The AfricAn JournAl of informATion And communicATion (AJIC) issue 27, 2021 Published by the LINK Centre University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) Johannesburg, South Africa https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre ISSN 2077-7213 (online version) ISSN 2077-7205 (print version) ARTICLES Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown: A Study of High School Students in Ibadan, Nigeria Olayinka Stephen Ilesanmi, Aanuoluwapo Adeyimika Afolabi & Ayodeji Matthew Adebayo Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education: Marginalisation of Traditional Medicinal Treatments in Rwandan TVET Animal Health Courses Chika Ezeanya-Esiobu, Chidi Oguamanam & Vedaste Ndungutse Supervised Machine Learning for Predicting SMME Sales: An Evaluation of Three Algorithms Helper Zhou & Victor Gumbo A Taxonomy to Understand Scaling of Innovation by African Enterprises Chris Armstrong & Jeremy de Beer Narrative Styles and Institutional Isomorphism in South African CEOs’ Shareholder Letters Elda du Toit & Leana Esterhuyse Reviewing a Decade of Human–Computer Interaction for Development (HCI4D) Research, as One of Best’s “Grand Challenges” Judy van Biljon & Karen Renaud CRITICAL INTERVENTION The Neo-Colonial Political Economy of Scholarly Publishing: Its UK-US Origins, Maxwell’s Role, and Implications for Sub-Saharan Africa Eve Gray AJIC Issue 27, 2021 i The AfricAn JournAl of informATion And communicATion (AJic) issue 27, 2021 Published by the LINK Centre, School of Literature, Language and Media (SLLM), Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), Johannesburg, South Africa https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre/ajic The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) is a peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary, open access academic journal focused on the myriad dimensions of electronic and digital ecosystems that facilitate information, communication, innovation and transformation in African economies and in the broader Global South. Accredited by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), AJIC publishes online, free to the user, under a Creative Commons licence, and does not impose article processing charges. AJIC is indexed in Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO) SA, the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Sabinet African Journals, and Wits University WIReDSpace. ediToriAl Advisory BoArd Lucienne Abrahams, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Ufuoma Akpojivi, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Tania Ajam, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Olufunmilayo Arewa, Temple University, Philadelphia Bassem Awad, Western University, London, ON, Canada Erik de Vries, HAN University of Applied Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Barry Dwolatzky, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Nagy K. Hanna, author and international development strategist, Washington, DC Geci Karuri-Sebina, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Erika Kraemer-Mbula, University of Johannesburg Tawana Kupe, University of Pretoria Manoj Maharaj, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban Gillian Marcelle, Resilience Capital Ventures, Washington, DC Uche M. Mbanaso, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria Isayvani Naicker, African Academy of Sciences, Nairobi Caroline B. Ncube, University of Cape Town Nixon Muganda Ochara, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa Chidi Oguamanam, University of Ottawa Tunji Oloapa, Ibadan School of Government and Public Policy (ISGPP), Ibadan, Nigeria Marisella Ouma, Central Bank of Kenya, Nairobi Carlo M. Rossotto, World Bank Group, Washington, DC Ewan Sutherland, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Hossana Twinomurinzi, University of Johannesburg Aaron van Klyton, Ramapo College of New Jersey, Mahwah, NJ ediTors Managing Editor: Tawana Kupe, Vice-Chancellor, University of Pretoria, tawana.kupe@up.ac.za Corresponding Editor: Lucienne Abrahams, Director, LINK Centre, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, PO Box 601, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa, ajic.submissions@gmail.com Publishing Editor: Chris Armstrong, Research Associate, LINK Centre, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, chris.armstrong@wits.ac.za The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) ii Peer-reviewing AJIC acknowledges with gratitude the following peer reviewers of submissions published, or considered for