 

phycological command on non-critical viewers (Bondebjerg, 2014a) and can be employed to 

communicate powerful messages. The message communicated within the included 

documentary aims to conscientize learners so that they may become active supporters of 

wildlife conservation.  

I believe my study is primarily rationalised by the existence of the incongruency between 

curriculum policy and VL education practices regarding text inclusion, and again by the 

contradiction arising from the literature on the relationship of VL development and text 

authenticity. This study largely aims to illustrate the suitability of a documentary in developing 

VL skills in an English HL senior phase classroom. It intends to do so through investigating 

how verbal-visual images contribute to the development of VL skills, how non-speech sounds 

underwrite an intended message and how features of a documentary are employed as 

rhetoric. Subsequently, my research purposes to encourage a broader range of non-literary 

texts within VL education, and to emphasize the importance of relevance within our visual 

selections.  



 

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 7 

1.5. Research aims 

This study largely aims to illustrate the suitability of a documentary in developing VL skills in 

an English HL senior phase classroom. It intends to do so through investigating how verbal 

elements and visual images contribute to the development of VL skills, how non-speech 

sounds underwrite an intended message and how features of a documentary are employed 

as rhetoric. Subsequently, my research purposes to encourage a broader range of non-literary 

texts within VL education, and to emphasize the importance of relevance within our visual 

selections. My study’s aim is not verification, but rather discovery that leads to new insights 

(Sherman & Rodman, 2005). In addition, I hope to add to the growing field of qualitative 

content analysis research using moving images where focus is placed on reading position, 

recognising structural importance of subject-selection, framing as well as editing (Ledema, 

2011) within documentary films.  

1.6. Problem statement 

Qualitatively observing the content of a wildlife conservation documentary with the intention of 

investigating how such non-literary texts could support the development of visual literacy in a 

senior phase, English Home Language classroom. Documentary films are not only moving, 

but socio-political statements which demand informed reading and replying proficiencies 

(Nichols, 1981).  

1.7. Research questions 

1. How do the verbal elements and visual images of a documentary contribute to the 

development of visual literacy skills in the English home language classroom? 

2. How do non-speech sounds contribute to the message of a documentary? 

3. How are the verbal and visual features of a documentary used as rhetoric? 

1.8. Research objectives 

• Qualitatively reviewing the content of a wildlife documentary with the objective of 

capturing verbal elements such as narration, as well as visual images from each frame 

and assessing their presence against an established framework for VL.  

• Qualitatively evaluating how the use of non-speech sounds such as music in a wildlife 

documentary promotes the overall message of the film. 

• Qualitatively examining the selected use of language elements in the narration as well 

as curated visual displays and exploring how such constructions are employed as 

rhetoric in a wildlife documentary film.  

1.9. Data and methodology 

My study follows a qualitative methodology rooted in the interpretivist philosophical paradigm. 

Interpretivism is conceptualized as having a relativist ontology with a subjectivist epistemology 

as aligned with post-modern views (Levers, 2013).  



 

 8 

This philosophical perspective acknowledges that interpretivist research is guided by a 

researcher’s set of beliefs and opinions about how the world should be understood (Denzin & 

Lincoln, 2005). Knowledge in this paradigm is viewed as being relative to aspects such as 

culture and history and exists in layered forms as representations of truth (Benoliel, 1996). 

Interpretivists accept multiple meanings and argue that objectivity can never be achieved 

(Denzin et al., 2005) therefore, ultimately this paradigm focuses on recognizing and capturing 

the meaning accompanying human experience and action (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott & 

Davidson, 2002).  

Honebein (1996) further describes this approach as one that asserts the individual 

construction of knowledge based on experiences and reflection. In accordance with a 

subjectivist epistemological belief, this paradigm declares that meaning is attached to cultural 

phenomena and that understanding thereof is both value-laden and dependent on phenomena 

engagement (Denzin et al., 2005). Ontologically my study corresponds with the critical realist 

paradigm which suggests that any understanding is imperfect and that a critical examination 

of phenomena is necessary to develop a best practice (Bergen, Wells & Owen, 2010).  

The study uses secondary data in the form of a human communication product - a wildlife 

conservation documentary. It is important to note that this research conceptualises text as 

being verbal, visual, or written and as existing in a clear frame within which the elements of 

sound and image cohere (Ledema, 2011). The documentary follows a three-act structure and 

depicts the journey of the narrator from poacher to pastry chef. The content of the film focuses 

on Peter (the narrator) and the coherence is a logical continuity as is characteristic of the 

genre (Nichols, 1981). The scenes incorporate soundscapes that add to the mood of the 

moment as well as landscapes that depict two settings, that of wildlife, and a bakery. The 

research includes the purposeful analysis of language, visuals, and sound as well as a 

personal interpretation of the findings which according to Creswell (2002) informs a qualitative 

approach. This investigation contextualises qualitative research according to Greene’s (1971) 

declaration as a labour to understand the modes of social arrangements as well as the ways 

in which such arrangements are experienced in order to incite intelligibility and to 

intersubjectively involve an individual in conscious pursuits of meaning (Greene, 1971, as cited 

in Sherman et al., 2005, p. 15). In accordance with this assertion, a qualitative approach is 

especially befitting to my research since it is concerned with both a socially constructed 

communications object – as well as the pursuit of meaning making in the form of visual literacy. 

1.10. Data analysis 

I have opted to undertake an unobtrusive line of inquiry through conducting a qualitative 

content analysis. Unobtrusive research is beneficial as it allows one to study a social artefact 

without interrupting social behaviour. It is economically advantageous regarding both time as 

well as finance and this type of investigation is especially befitting to the study of 

communication and to address the age-old question of communication research ‘who said 

what, why, how and to what effect’ (Babbie, 2015, p. 324). 



 

 9 

 

Visual content analysis isolates sequences of representation such as scenes or shots in film 

(Ledema, 2011). It is therefore coherent that my data analysis begins with the identification of 

the various movements within the documentary. To differentiate between the movements, I will 

use an adapted layout-guide (see Table 1-1) identified by Moodley (2019) in a stylistic analysis 

of the same documentary. Movements is an essential feature of a documentary’s layout, and 

each movement contains various determined audio/visual effects and features which add to 

the ensemble’s message and the viewers experience of the content. 

Table 1-1 Sequence and emphasis adapted from Moodley 2019 

 

The above displays the three distinct movements within the documentary as well as a brief 

description of their content. The movements each include a one-person narrative, visual 

landscapes as well as soundscapes. The choice of both audio and visual techniques will be 

analysed following an outline (see Figure 1-1) based on two established frameworks (Moodley, 

2015) and Brown (2012). The framework includes both outcomes for VL as well as 

cinematographic syntax allowing for a complete analysis of the manifest and latent content. 

Paragraphs: Sentences: Movements: 

1 1 – 4 Peter contextualises himself as a dangerous poacher. 

2 5 – 23 Peter provides details of his internal conflict and journey of 

transformation. 

3 24 – 29 Peter presents himself as a person who made an active turn-

about from poaching to wildlife conservation as well as a 

universal resolution focusing on the wellbeing of animals. 