publication, in this issue: Jason Cohen, Erik de Vries, Barry Dwolatzky, Uche M. Mbanaso, Isayvani Naicker, Vhonani Netshandama, Nixon Muganda Ochara, Marisella Ouma, Hossana Twinomurinzi, Audrey Verhaeghe, Aaron van Klyton ProducTion Sub-editing: LINK Centre Proofreading: Linda Van de Vijver Desktop-publishing: LINK Centre This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 AJIC is published by the LINK Centre, School of Literature, Language and Media (SLLM), Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), PO Box 601, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa. The LINK Centre is based at the Wits Tshimologong Digital Innovation Precinct, 41 Juta St., Braamfontein, Johannesburg, https://www.tshimologong.joburg ISSN 2077-7213 (online version) ISSN 2077-7205 (print version) Past issues of AJIC, and its precursor The Southern African Journal of Information and Communication (SAJIC), are available at https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre/ajic and https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre/ sajic AJIC Issue 27, 2021 iii conTenTs ARTICLES Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown: A Study of High School Students in Ibadan, Nigeria Olayinka Stephen Ilesanmi, Aanuoluwapo Adeyimika Afolabi & Ayodeji Matthew Adebayo Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education: Marginalisation of Traditional Medicinal Treatments in Rwandan TVET Animal Health Courses Chika Ezeanya-Esiobu, Chidi Oguamanam & Vedaste Ndungutse Supervised Machine Learning for Predicting SMME Sales: An Evaluation of Three Algorithms Helper Zhou & Victor Gumbo A Taxonomy to Understand Scaling of Innovation by African Enterprises Chris Armstrong & Jeremy de Beer Narrative Styles and Institutional Isomorphism in South African CEOs’ Shareholder Letters Elda du Toit & Leana Esterhuyse Reviewing a Decade of Human–Computer Interaction for Development (HCI4D) Research, as One of Best’s “Grand Challenges” Judy van Biljon & Karen Renaud CRITICAL INTERVENTION The Neo-Colonial Political Economy of Scholarly Publishing: Its UK-US Origins, Maxwell’s Role, and Implications for Sub-Saharan Africa Eve Gray AJIC Issue 27, 2021 ARTICLES AJIC Issue 27, 2021 1 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown: A Study of High School Students in Ibadan, Nigeria Olayinka Stephen Ilesanmi Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0827-6442 Aanuoluwapo Adeyimika Afolabi MPH Candidate, Department of Community Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9928-2252 Ayodeji Matthew Adebayo Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9912-100X Abstract Problematic internet use (PIU) has generally been strongly associated with depres- sion and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, especially among adolescents, with resulting consequences for their health. This study explores the pattern of internet use, and the prevalence of PIU before and during the COVID-19 lockdown, as well as the causes, effects, and potential mitigation measures in respect of PIU during the lockdown, among high school students in Ibadan, Nigeria. A structured ques- tionnaire, including a 20-question internet addiction test (IAT), was administered during the COVID-19 lockdown to 440 adolescents enrolled in high schools. Of these adolescents, 7.7% appeared from their responses to have had PIU before the COVID-19 lockdown period. However, 64.3% of respondents appeared from their responses to have had PIU during the COVID-19 lockdown period. The main rea- sons for the increased PIU were boredom, loneliness, idleness, pleasure gained from internet use, physical isolation, and the need for information and communication. The effects of PIU reported among the adolescents included reduced family inti- macy, poor academic performance, loss of concentration, as well as internet abuse and risky sexual behaviour. To mitigate PIU among high school students, parental monitoring of adolescents, and their internet access and use, should be promoted. In addition, programmes should be organised by the media and academic institutions to keep adolescents engaged in productive tasks. Keywords problematic internet use (PIU), internet addiction test (IAT), adolescents, high school students, COVID-19, lockdown, Ibadan, Nigeria The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 2 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to all the adolescents who participated in the study. No ex- ternal funding support was received for this study. Declaration The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Authors’ contributions OSI, AAA, and AMA conceptualised the study; OSI and AAA analysed the data; AAA wrote the first draft of the article; OSI and AMA reviewed and provided input on the draft; and all authors approved the final draft. DOI: https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/31373 Recommended citation Ilesanmi, O.S., Afolabi, A.A., & Adebayo, A.M. (2021). Problematic internet use (PIU) among adolescents during COVID-19 lockdown: A study of high school students in Ibadan, Nigeria. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC), 27, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/31373 This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 1. Introduction The outbreak of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19), first documented in Wuhan, China in late 2019, was declared a public health emergency by the World Health Or- ganisation in March 2020 (WHO, n.d.; Ilesanmi et al., 2021). As of 10 April 2021, COVID-19 had spread across 213 countries, with 135,945,439 confirmed cases and nearly 3 million deaths recorded globally (Afolabi & Ilesanmi, 2021; Worldometer, n.d.). In Africa, recorded COVID-19 cases and fatalities were highest in South Af- rica, Morocco, Tunisia, Ethiopia, Egypt, Libya, and Nigeria (Worldometer, n.d.). As of 10 April 2021, Nigeria had documented 163,736 confirmed COVID-19 cases and 2,060 deaths (Worldometer, n.d.). The COVID-19 lockdown period increased the use of computers and the internet as indispensable tools for accessing informa- tion and enhancing relationships (Donohue & Miller, 2020). Due to workplace clo- sures, the internet has also been increasingly adopted as a viable means of economic AJIC Issue 27, 2021 3 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown activity and job retention. Online meetings, the virtual scheduling of religious activ- ities, and online classes became routine during the lockdown period (Donohue & Miller, 2020). The internet is a technological tool which supports the growth of children and ad- olescents, and enhances research, intuition, problem solving skills, development of life skills, and critical thinking abilities (Cakmak & Gul, 2018). However, when used in an uncontrolled, purposeless, and excessive manner, it can negatively influence the development of positive and protective habits (Cakmak & Gul, 2018; Park et al., 2018). Problematic internet use (PIU) has been defined as a condition where an individual uses the internet excessively and cannot withdraw from the internet. The occurrence of PIU during the COVID-19 lockdown has been recognised in the lit- erature (Király et al., 2020). The occurrence of PIU could occur at any stage of life; however, adolescents are at the highest risk for its occurrence (Cakmak & Gul, 2018). Adolescents are particu- larly vulnerable to PIU because of the rapid mental, emotional, and social develop- ments occurring during this phase of life (Yang & Tung, 2007; Ceyhan, 2008). Due to their quest for knowledge during this developmental period, adolescents are more attracted than any other age group to technological tools (Cakmak & Gul, 2018). It has also been suggested that adolescents adopt internet usage as a means of substi- tuting the challenges faced in real life with the euphoria obtained from the virtual world (Brown, 2006). PIU has generally been strongly associated with reduced sleep- ing time, the tendency to postpone sleep, insomnia, increased alertness, excessive tiredness, and depression (Brown, 2006; Park et al., 2018). The failure to address the possible effects of PIU and to suggest mitigating factors could result in impaired cognitive capacity among adolescents with a resulting decline in their productivity in later years. This could pose great threats to the overall safety and productivity of Nigeria and the entire world. To the best of our knowledge, no research has been conducted regarding PIU among adolescents in Nigeria during the COVID-19 lockdown. According to the Nige- ria Demographic Health Survey, 15.6% of adolescents aged 15 to 19 years use the internet; most of them reside in urban settings (NPC & ICF, 2019). Research on the causes and effects of PIU is important to the development of further guidelines regarding PIU and its management while coping during a lockdown. This study therefore aimed to assess the pattern of internet use, and the prevalence of PIU be- fore and during the COVID-19 lockdown, as well as the causes, effects, and potential mitigation measures for PIU during the COVID-19 lockdown among high school students in the Nigerian city of Ibadan. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 4 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo 2. Research design Study sample The research took place during COVID-19 lockdown—between 27 July and 7 Au- gust 2020—in Ibadan, the capital of Oyo State. The study population consisted of adolescents in selected communities in the city. A minimum sample size of 460 was estimated for this study, using the Leshlie Kish formula for cross-sectional studies. (We used an estimated prevalence of 50%, a precision value of 5% due to the unavail- ability of sample size calculation in existing PIU literature, and a 20% non-response rate.) All eligible adolescents aged 10 to 18 years who provided consent were included in the study. A two-stage sampling technique was used to enrol respondents. In the first stage, a simple random sampling method was used to select four of the 11 local gov- ernment areas (LGAs) in Ibadan: Ibadan South-East, Ibadan South-West, Ibadan North, and Ibadan North-East. In the second stage, we selected a political ward from each of the four selected LGAs, again using a simple random sampling technique. In each of the four selected wards, a centre location was identified, and a bottle was rotated once on a map to determine the areas to be targeted in seeking interviewees. From the areas corresponding to the direction of the bottle tip, all eligible adolescents were included in the study. First, each adolescent was approached in their household and asked if they were enrolled in high school before the COVID-19 lockdown. All adolescents who provided positive responses about their school enrolment, and who were confirmed to be users of the internet, were then informed about the purpose of the study. (All those who were not enrolled in high school before the lockdown were excluded.) Respondents were informed that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. All participants were assured that all information obtained would remain confidential. Eligible but unwilling adolescents were excluded. Consent was obtained from each participating adolescent, and from a parent or an adult who could make decisions for the adolescent in the absence of a parent. Of the 460 eligible participants approached, we obtained permission and consent for 440 adolescents, thus yielding a response rate of 95%. No harm was inflicted on partici- pants as a result of their participation in this study. Data collection instrument A structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire was used for data collection (see questionnaire in Appendix). The questionnaire covered the following: • sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents and their parents (closed-ended questions); • pattern of internet use (closed-ended questions); • causes, effects, and factors associated with PIU during COVID-19 lock- down (open-ended questions); AJIC Issue 27, 2021 5 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown • strategies to mitigate PIU during COVID-19 lockdown (open-ended questions); and • an internet addiction test (IAT), which generated a PIU scale (see Appen- dix). The IAT is a 20-question tool, developed by Young (see Young & Rogers, 2009). The IAT has been validated in literature as a standard tool for assessing PIU and internet addiction, including among adolescents and young adults in Nigeria (Oshodi et al., 2012). A shift in paradigm has informed a trend towards focusing on PIU rather than internet addiction. Internet addiction describes uncontrolled engagement in online activities that offer no benefit to the user. PIU, meanwhile, allows for the real- ity that an online activity may ordinarily provide benefits to the user, but its excessive use can result in negative consequences. To date, there is no consensus on a tool to measure PIU; hence, the IAT is still being used to assess PIU. Using the IAT tool, 20 questions were asked on elements associated with PIU, both before and during the COVID-19 lockdown. These included questions such as the frequency of staying online longer than intended, the frequency of neglecting house- hold chores to spend more time online, the frequency of sleep loss due to late night log-ins, the frequency of hiding the length of time spent online, the frequency of feeling depressed or moody while offline, and the frequency of a decline in school grades or work performance. In addition to these, we asked questions about the fre- quency of being secretive about the online activity being engaged in, the frequency of prioritising email checks, the frequency of anticipating