 

 10 

 

Figure 1-1 Framework for visual literacy 

I will be following a qualitative content analysis proposed by Mayring (2000). The content 

analysis follows the following subsequent steps: A) selecting the material for analysis; B) 

determining categories with descriptions and definitions of concepts; C) identifying coding 

units from the material in accordance with categories; D) coding the content and making 

inferences. Reflection on, and revision of the categories was continually throughout the 

investigation. The coding of units was completed in three phases namely the open coding 

phase, the axial coding phase, and the selective coding phase. The research questions guided 

the selection and identification of coding units and variables.  

1.11. Data collection 

My data will be collected from a carefully selected documentary. This unit of analysis is a social 

artefact in the form of a recorded human communications product. ‘The Pastry Chef’ is a 

documentary on wildlife conservation that can be located on the digital platform ‘Goway’ in 

‘Globe-trotting’ which is a publicly accessible website and does not require any viewing 

permissions. The data was selected in accordance with an outline by Moodley (2014) to 

ensure that it would allow for an authentic assessment of VL (see Table 1-2).  

 

 



 

 11 

Table 1-2 Framework for authentic visual literacy assessment adapted from Moodley, 2014 

A)  Teachers as designers of meaning. 

This starting point of the framework is the recognition that teachers are designers 

of meaning (Cope & Kalantiz, 2006). This process encompasses the designed (the 

available meaning making resources); the designing (the process of shaping 

emergent meaning); and the redesigned (the creation of new meaning). 

B)  Meaningful interaction of pictorial and linguistic structures of visual texts. 

Crucial to the interpretation of visual texts is that readers should respond 

meaningfully to both pictorial and linguistic structures. Raney (1999) argues that 

educators should develop learner’s perceptual sensitivity which includes the ability 

to determine what two-dimensional images depict to see figure and background as 

interlinked and to distinguish between surface textures or shades of colour. 

Barnard (2001) argues the value of reading visual form in conjunction with linguistic 

features as the combination provides a richer indication of the designer’s ideas, 

feelings, and intentions.  

 

According to the description of the four types of documentaries identified by Bondebjerg 

(2014a); my source strongly relates to the poetic-reflexive model in that it incorporates visually 

abstract associations and patterns. Further connecting characteristics include displaying 

reality through aesthetic forms whilst a realistic experience is described through a symbolic 

montage including moving images, narration as well as sound.  

‘The Pastry Chef’ captures the journey of an African male, Peter, as he is transformed from a 

fierce poacher in the Tanzanian Serengeti to a pastry chef through the assistance of the South 

African company, Singita.  

This documentary was purposefully selected for my research as it provides a perceptible 

depiction of current aspects the world is experiencing, and more specifically which our 

continent is greatly suffering from. Society can relate to conservation in some way or another 

and thus the text embodies the necessary characteristic of authenticity. Construct validity is 

supported in using a documentary in the investigation of VL development since it is included 

in CAPS as an appropriate visual resource. To further ensure the validity of my research I have 

conceptualized the key variables within my problem statement, namely visual literacy, and 

documentary through assigning the following nominal definitions: 

Visual literacy: this study contextualizes VL in accordance with the definition provided by the 

International Visual Literacy Association as a group of visual competencies a human may 

develop by seeing at the same time as integrating other sensory experiences.  



 

 12 

The development of these skills is considered as vital for learning and when developed, they 

enable a visually literate individual to discriminate and interpret visual symbols within their 

environments (p. 1). 

Documentary: this study contextualizes a documentary based on the summary provided by 

Nichols (2010) in his book Introduction to Documentary as including the following key 

characteristics: 1) documentaries are based on reality expressed through language, sound, 

and visuals; 2) documentaries include real people who draw on personal experiences; and 3) 

stories within this genre are credible. 

In summary, the data for my research will be collected from the audio-visual content within 

each of the movements (Table 1-1) present in the documentary. The aspect of reliability is 

found within the permanence of my data unit. A benefit of using a recorded form of data is that 

it supports the option of re-testing if necessary and it will allow me to adapt my variables or 

operational definitions wherever required. 

1.12. Limitations 

Central trepidations for any content analysis study largely originate from the data-reduction 

process by which the content is broken into categorised units (Weber, 1990). Ambiguity 

regarding definitions spur a popular set of problems concerning the consistency or reliability 

of categories and classifications (Weber, 1990). Naturally such limitations are easily relieved 

through the inclusion of multiple coders who work together to achieve reliability through 

determining agreed meanings of codes and coding rules. However, since this study includes 

an individual analyst, my coding practices are influenced by my observations alone. To 

increase the study’s semantic validity, I have classified coding units possessing similar 

connotations together and I have set out clear descriptions and definitions for my observed 

codes according to the chosen framework.  

Although, interpretations of the data remain limited as researcher knowledge, predisposition 

and experience cannot be separated from observation and conclusions. The informative 

nature of the study will make it difficult to verify my findings objectively and as the study is 

based on the belief of individual realities, it will be challenging to replicate.  

The methodology is not appropriate for open explorative research (Ehnert, 2008) and coding 

is not an exact science, but rather an interpretive act (Saldaña, 2016). The former can result 

in distilling or over-condensing of data and ensuing simplification of meaning (Saldaña, 2016). 

In contrast, it could lead to over-complicating and analysis of latent observations. However, 

temperamental the findings, Madden (2010) notes that such analytical work nevertheless adds 

value to research. In agreement with Taylor (1985), it is the responsibility of the researcher to 

help attribute richer meaning to interpretations of visual data. Consequently, such meanings 

may become more common and thus prompt shared interpretation ultimately mitigating the 

subjective nature of such interpretations. 



 

 13 

1.13. Conclusion 

Documentaries are a fast-growing genre (Torres, 2021) which embody power rhetoric (Nicols, 

2001; Nicols, 2010; Bondebjerg, 2014a; Plantiga, 1997). It is not surprising then that this genre 

is listed in the CAPS curriculum as a necessary text for the teaching and learning of critical 

reading and viewing skills. The repetitive text-based preference in the education of VL is 

evident when one revises high-stakes national assessments and teaching-to-text phenomena 

identified by Moodley (2015). The rationale for this study is placed between the gap created 

by curriculum policy disregard in the limited incorporation of documentary in VL teaching as 

well as the argument for authenticity in visual sources. Since documentary film is cited in 

CAPS and branded by authenticity, it becomes a logical choice for investigation in the 

development of reading and viewing skills. A qualitative content analysis is an appropriate 

choice of methodology as it allows a researcher to analyse and investigate surface level as 

well as less tangible meaning-symbolising constructions. Although the findings are limited – 

the research strategy as well as the data are subject to re-testing opportunities. The legitimacy 

of my analysis is supported in the construction of a coding frame which sets out clear 

definitions of codes and the determination of key terminology.  