the next online schedule, the frequency of receiving complaints from others due to the time spent online, and the frequency of saying “just a minute more” when online. Other questions were asked about the frequency of preferring the internet to family intimacy, the failure to reduce time spent online, and the frequency of snapping or yelling when offline. A slight modification in the IAT was made to capture two different periods: before the COVID-19 lockdown, and during the lockdown. Data collection Data were collected by trained research assistants (RAs) who had all obtained at least a Bachelor’s degree. The RAs were trained on data collection for two days, on 25 and 26 July 2020. The questionnaire was pre-tested among adolescents in a community that was not selected for this study. After this pre-test, a few questions were modified. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Oyo State Ministry of Health Ethical Review Committee, with reference number AD/13/479/1779A. Data analysis Data analysis was done using SPSS version 23. Mean and standard deviation were used to summarise quantitative continuous variables such as age, while frequencies and percentages were used to summarise categorical variables such as age group. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 6 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo The pattern of internet use, the number of hours of daily internet access, the average time spent online per day, and the age of onset of internet use were computed using mean and standard deviation. Other details, such as the reasons for going online and the activities engaged in during the immediate past 24 hours, were also com- puted using frequency tables. Open-ended questions were asked about the causes of PIU, the effects of PIU, and strategies to reduce PIU. Closely related responses were grouped together when analysing the responses to these questions. Bivariate analysis was conducted using the Chi-square test, the t-test, and Pearson correlation. Pearson correlation was used to determine the strength of association between time spent online per day with sociodemographic and other internet use variables. Among the relationships of interest were the sociodemographic determinants of PIU before and during the COVID-19 lockdown, and associations between time spent online per day and sociodemographic characteristics. Statistically significant variables using Chi-square tests were used for the logistic regression model. The level of statistical significance was p<0.05. To determine the prevalence of PIU, IAT scores for each of the 20 questions in the IAT were computed using the frequency of occurrence of each symptom of PIU. A score of “0” was assigned for “not applicable”, “1” for “rarely”, “2” for “occasionally”, “3” for “frequently”, “4” for “often”, and “5” for “always”. Thus, the maximum IAT score for each of the two periods—the pre-lockdown period and the lockdown period— was 100 points across. Cumulative IAT scores ranging between 20 and 49 points were treated as evidence of “complete ability to control/limit one’s level of internet use”. Cumulative scores between 50 and 70 points were treated as suggestive of “oc- casional PIU” (i.e., occasional inability to control/limit one’s level of internet use). Cumulative IAT scores greater than 70 points were seen as suggesting “significant PIU” (i.e., significant inability to control/limit one’s level of internet use). 3. Findings Respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics A total of 440 respondents were interviewed, with a mean age of 14.15 ± 1.99 years. Of the respondents, 217 (49.3%) were males, 218 (49.5%) had attained junior high school, and 262 (59.5%) had three or fewer siblings. Other sociodemographic char- acteristics are as shown in Table 1. AJIC Issue 27, 2021 7 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of surveyed adolescents Variable Frequency % Age group (years) 10-12 88 20 13-15 238 54.1 16-18 114 25.9 Sex Male 217 49.3 Female 223 50.7 Current enrolment level Junior high school 218 49.5 Senior high school 222 50.5 Mother’s age group (years) Less than 45 184 41.8 45 and above 256 58.2 Father’s age group (years) Less than 45 62 14.1 45 and above 378 85.9 Father’s education level Primary school or below 36 8.2 High school or above 404 91.8 Mother’s education level Primary school or below 74 16.8 High school or above 366 83.2 Person lived with Parent 389 88.4 Guardian 51 11.6 Number of siblings Three or fewer 262 59.5 Four or more 178 40.5 The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 8 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo Pattern of internet use Smartphones were the most owned device, owned by 369 respondents (98.1%). Smartphones were also the most used internet access device, used by 368 respon- dents (97.9%), and the most common point of internet access was the smartphone, cited by 347 respondents (92.3%). The most frequently cited reason for going online during the lockdown was socialising, cited by 331 respondents (88%), and the most used social networking platforms were Facebook (used by 359 respondents (95.5%)) and WhatsApp (used by 338 respondents (89.9%)). More than a half of respondents (64.2%) used the internet daily (see Table 2). Table 2: Pattern of internet use Characteristics of internet use Frequency % Devices currently owned* Smartphone 369 98.1 Gaming device 76 20.2 Tablet 26 6.9 Laptop 11 2.9 Desktop computer 3 0.8 Devices used for internet access* Smartphone 368 97.9 Gaming device 45 12 Tablet 25 6.6 Laptop 10 2.7 Desktop computer 4 1.1 Internet points of access* Personal smartphone 347 92.3 Home 37 9.8 Paid hotspots 5 1.3 School 3 0.8 Free public hotspots 2 0.5 Reasons for going online* Socialising 331 88 Communication 266 70.7 School assignment 227 60.4 Information research 119 31.6 AJIC Issue 27, 2021 9 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown Internet social networking tools used* Facebook 359 95.5 WhatsApp 338 89.9 Snapchat 40 10.6 Twitter 40 10.6 Instagram 28 7.4 Eskimi 1 0.3 Daily internet use Yes 79 64.2 No 44 35.8 * = Multiple responses allowed As seen in Figure 1, 391 respondents (88%) had, in the past 24 hours, engaged in chatting with friends, while 263 (69.9%) had engaged in internet social networking. Reading magazines and books was also cited by 144 (38.3%), while watching mov- ies, serials and videos was cited by 141 individuals (37.5%). Figure 1: Online activities during the preceding 24 hours (during lockdown) The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 10 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo Pattern of PIU before and during the lockdown As seen in Figure 2, the IAT test scores at the time of the survey suggest that 347 respondents (92.3%) believed they had the complete ability to control their internet use (defined as cumulative IAT scores from 0 to 49 points) during the pre-lockdown period. In contrast, only 134 (35.6%) felt they had the complete ability to control their level of use during lockdown. Before the lockdown, only 28 respondents (7.4%) had occasional PIU (defined as cumulative IAT scores ranging between 50 and 70 points). This figure rose during lockdown to 167 respondents (44.4%) having occa- sional PIU. Only one respondent (0.3%) had significant PIU (defined as cumulative IAT scores greater than 70 points) before the COVID-19 lockdown. This number rose during the lockdown to 75 respondents (19.9%) with significant PIU (Figure 2). Aggregating the findings of occasional and significant PIU, 29 respondents (7.7%) appeared from their responses to have had PIU before the COVID-19 lockdown, while 242 (64.3%) appeared from their responses to have had PIU during the lock- down. The mean score of PIU before the lockdown was 30.15±14.13, while the mean score of PIU during the lockdown was 54.49±18.89 (t = -44.183, p = 0.001). Figure 2: PIU incidence before and during lockdown AJIC Issue 27, 2021 11 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown PIU causes, effects and mitigation during the lockdown As seen in Table 3, 142 adolescents (32.3%) cited loneliness or physical isolation as the causes of PIU during the lockdown period. Other causes of PIU stated included poor discipline as cited by 99 (22.5%), and socialising, communication, and pleasure derived from online activities, as cited by 66 (15%). In terms of the effects of PIU, 118 (26.8%) mentioned reduced family intimacy, and 102 (23.2%) noted poor aca- demic performance, and loss of concentration. In addition, 95 adolescents (21.6%) stated that PIU could result in internet abuse or risky sexual behaviour. When asked about the ways in which PIU could be mitigated, 286 respondents (65%) suggested awareness-raising among, and/or monitoring of, adolescents; 136 (30.9%) suggested ending the school closures; and 18 (4.1%) suggested that adolescents should be en- gaged in more productive tasks. Table 3: PIU causes, effects and mitigations during the COVID-19 lockdown Dimension Frequency % Causes of PIU Loneliness, physical isolation 142 32.3 Poor discipline 99 22.5 Socialising, communication, pleasure from online activities 66 15 