The introductory chapter provides a brief foreword for the study whilst chapter two will discuss 

the relevant literature pertaining to the primary units of the topic. Chapter three will detail the 

followed research methodology and philosophy of my research where chapter four will indicate 

how VL aspects are present in a documentary film thus providing rich reading and viewing 

opportunities. The function of music in this genre is shown to enrich the message of a 

documentary through reflecting on the functions of meaning-making: representation, 

orientation, and organization. Chapter four is concluded by indicating how rhetoric of the visual 

and oral are employed in ta documentary to persuade the mental and emotional framing of 

the main character, Peter.  

  



 

 14 

2. Review of the literature 

2.1. Introduction 

We live in a world rich in moving image (Hill Bulman, 2017). It therefore becomes crucial that 

we become as confident in both the use and understanding of moving image, as of the printed 

word since both are essential aspects of literacy (Hill Bulman, 2017). The recognition of visual 

literacy (VL) as a multidimensional concept has been evident in research literature since late 

2000. Present research on VL in education emphasizes the demand to teach VL in modern 

schooling (Matusiak, Heinbach, Harper & Bovee, 2019) whilst previous focus on the topic fell 

under the concept of media literacy (Baran, 2013; Potter & McDougall, 2017) or developing 

VL through subjects such as the arts (Stafford, 2011). Film recordings involves an entirely new 

mode of discourse (Monaco, 2014) yet, research on the use of visual information lies largely 

outside of the field of schooling where much work is done by the health sciences investigating 

the benefits of visual information through the use of graphic symbols (Mejía & Chu, 2014; 

Krampen, 1965) semiotics research (Monaco, 2014; van Leeuwen, 2011) as well as visual 

anthropology (van Leeuwen, 2011). Studies examining the use of digital moving images in an 

educational context are relatively new and often multidisciplinary (Matusiak et al.).  

Research on VL presents a somewhat logical timeline where early studies groundbreakingly 

introduced graphic novels as text sources (Jaffe & Hurwich, 2019) before the emergence of 

the technological wave encouraged investigating VL development through the incorporation 

of digital images (Potter & McDougall, 2017). Following the former, the phenomena of 

globalisation and further technological advances in moving visuals led to the identification of 

fictional film as a golden egg of VL development (Parry, 2013; Hill Bulman, 2017). Thankful for 

the basis laid, I hope to expand the timeline slightly further through studying the potential of 

another modern film media source – a wildlife documentary – in the development of VL. The 

shortcoming of critical academic studies on such cinematographic productions is very notable 

(Morgan, 2011) where critical aspects of film are blanketed under narrative studies on themes 

and messages. Although film analysis is quickly growing in population, there is a need to stress 

how technical aspects (as investigated through visual literacy) are arranged in images with 

the purpose of manifesting the comprehension of a given message (Mamula, 2008). Halliday 

(1973) and (1978) furthermore suggests that all meaning-making tools (such as narration, 

music, visuals and sounds) in both fiction film, as well documentary film perform three 

overarching functions: 1) representation; 2) orientation; and 3) organization – metafunctions 

which will be discussed later in this chapter.  

This study, therefore, presents a study of VL development through documentary film. The work 

hopes to contribute to a growing field of study that acknowledges the relationship between 

popular media and children’s literacies as well as the exploration of content analysis through 

a qualitative methodology. It is important to make clear that I am not advocating a greater 

significance for documentary film over other media, however, I do demonstrate in subsequent 

chapters, the benefits of examining this specific media form in the development of VL.  



 

 15 

The chapter will start by contextualising VL as well as documentaries through discussing the 

emergence and descriptions relating to each. A brief explanation on the recent proliferation of 

visual communication and its social effects grounds the study before the relationship between 

VL, documentary film and the curriculum are highlighted. Following this, literature on the 

development of VL through fiction film is explored and an argument made that documentary 

film incorporates similar aspects rich for VL development. The departure between mandated 

VL text exposure and documentaries is argued through twofold reasoning. The first addresses 

the necessary presence of authenticity within texts used as sources in VL education whilst the 

second explores the incongruency from curriculum guidelines in reviewing the repetitive 

nature of visuals in English Home Language (EHL) VL assessments – a factor identified as 

narrowing VL teaching (Moodley, 2015). The importance of intellectual viewing skills is argued 

by discussing the social power of the documentary genre before the limitations of subjectivity 

and reliability is addressed. The conclusion to this chapter will compress the above headings 

in a closing justification.  

2.2. Literature review 

Understanding visual literacy and documentary 

The notion of the image in composition as a necessary literacy for the modern student was 

introduced by the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA) in 1969 (Murray, 2009). The 

group was the first to stress the importance of teaching learners to be visually literate in order 

to ‘negotiate’ the ambush of visual media (Murray, 2009, p. 72). According to the IVLA, the 

practice of VL competencies both enables an individual to connect creatively, as well as 

comprehend and appreciate visual communication (Murray, 2009).  

A fixed, concrete definition for the concept of VL remains wanting. Rather, VL is recognised as 

a fluid term (Stafford, 2011) in the sense that it changes depending on its context. If one 

considers the subject of art, for example, the term becomes a rather complicated task to 

define, due to the many concepts and technical thoughts to be contemplated (Stafford, 2011). 

It therefore becomes necessary to modify our understanding when applying the term to 

Literacy. In order to make my study of VL both relevant and useful to the English curriculum - 

I have adopted the description introduced by the aforementioned founding group that VL:  

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘[r]efers to a group of vision competencies a human being can develop by 

seeing at the same time s/he has and integrates other sensory experiences. 

The development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human 

learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to 

discriminate and interpret the visible actions, object, and/or symbols, natural 

or man-made, that s/he encounters in her/his environment’. 

(IVLA Conference, 1969). 



 

 16 

This conceptualisation of VL is largely accepted amongst the research (see Giorgis, Johnson, 

Bonomo, Colbert, Conner, Kauffman, & Kulesza, 1999; Dondis, 1973; Fransecky & Debes, 

1972; Stafford, 2011; Murray, 2009; Avgerinou & Pettersson, 2011). Simply summarised, 

Giorgis et al. (1999) posits that VL is essentially the ability to create meaning from visual 

media. Although a basic assertion, it acknowledges that being able to derive meaning from 

images includes the employment of multiple higher order thinking skills. The former alludes to 

the argued notion that the act of reading is not synonymous with understanding and that, 

similarly, seeing is not simply a biological process but a learnt one instead (see Wittgenstein, 

1976; Mitchell, 1994; Stafford, 2011; Spencer, 2010). 

Advancing interest in the visual element of humanity is evident in the last two decades and 

Spencer (2010) provides two main arguments as to why researchers in the social sciences 

should focus their attention on visual study. The first recognises the visual realm as central to 

both human existence as well as expression since visual communication pre-dates logocentric 

language (Kress, 2010). The second argues that the value of visual communication is often 

underestimated through demoting its worth as minor in comparison to that of written text. If 

one considers the earliest documented cave paintings, it becomes clear that visual depictions 

are as old as human culture itself (Sapir, 1966; Kress, 2010) asserting the topic of VL as 

paramount.  

Images belong to a category of signs where an interpreter of signs attributes meaning through 

interpretation. Without the process of conceptualizing a sign remains meaningless. Signs 

perform the instrumental function of serving as tools for human knowledge, learning and 

development – therefore the semiotic dimension becomes implicit in the philosophy of 

education (Semetsky, 2013). The education system today still rarely attends to the questions 

of meaning beyond the written text (Semetsky, 2013). Simply summarised, semiotics includes 

the studying of signs (Semetsky, 2013), however, a recent theoretical development termed 

Edusemiotics (Semetsky, 2010) emphasizes the non-dichotomy of concept and image 

(Campbell & Olteanu, 2018). Olteanu (2015) suggests that ‘icons are the signs that afford 

learning, all signification having an iconic ground’ (p. 76). This emerging field of inquiry 

addresses educational semiotics as a philosophy for education in which a sign seen as the 

unit of analysis. This study recognises the importance of edusemiotics as a focused 

awareness of learning through semiotic engagement and the connections between a mind 

that processes signs, and a body that responds to signals (Stables & Semetsky, 2015). As an 

overarching theoretical framework, semiotics illuminates the relationship amongst visual 

literacy and meaning-investigation as well as facilitates the reanalysis of traditional subject 

areas and thus aggregates concepts such as VL and other perspectives on sign systems 

(Suhor & Little, 1988).  

One cannot consider the topic of VL without acknowledging the concept of visual text. Non-

literary text is best described as sources mediated through advertisements, film, and video 

(Kervin, Mantei & Herrington, 2009). Although many forms of graphic communication exist, 

this study will focus on documentary film as visual text.  



 

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Grounded in the Latin root word docere, documentary means to teach (McLane, 2012) 

although, similarly to VL a clear definition for the genre remains debated. Pioneering 

documentary theorist Nichols (2010) however posits that a documentary is considerably 

different from other genres as they address realities of the world and are created with different 

suppositions regarding purpose. He explains that films from this category are reliant on the 

successful depiction of authenticity through various qualities beginning with the appearance 

of movement. The genre came to exist in the 1930’s and has since been considered to provide 

a viewer with the engagement of reality based on the interplay of information, account, feeling 

and imagination (Bondebjerg, 2014b). The notion of arrangements of perceptibility refers to 

the creative arrangement of sensorial perceptions (such as sounds, music, speech, and 

visuals) in a documentary film (van Munster & Sylvest, 2013). To record what is factual and 

authentic serves as a modern meaning of the genre (McLane, 2012). Documentary is one of 

three rudimental modes in film and are differentiated from fictional forms through the following 

distinct features: 1) subjects and ideologies; 2) purpose, viewpoint, and approach; 3) forms; 

4) production methods and techniques; 5) the experience they offer (McLane, 2012).  

As for the first, documentaries for the most part concern factual public matters. Humanity, 

places, politics and other problems depicted in this genre are actual and largely current. 

Secondly, documentaries record personal, social, natural, institutional, and political cases with 

the intention of influencing both interest and understanding as well as behavioural change 

(McLane, 2012, Nichols, 2010). Nature documentaries with the topic of wildlife conservation 

is a sub-genre of documentary film optimising on the goal of truthfulness. Wildlife films are 

powerful vehicles for spreading information about nature as well as animals and such films 

have the power to influence both the attitudes and actions of those who view them. These 

documentaries accomplish the former through high-end research, storytelling, and 

professional filming (Africa Media, 2010). Not only do we learn new facts about nature upon 

viewing a wildlife documentary, but an onlooker is also given the opportunity to experience an 

emotional closeness to nature through film which transcends physical-logistical proximity. The 

purpose of documentary filmmakers is to record actuality in order to persuade or influence our 

perceptions or actions in relation to the content. Therefore, ultimately a wildlife documentary 

aims to evoke our sense of responsibility in efforts towards conservation. 

Form includes the filmmaker’s selections regarding visuals, sound, artistic vision as well as 

the structuring of these elements. Regardless of the arrangement, documentaries are limited 

to, and derived from actuality (McLane, 2012) consequently, films in this genre are bound to 

extracting only what already exists as opposed to fictional creations. Documentary form is 

predominantly functional and follows a chronological movement. Similarly, the wildlife 

documentary selected in this study succeeds in a logical discourse presenting the story of a 

poacher’s journey towards a life of baking. The production techniques of a documentary refer 

to the manner in which images are captured, sounds recorded and the editing of these 

elements. One could accurately summarise the chief conditions of documentary as the use of 

non-actors, location shooting and manipulation of lighting/audio features only for the 

enhancement of truthful representation (McLane, 2012).  



 

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Finally, documentaries seek to achieve a twofold viewer response: an aesthetic experience 

accompanied by conviction and changed behaviour (McLane, 2012). Jasen (2015) argue that 

critical writing on documentary film is incomparable to the expository attention given to the 

minutiae of narrative cinema.  

In summary, this study conceptualises VL as the skill to draw meaning from visual stimuli and 

documentaries as non-fiction films that aim to represent real people, places, and shared 

worries. The research recognises VL as a primary concern for current education since visual 

communications products aggressively continue to infiltrate our environments – a topic that 

will be discussed in the following heading. 

The proliferation of visual communication 

Much of the literature describes human society as a budding visual culture (Gombrich, 1996; 

Mirzeoff, 1999; Spencer, 2010; Kress, 2010). One could agree that Atkinson and Silverman 

(1997) appropriately foregrounded the recent proliferation of visual media in their avowal 

twenty-five years ago that we are an obsessively visual society, one that even takes on the 

role of the voyeur. A notion further supported by the identification of a late modern ‘visual turn’ 

(Spencer, 2010, p. 47) towards an ocular-centric preoccupation (Jay, 1994; Jenks, 1995; 

Mitchell, 1994) within the literature. Lewis (2007, p. 5) even proposes the existence of a 

‘mediasphere’ in which visual media is used to symbolise the conflux of macro and micro 

means of communication as well as social engagement (Lewis, 2005; Lewis & Lewis, 2006). 

Pictorial media functions at our elementary level of observation (Spencer, 2010). The notion 

that the visual embodies the potential to both mesmerize as well as influence is echoed in 

Wittgenstein’s (1976) remark that ‘[a] picture held us captive. And we could not get outside of 

it, for it lay in our language’ (p. 48). Visual communication deeply affects our emotions, 

identities, and thoughts (Spencer, 2010). Not only are we regarded as visual beings (Spencer, 

2010, Bondebjerg, 2014a) we further occupy a visual world in which an array of meaning is 

expressed and consumed in our daily lives. As far back as thirty years ago, Dondis (1973) 

acknowledged the development of VL as being ‘as vital to our teaching of the modern media 

as reading and writing was to print’ (p. 18). However long ago, this assertion seems to be truer 

now than ever before (Stafford, 2011). Visual media has progressively and continues to rapidly 

assert itself in our surroundings. Adults and children alike spend increasing amounts of time 

viewing films, reading comics or magazines, and accessing a multitude of each on various 

websites (Peel & Bell, 1994; Stafford, 2011). The welcomed exposure to new forms of visual 

experiences is indorsed by both the changes in the form and variability as well as the emersion 

of new media technology (Stafford, 2011).  