Boredom 60 13.6 Parental neglect 41 9.3 Laziness, idleness 32 7.3 Effects of PIU Reduced family intimacy 118 26.8 Poor academic performance, loss of concentration 102 23.2 Internet abuse, risky sexual behaviour 95 21.6 Tiredness, loss of sleep, headaches, reduced eye func- tioning 74 16.8 Neglecting household chores 51 11.6 Suggestions of ways to mitigate PIU Awareness-raising, monitoring 286 65 Suspension of school closures 136 30.9 Engagement of adolescents in more productive tasks 18 4.1 The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 12 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo Correlations between sociodemographic variables and PIU Table 4 shows the correlations between sociodemographic variables and PIU before and during the COVID-19 lockdown. In the pre-lockdown period, it was found that 13.4% of the adolescents aged 16 to 18 years had occasional or significant PIU (p = 0.019), compared to only 5.9% of the 13- to 15-year-olds and 2.3% of the 10- to 12-year-olds. During the lockdown, it was found that 86.6% of adolescents aged 16 to 18 had occasional or significant PIU (p = < 0.001), compared to 61.8% of the 13- to 15-year-olds and 20.5% of the 10- to 12-year-olds. This suggests that older ado- lescents are more likely than younger adolescents to develop PIU in both non-lock- down and lockdown periods. In turn, 13- to 15-year-olds appear to be less suscepti- ble to PIU than 16- to 18-year-olds, and more susceptible than 10- to 12-year-olds. Table 4 also shows a similar difference in PIU susceptibility between senior high school and junior high school students, with the senior high school students more susceptible during both the pre-lockdown and lockdown periods. In respect of gen- der differences, Table 4 shows that the male respondents were more susceptible to PIU than the female respondents, both pre-lockdown and during lockdown. Table 4: Correlations between sociodemographic variables and PIU Variables PIU pre-lockdown PIU during lockdown Present Absent Present Absent n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Age group (years) 10-12 1 (2.3) 43 (97.7) 9 (20.5) 35 (79.5) 13-15 13 (5.9) 207 (94.1) 136 (61.8) 84 (38.2) 16-18 15 (13.4) 97 (86.6) 97 (86.6) 15 (13.4) ᵡ2 = 7.912, p = 0.019 ᵡ2 = 61.765, p = < 0.001 Sex Male 20 (10.9) 163 (89.1) 123 (67.2) 60 (32.8) Female 9 (4.7) 184 (95.3) 119 (61.7) 74 (38.3) ᵡ2 = 5.181, p = 0.023 ᵡ2 = 1.264, p = 0.261 Current enrol- ment level Junior high school 6 (3.8) 154 (96.2) 67 (41.9) 93 (58.1) Senior high school 23 (10.6) 193 (89.4) 175 (81.0) 14 (19.0) ᵡ2 = 6.945, p = 0.013 ᵡ2 = 61.399, p = <0.0001 Father’s age group (years) AJIC Issue 27, 2021 13 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown Less than 45 3 (6.4) 44 (93.6) 24 (51.1) 23 (48.9) 45 and above 26 (7.9) 303 (92.1) 218 (66.3) 111 (33.7) ᵡ2 = 0.133, p = 0.715 ᵡ2 = 4.141, p = 0.042 Mother’s age group (years) Less than 45 8 (5.3) 143 (94.7) 83 (55.0) 68 (45.0) 45 and above 21 (9.3) 204 (90.7) 159 (70.7) 66 (29.3) ᵡ2 = 2.067, p = 0.151 ᵡ2 = 9.710, p = 0.002 Father’s educa- tion level Primary school or below 3 (11.1) 24 (88.9) 19 (70.4) 8 (29.6) High school or above 28 (7.4) 323 (92.6) 223 (63.9) 126 (36.1) ᵡ2 = 0.472, p = 0.492 ᵡ2 = 0.458, p = 0.499 Mother’s educa- tion level Primary school or below 6 (10.9) 41 (89.1) 38 (68.1) 17 (30.9) High school or above 23 (7.2) 298 (92.8) 204 (63.6) 117 (36.4) ᵡ2 = 0.925, p = 0.336 ᵡ2 = 0.628, p = 0.428 Person lived with Parent 27 (8.0) 309 (92.0) 219 (65.2) 117 (34.8) Guardian 2 (5.0) 38 (95.0) 23 (57.5) 17 (42.5) ᵡ2 =0.463, p = 0.496 ᵡ2 = 0.919, p = 0.038 Number of siblings Three or fewer 11 (5.0) 210 (95.0) 129 (58.4) 92 (41.6) Four or more 18 (11.6) 137 (88.4) 113 (72.9) 42 (37.1) ᵡ2 = 5.636, p = 0.018 ᵡ2 = 8.388, p = 0.004 Notes: ᵡ2 = Chi-square test; p-values in bold indicate finding is statistically significant (p < 0.05) Table 5 shows that the male respondents were, before the lockdown, twice as likely as female adolescents to develop PIU (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.308; 95% con- fidence interval (CI) = 1.009–5.281). During the lockdown, however, no statistically significant difference was found between males and females in respect of PIU. The table also shows that, before the lockdown, the respondents aged 16 to 18 years were The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 14 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo twice as likely as those aged 10 to 12 years (AOR = 2.159; 95% CI = 0.202–23.064) to develop PIU, and that, during the lockdown, they were seven times more likely