Spencer (2010) however, argues that our attraction towards the visual is not only based on 

the ease of access and available formats but more so on the explicitness and immediacy with 

which a multisensory experience is delivered through such media. Multisensory experiences 

are profound and affect us before our sense-making processes are ignited (Bondebjerg, 

2014a, Spencer, 2010).  



 

 19 

Amongst others, Pink (2007) maintains that sensory experiences provoke elusive, pre-

reflective reactions and argues for the primacy of such experiences in their inseparable link to 

human perception, comprehension, and practice. Reflecting on this, it would not be deemed 

radical that the literature outlines the importance of promoting the reading, understanding, and 

evaluating the variation of media we are frequently exposed to in order to successfully arrange 

our world (Dondis, 1973; Makin & Whitehad, 2004; Stafford, 2011). The appraisal of such skills 

has unsurprisingly transformed our measurement of what it means to be literate as well as 

what could be identified as literacy in contemporary times – a notion effectively expressed 

through Makin and Whitehead’s declaration ‘[n]ow when people speak of literacy, they often 

include listening, talking, reading, writing, viewing and critical thinking’ (2004, p. 116).  

Some would argue that the proliferation of the documentary genre occurred alongside the 

evolvement of traditional film (Dirks, N.D.) where Flaherty’s Nanook of the North (1922) is 

commonly cited as the first feature-length documentary. Walt Disney Productions 

subsequently pioneered a fourteen-episode serial release of thirty minute nature 

documentaries through its production of A True-Life Adventures in 1948. Over the years, the 

documentary genre has undergone major technological changes from single screening to 

moving image (McLane, 2012). Recently, Fox News reporter K. Torres published an article in 

2021 on how documentaries were becoming the fastest-growing streaming genre in modern 

times. Data received from Parrot Analytics analysed the insights and views from several 

streaming platforms which indicated a soaring sixty-three percent increase in the documentary 

genre between January 2018 and March 2021. The same data showed that demand for this 

genre however reached a skyrocketing hundred and twenty-four percent.  

Considering the former, it is unsurprising that curriculum outlines include documentary film as 

valuable non-literary text resources. However, as the review will later argue, the published 

inclusion of documentary film in VL teaching does not ensure its incorporation in VL teaching 

practice. Before this argument is presented, it is important to understand the expected 

outcomes of VL in the SP, EHL classroom stipulated in curriculum. 

Visual literacy and documentary in the South African Curriculum and Assessment 

Policy Statement (CAPS) 

The exact placement of VL under both established curriculum headings as well as subject 

areas may differ from country-to-country, however, its inclusion in education programmes as 

a vital skill for any twenty-first century learner is globally undisputable. Despite its exclusion 

from previously segregated language syllabi during apartheid, the current democratic South 

African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS, 2011) lists VL as a critical skill 

under the topic ‘Language Learning’ in the EHL subject (p. 27). More precisely, it is recorded 

under the learning outcome ‘Reading and Viewing’ (CAPS, 2011, p. 25). Reading and viewing 

skills are considered as central to successful cross-curriculum learning, and according to this 

curriculum section, the reading of visual ensembles facilitates the necessary shift from passive 

in-taker to conscious attendee consequently igniting a learner’s awareness of chosen rhetoric 

to accomplish a pre-determined message (CAPS, 2011).  



 

 20 

Incited by the former, the policy outlines precise skills and objectives in the teaching of VL for 

the SP learner. These include the teaching of: (1) persuasive techniques such as emotive 

language, persuasion, bias, and manipulative language; (2) how language and visuals reflect 

as well as shape values and attitudes; (3) the impact and use of fonts, sizes, headings, and 

captions; and lastly (4) analysing, interpreting, evaluating, and responding to a variety of 

graphic media (CAPS, 2011, p. 27). The document regards language (visual, verbal and 

written) as a tool for cognition, thought as well as expression (CAPS, 2011) and VL as 

imperative for critical thinking. The policy continues to state that leaners are to ‘develop 

proficiency in reading and viewing a wide range of literary and non-literary texts, including 

visual texts’ (CAPS, 2011, p. 25).  

Begoray (2001) argues that any English language curricula should acknowledge the multiple 

forms of literacy the modern youth encounter. In accordance, CAPS lists numerous multimedia 

texts to be studied by the Home Language (HL) learner. Alongside poetry and drama, you will 

find newspapers, radio talks, television programs and documentaries as products of literacy 

mandated by CAPS for the development of reading and viewing in the SP. Curricula 

expectations further demand that learners practice the application of film study meta-language 

in their ‘intensive reading of multimodal and visual text’ and their effect (see Error! Reference 

source not found. CAPS, 2011, p. 30).  

Table 2-1 CAPS reading and viewing skills 

Identify and discuss the way visual elements are integrated with written text in multimodal 

texts, e.g. layout, illustrations, graphic information. 

Identify and discuss the purpose and message in visual texts for information, e.g. graphs, 

tables, documentaries, charts, maps. 

Identify and discuss the message and effectiveness of visual elements of advertisements 

and the relationship between the written and the visual elements. 

Identify and discuss the purpose and message in visual texts which show relationships, e.g. 

mind-maps, diagrams, pie charts, maps, plans.  

Identify and discuss the purpose, aesthetic qualities and design of visual texts created for 

aesthetic purposes, e.g., photographs, film, design elements.  

Identify and discuss the purpose and message of visual texts created for enjoyment and 

entertainment, e.g., film, cartoons, music videos, comic strips.  

Identify and discuss the message and effectiveness of visual texts which support speaking, 

e.g., posters, diagrams, data projection.  



 

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Identify, understand, analyse, and evaluate the relationship between sound, speech, action 

and visual elements in film and other audio-visual forms.  

 

Although VL enjoys a solidified place in the existing CAPS document, its implementation in 

teaching practice remains troublesome (Moodley, 2014; Moodley, 2012). Multiple barriers such 

as economic status, school curricula awareness as well as educator expertise hinder exposure 

to, meaningful engagement with visual stimuli (Moodley, 2014). Due to the exclusion of critical 

thinking skills in past segregated language curricula, many current South African educators 

are faced with teaching a language skill they were never taught (Moodley, 2014). Adding to 

educator shortcomings is the complex pluralistic layout of South African English HL 

classrooms wherein each learner embodies varying VL skill sets (Moodley, 2015). 

Simultaneously, more and more non-native English-speaking learners are selecting to study 

English on a HL level whilst undertrained teachers are increasingly expected to teach VL in 

the classroom (Moodley, 2015) resulting in an amalgamation of learning and teaching 

impediments. Unconfident teachers having to navigate such circumstances tend to rely on 

past assessments as teaching guide, consequently excluding creativity in VL teaching 

practices (Moodley, 2015). Before 2005, the study of VL was only included in the English HL 

syllabus, however, since then all eleven official languages are expected to include VL as a 

teaching and learning objective (Moodley, 2010).  

The privileged position English and Afrikaans held resulted in their constant systemization 

from which rich schemata are continually produced – on the other side, previously 

marginalized languages are only just starting to produce authentic visual and formal resources 

(Moodley, 2015). A lack of visual resources in indigenous African home languages often lead 

to the translation of visual texts from English or Afrikaans, resulting in the distortion of original 

meanings as well as compromises the authenticity of text-engagement (Moodley, 2014). 

Although this study focuses on English HL speakers and documentary as text type, I hope to 

demonstrate how moving image accompanied by verbal and non-verbal elements in film can 

be incorporated to teach VL – a particularly important aspect that overlaps with the increasing 

production of films in the African languages. As more African language works are produced, it 

is important to consider how such works may be incorporated in the African languages HL 

classrooms for the development of VL. Perhaps, this thesis may encourage a non-native 

English-speaking educator to incorporate an available, authentic African film as their next VL 

text instead of translating existing resources.  

Developing visual literacy through documentary film 

Films expand our concept of the world by introducing us to new struggles, innovations, and 

beliefs beyond our daily existence (Parry, 2013). The connection between film and VL is a rich 

and optimistic one, however, literacy researchers have not thoroughly explored this in recent 

years (Parry, 2013) – particularly the relationship between VL and documentary film.  



 

 22 

Phillips (2012) posits that modern learners are film orientated, arguably an inclination that 

teachers should utilise rather than ignore.  

Kidron (2012) expands on the latter by contending that films are the twentieth century’s most 

influential art form. She argues that films have the potential to cut across physical and linguistic 

boundaries through their narratives. A story is the narrative or telling of an occurrence (Curran 

Bernard, 2007). Regardless of the shape, narrative is crucial in life as well as in literacy 

sources and Hardy (1975) describes narrative as the primary act of thought. Furthermore, 

(Parry, 2013) states that narrative is universal and takes on the form of written text, verbal 

language, as well as still or moving images.  

Despite its many forms, traditional notions of literacy teaching mostly include print-based 

resources (Parry, 2013). Thus, although many researchers argue that narrative-engagement 

is vital in developing children’s literacy (see Robinson, 1997; Pappasa, 1993; Hardy, 1975; 

Parker, 1999) film and other narrative media, such as documentaries are often disregarded in 

literacy education (Lambirth, 1994; Parry, 2013). Such discount stands in contrast to the 

exposure learners receive in out-of-school environments such as at home where their 

experiences of narrative is largely visual, moving (films) and/or screen-based (Parry, 2013; 

Morris, 2005; Hill Bulman, 2017). Much literature can be found on the teaching of VL through 

film (see Hill Bulman, 2017; Riddle, 2009; Miller, 1994, Parry, 2013). Although, the topic mostly 

includes educational as well as feature films in their research and argue for the development 

of VL through analysing visual images, camera techniques, character(s), plot, and the use of 

verbal elements. Evaluating content and composition, identifying intended messages, and 

analysing the use of layout, sound and language are outcomes well associated with VL 

development and drama film (Strafford, 2010; Bulman, 2017; Riddle, 2009; Miller, 1994, Parry, 

2013) which this study argues could be applied to a documentary film. This paper finds its gap 

in the notable lack of critical academic studies on cinematography (Morgan, 2011). Uncovering 

themes, messages and values imbedded in all genres of film is a crucial topic which should 

enjoy attention and aim to equip individual viewers with the necessary skills in uncovering 

meanings in technical cues (Zaki & Santiago, 2014).  

It is appreciated that film (children’s film and/or animation film) each have their own motive or 

audience and incorporate different technical aspects to create the finished feature, however, 

reading of film research defines moving-image media (film, animation, and television) as film 

(Parry, 2013; Hill Bulman, 2017).  

Since it is argued that the rules of reading such media are interwoven and combined to 

determine VL progression, this study accepts and uses the term film in its broadest sense (Hill 

Bulman, 2017). Film is very much like language and an education on the quasi-language of 

films facilitates greater potential meaning for an observer as there is a strong element of our 

observation of images that depends on learning (Monaco, 2014). Albeit different in purpose 

and subject, documentary filmmaker Peedom (2019) argues that the fundamental rules of 

fiction storytelling apply to productions in the documentary genre as well. She claims that the 



 

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element of story, conflict, structure, and character are core to any successful documentary as 

they are in feature films.  

Although the notion of narrative is closely related to fictional films, documentary films still 

comprise a unique form of storytelling. Narrative in documentary films provide an account of 

real-life events and to some degree mimic the style of story found in feature films. However, 

instead of a scripted plot, a documentary film’s narrative follows a timeline of connected true 

happenings. Characters in documentaries are not actors but real people who demonstrate 

authentic inner/outer conflict, emotion and embody distinctive characteristics. The conflict 

element of a documentary is not manufactured (Peedom, 2019), but rather presented through 

genuine social concerns. There are many types of conflict in documentary features, such as 

societal, political or relationship conflict to name a few. The antagonist to the conflict can be a 

real person, time as in The Rescue (Chin & Chai Vasarhelyi, 2022), or even nature as in 

Touching the Void (Macdonald, 2003). Structure more than often parallels fiction films with the 

progression of a beginning, middle and end. The three-act- structure is a popular composition 

in the genre of documentary where the first act foregrounds the premise and introduces the 

character(s), the second carries the conflict or complications and the third presents the 

resolution through either success or failure of goals set up in act one (Peedom, 2019).  

Rogers (2015) reports on the presence of creative invention in documentary films which 

consequently opened channels of shared stylistic elements from fiction cinema to non-fiction 

productions. As seen in drama films, documentary films similarly present a story with carefully 

selected camera angles and audio/visual background to enhance emotion or to add drama to 

certain instances with the difference being that true happenings are highlighted by such 

elements as opposed to scripted occurrences. 

Although the framework for VL used in this study (see Figure 2-1) is presented in chapter 

three, its inclusion is useful at this point to better reflect how documentary can develop VL in 

the EHL classroom.  

 



 

 24 

 

Figure 2-1 Framework for visual literacy 

The framework includes VL outcomes outlined by Moodley (2015) as well as cinematographic 

syntax as suggested by Monaco (2009), Brown (2012), and Metz (1974). To further my 

argument of how documentary film facilitates VL development, I refer to verbal elements and 

visual images as contributors to VL and review how non-speech features add to the message 

of a documentary under the below sub-headings.  

How do visual images and verbal elements in documentary contribute to VL 

development? 

Although documentary is underpinned by realism, it remains persuasive, subjective, emotional 

and narrative (Rogers, 2015). Visual images refer to anything captured on screen (Rogers, 

2015; Nichols, 2001). This includes any objects, people, places, movement in the 

fore/background during filming as well as digital graphs to depict factual data to name a few. 

The visual depiction presented to the viewer consists of purposeful camera shots, angle and 

focus (Rogers, 2015, Nichols, 2001; McLane, 2012). Tilting of the camera, zooming in or out, 

or panning across a landscape are all selections made by the filmmaker(s) in order to deliver 

a particular meaning. The most successful documentary films incorporate similar styles 

pertaining to fiction features (Rogers, 2015). Edited, high-end filming non-fiction films such as 

Spellbound (Jeffrey Blitz, 2002) use strong narrative and music to create dramatic climatises, 

tension and release (Rogers, 2015). 



 

 25 

Similarly, wildlife films require costly equipment, preparation, and patience (Gouyon, 2019). 

Reflecting on an example such as Wild Karnataka (Amoghavarsha, & Kalyan, 2019) you will 

often see a bird’s eye view camera angle displaying the landscape of Karnataka. This angle 

is largely selected to emphasize the vastness of the location and to position the viewer before 

approaching a closer angle of an animal or scene. Camera angles bolster narrative and 

provide context. Eye level shots of an animal for example can contribute to a viewer’s 

experience of being a part of the story and gaining close perspective of the experience of the 

subject (Horak, 2006). In combination with camera angle, focusing and blurring settings can 

be used to show movement or to bring something to the viewer’s attention. For example, a 

filmmaker may wish to identify a camouflaging animal by placing it in focus whilst blurring the 

background. In relation to visual aspects, body language of both animals and characters in 

documentaries lend themselves to interpretation. In the documentary When Lambs Become 

Lions (Jon Kasbe, 2018) a prominent Kenyan ivory poacher is interviewed throughout the film. 

Whilst being filmed the poacher is positioned in a dark setting, with close-ups of him smoking 

and in a seated position of notoriety. These are only a few examples present in wildlife films 

and the specifics thereof will be detailed further in chapter three as part of the data analysis. I 

now wish to refer to the VL outcomes as stipulated in table one. Considering the former 

discussion in comparison to the table, it is hardly surprising that codes of visual texts as 

theoretically outlined is embedded in documentary films. Under the heading of text selection, 

we find that analysing camera angle, framing, body language, colour tone and 

fore/background are all VL aspects present in documentary film. 

Verbal elements in documentary take on various forms including narration, interviews, or 

character accounts (McLane, 2012, Nichols, 2001). Sound (verbal and non-verbal) is vital in 

creating an immersive viewer experience in documentary (Rogers, 2015). The verbal features 

in documentary are complimented by visual images and vice-versa. In combination, the two 

offer an impactful multi-sensory encounter (Nichols, 2001, McLane, 2012, Rogers, 2015). 

Narrative delivered through a familiar person exposing a recognisable truth is deeply powerful 

(Nichols, 2001). When watching a documentary, the onlooker is presented with relatable 

characters, situations and places which evokes immediate feelings of trustworthiness 

(Nichols, 2001). A documentary film much like literature and drama uses language for a variety 

of reasons: to communicate an intended message, to awaken specific emotions and to 

persuade or effect viewer behaviour (Moodley, 2019). The presence of narration in a 

documentary creates the feeling of a godly presence (McLane, 2012; Nichols, 2001). This 

feature is very powerful and reaches viewers on a deep psychological level (Nichols, 2001; 

Nichols, 2010; McLane, 2012).  

If we reflect on the framework for VL (see Figure 2-1) then it becomes intelligible that 

documentaries embody many of these outlined outcomes necessary for the development of 

reading and viewing. Just considering the heading codes of visual texts: body language, 

camera angles, framing and fore/background are all elements embedded withing a 

documentary feature. Contemplating the heading critical visual literacy awareness, we find 

that diction, figurative language, emotive language, intended effect on the reader etc. are but 

a few outcomes exercisable through documentary film.  



 

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How do non-speech sounds contribute to the message of a documentary? 

Modern digital time has complicated the conceptualisation of realism with regards to sound 

and music (Rogers, 2015). Humans have become highly attuned to pervasive music through 

daily exposure in shops, television, and mobile media. A phenomenon which has left us 

increasingly sonically aware (Rogers, 2015). In addition, the engorgement of music in 

mainstream fiction productions which has shaped viewers into accomplished image 

consumers with the help of musical intent. Music in film is recognised as an impactful 

persuader – a main purpose of the documentary genre (Rogers, 2015). In documentary then, 

music’s role is obsolete as a key to emotional and rhythmic persuasion.  

Rogers (2015) argues that the relationship between music and a documentary film relies on 

the notion of aesthetics and knowledge and that music is an important aspect of 

aestheticization. She continues to state that aesthetic designs such as music and sound 

support the communication of knowledge in documentary features. Filmmakers of the genre 

use sound or music in combination with image to document reality and audio/visual 

landscapes have become prominent features of documentary films (Rogers, 2015). The 

addition of non-speech sounds in documentaries came from a desire to deliver affective impact 

through sensory engagement (Rogers, 2015). In short, non-speech sounds help to capture or 

maintain viewer attention whilst enhancing the experience of a complex visually portrayed 

event (Rogers, 2015).  

Music and sound can be used to enhance the pace and rhythm of verbal elements or can 

promote placement in accompanying visual shots of a landscapes (Rogers, 2015). Music can 

be used to indicate inner conflict such as in Man of Aran (Flaherty, 1934) where music is used 

to express inner emotion and empathy for the islanders (Rogers, 2015). Documentary 

soundtracks can also promote audience appeal by including contemporary music. Music plays 

a significant role in the shaping of both mood and manner in which key events are anticipated 

through audio/visual portrayal (Rogers, 2015). Reflecting on the close-up shots of a giant 

basking shark in Man of Aran (Flaherty, 1934), the single-notes of a metallic-sounding guitar 

imitates whale singing which is representative of the ‘otherworldliness’ (Rogers, 2015, p. 145) 

of the monstrous yet passive shark. The distortion and reverb of the music is also used to 

communicate the agony of the fish being murdered (Rogers, 2015). In La Vie Moderne 

(Depardon, 2009) music is used sparingly as the viewer is presented with the visual of a vast 

landscape. This technique is employed to encourage conscious viewing so that viewers are 

vicariously positioned (Rogers, 2015). The pausing of music at certain points may place 

onlookers as voyeurs whilst the intensification thereof would signal approaching turbulence.  

Music fulfils a conventional function in supporting narrative development and changes in mood 

or intensity of action (Rogers, 2015). As in fiction films, music in documentaries exercises 

referential tasks in terms of viewer interpretation with the difference being that it plays upon 

the record of truth. Music or sound are active elements in the expansion of both focus and 

knowledge (Rogers, 2015). As we have honoured reading, why not honour viewing to a similar 

degree (Parry, 2013).  



 

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Documentaries are a meeting place of narrative, music, and image perfectly suiting VL 

outcomes. The above argues the presence of elements commonly associated with VL 

development through film which are shown to be present in documentary film as well. As 

formerly stated, research on the topic of VL popularly includes children’s’ films or graphic 

media and neglects the rich VL opportunities documentary film provides. If we reflect to the 

metafunctions of representation, orientation and organization as identified by Halliday (1973) 

and (1978) it becomes clear that audio/visual features play major functions in the creation of 

meaning.  

Under the heading of representation reference is made to meanings shown through visual, 

verbal and audio manners. Here a viewer investigates what the shots portray and ask related 

questions regarding what the music/soundtrack suggests. Sound in a documentary can 

symbolise or exemplify aspects such as setting where the clattering of keyboards can be 

included to personify an office, or in the case of wildlife documentaries the sound of insects is 

included to personify nature. Orientation deals with how meanings position readers and 

viewers. One must question whether the characters or objects are framed as distant, isolated 

or static as our associated proximity to what is shown on the screen will influence both our 

experience of, and identification with the characters or portrayed experiences and thus define 

our emotional responses (Ladema, 2011). Camera use, angle and focus play a vital role in a 

viewer’s orientation towards the content – all of which are aspects of VL. Camera movement 

can communicate a sense of dynamism, urgency, immediacy, or dissociation. Adding to the 

camera work, soundtracks additionally influence orientation when we regard the perceived 

distance created between the viewer and the sound – is the listener close to the scene and 

action (is the sound loud and clear) or can they only discern it from a distance? (is the sound 

barely audible). Lastly, organisation refers to the sequencing and integration of all the 

audio/visual features in creating dynamic-text meaning (Ledema, 2011). The editing of the text 

in entirety is also reviewed under this function as it imposes a particular semiotic structure and 

rhythm: beginning, middle and end. Rhythm interweaves speech, movement, images, sound 

and other macro-textual structuring and ultimately has a significant effect on how we read the 

filmic text (van Leeuwen, 1985). The ordering of audio/visual content and ultimately the 

argument of any documentary inevitably relates to the rhetoric. The reason for identifying the 

contributing rhetorical tools of the metafunctions are to give the viewer a sense of how various 

elements complement each other and in consummation add to the message of the 

documentary (Ledema, 2011).  

Now that I have addressed how the audio and visual features of a documentary film may 

develop VL, it is important to continue to discuss the curriculum disregard between VL practice 

and VL outlines.  

  



 

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Incongruency between visual literacy, documentary film and CAPS 

Even though VL has enjoyed a fixed position in CAPS since 2011; it remains a controversial 

topic in current South Africa. Moodley (2015) argues that multiple factors have added to and 

continue to aggravate the unstable foundations of language learning in the country. Such 

instability persistently threatens the acquisition of the crucial skill ‘reading and viewing’.  

She alludes to former educational designs influenced by racist policies resulting in segregated 

language outlines. Critical thinking terms relating to VL (such as ‘observe, see, discriminate’) 

were purposely excluded from certain language programs - such as the African languages’ 

(Moodley, 2015, p. 2055). The reality is that past discriminatory choices as such resulted in 

the omittance of meaningful VL education for many. An injustice undoubtedly experienced by 

some who are expected to teach it today. Such political decisions bred the marginalization of 

African languages - stunting their development of both visual resources as well as VL 

development (Moodley, 2015). To this day, lack of authentic HL visual media continues to 

facilitate a deficit mode within learners who hail from historically disadvantaged languages in 

South Africa (Moodley, 2014; 2015). Built on such inequalities, Moodley (2012) identifies the 

consequent inability of educators themselves to aptly interact with visual texts in a meaningful 

manner as a major contributor to curriculum unresponsiveness in VL education.  

Not only is content (teacher content knowledge as well as visual resources) a challenging 

barrier to VL acquisition, but so is assessment. In studying the VL section of Grade twelve 

EHL summative test papers, Moodley (2014) identifies and highlights the continuous inequality 

of texts included for the assessment of VL across six different South African languages. Whilst 

Moodley (2015) points out the potential negative washback effects of language assessment 

and the resulting teaching-to-test narrowing of the VL curriculum. The teaching-to-test 

phenomena is accurately summarised by Moodley’s statement that educators ‘who do not 

understand visual literacy concepts [] compensate for their deficits and challenges by teaching 

to exam papers’ (2012, p. 220). Predating this, Madaus (1988) argued that ‘[it] is testing, not 

the ‘’official’’ stated curriculum, that is increasingly determining what is taught’ (p. 83). Incited 

by the latter and the idea of a watered down VL syllabus guided by past assessments 

(Moodley, 2015), I establish my study in the dichotomy between stated curriculum policy and 

text selection in VL education. 

In mimicking Moodley (2015), I reviewed the non-literary text choices of the SP (Grade seven 

and nine) Annual National Assessment (ANA) for EHL. The two papers are from the year 2015 

and sourced from the Department of Basic Education. Both papers include an advertisement 

followed by a poster (Grade seven paper) and a cartoon (Grade nine paper) as visual texts. 

Upon reviewing the visual sources of the previous year’s (2014) Grade nine EHL ANA, an 

advertisement followed by a cartoon is yet again present. Although such texts are congruent 

with the curriculum, it is clear that certain genres are both repetitive and expected (similarly 

found in Grade twelve exam papers by Moodley, 2015). A troubling repercussion of poor text 

variation in nationally implemented tests is that undiscerning educators may carelessly teach 

VL using similar variation.  



 

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The predictable nature of visual texts within standardised assessments not only have a 

negative impact on text exposure in VL education but furthermore emphasises the disunity in 

practice and syllabus by failing to offer learners an opportunity to interpret and evaluate a wide 

range of graphic texts [the emphasis of this paper].  

Considering the profound effect visual media has on society, along with the bombardment of 

such media in the last thirty years – the matter of text selection in VL development becomes 

paramount to probe. One might find varying interpretations of what VL development exactly 

entails, however, a consensus that it is fundamentally dependent on authentic text 

engagement is existent in the literature (see Reynolds-Myers, 1985; Avgerinou et al., 2011; 

Stafford, 2011, Riddle, 2009). The recognising of worthy visual texts is a most important 

consideration as quality texts allow learners to analyse visual resources beyond a superficial 

level and make connections between the visual and their universal realities (Moodley, 2015).  

Limited incorporation of non-literary texts is especially concerning as Reynolds and Meyers 

(1985) argue that VL development directly relies on a learner’s interactivity with a visual 

resource, and that the maturation of a VL skill is contingent on the relevance of such a source. 

In an article investigating successful text selection in the United States, Sharma & Christ 

(2017) contend that educators should recognise the increasing need for socially reactive 

education, become more aware of their students’ personal contexts and create opportunities 

for critical and individual responses to different forms of graphic sources. VL texts should not 

prioritise ‘correct’ answers, but more importantly, afford a learner an opportunity to read the 

visual text, read ‘into’ the visual text and be able to notice connections between the source 

and possible shared ideas (Moodley, 2014, p. 214).  

Selecting genuine visual texts is a challenging task exacerbated by our national linguistic and 

cultural diversity. Many researchers strongly argue against the notion of a neutral text (Pierce 

& Stein, 1995; Shortis & Jewitt, 2005; Moodley, 2012; Stafford, 2011; Spencer, 2010; Kress, 

2010) increasing our responsibility as educators to be critical in our text choices. Callow 

(2008), however, offers the ‘affective’ factor as a basis of authenticity in both visual text choice 

and VL assessment (p. 618). This principal allows for personal interpretation requiring viewers 

to draw on th