than 10- to 12-year-olds to develop PIU (AOR = 7.093; 95% CI = 2.393–21.023). In respect of school level, the adolescents in senior high school were found to be twice as likely as junior high school students to exhibit PIU before the lockdown (AOR = 2.142; 95% CI = 1.009–5.281), and three times as likely during the lockdown (AOR = 3.228; 95% CI = 1.822–5.719). Table 5: Sociodemographic determinants of PIU Determinants of PIU pre-lockdown Unstan- dardised regression coefficient adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 95% confidence interval (CI) for AOR p-value Lower Upper Age group (years) 10-12 0.770 2.159 0.202 23.064 0.524 13-15 0.365 1.440 0.579 3.579 0.432 16-18 1 Sex Male 0.836 2.308 1.009 5.281 0.048 Female 1 Current enrolment level Junior high school 0.762 2.142 0.696 6.592 0.184 Senior high school 1 Number of siblings Three or fewer 0.753 2.123 0.935 4.821 0.072 Four or more 1 AJIC Issue 27, 2021 15 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown Determinants of PIU during lock- down Unstan- dardised regression coefficient adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 95% confidence interval (CI) for AOR p-valueLower Upper Age group (years) 10-12 1.959 7.093 2.393 21.023 <0.001 13-15 0.671 1.956 0.966 3.961 0.062 16-18 1 Current enrolment level Junior high school 1.172 3.228 1.822 5.719 <0.001 Senior high school 1 Number of siblings Three or fewer 0.457 1.579 0.916 2.723 0.100 Four or more 1 Father’s age (years) <45 -0.258 0.773 0.354 1.687 0.517 ≥45 1 Mother’s age (years) <45 0.136 1.145 0.656 1.998 0.633 ≥45 1 Person lived with Parent -0.325 0.723 0.336 1.553 0.405 Guardian 1 Note: p-values in bold indicate finding is statistically significant (p < 0.05) The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 16 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo Table 6 shows the correlations between time spent online per day (during the lock- down) and sociodemographic and other internet use variables. It was found that for every unit increase in age, there was a corresponding increase in daily time spent online. Also, an increase in the years in formal education increased the daily time spent online. Table 6: Correlation of time spent online per day with sociodemographic and other inter- net use variables Variable r p-value* Age 0.277 < 0.001 Current enrolment level 0.168 0.001 Number of siblings 0.116 0.025 Father’s age 0.127 0.014 Mother’s age 0.092 0.075 Hours of daily internet access 0.593 < 0.001 Age of onset of internet use 0.036 0.587 Note: p-values in bold indicate finding is statistically significant (p < 0.05) 4. Analysis, conclusions and recommendations We found that a complete ability to control/limit one’s level of internet use (i.e., an absence of PIU) existed among many adolescents before the COVID-19 lockdown period. The reasons for this could be traced to their active engagement in academic and extramural activities while schools were open. However, during the lockdown, fewer adolescents maintained the complete ability to control/limit their level of in- ternet use, and a rise in the prevalence of PIU during the lockdown period was iden- tified. Thus, the compulsory stay-at-home conditions during the lockdown appear to have increased the risk of PIU among adolescents. We also noted that an increase in the number of years spent in formal education in- creases the development of PIU among adolescents. This reveals a higher likelihood for the development of PIU among persons with more years of formal education compared to those with fewer years. However, we noted that adolescents aged 10 to 12 years were two times more likely to develop PIU compared to those aged 16 to 18 years in the period before the COVID-19 lockdown. During the COVID-19 lockdown, on the other hand, adolescents within this same age group (10 to 12 years) were seven times more likely to develop PIU. This may be the result of parents pro- viding internet-enabled devices to their children to enhance their mental develop- ment. AJIC Issue 27, 2021 17 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown We identified the following reasons for PIU among adolescents during the COV- ID-19 lockdown: boredom, loneliness, idleness, pleasure gained from internet use, peer pressure, poor discipline, parental neglect, physical isolation, and the need for information and communication. This corroborates with findings that when faced with undesirable conditions, many adolescents use the internet as a remedy or strat- egy for easing the burden of boredom, loneliness, and physical isolation (Brown, 2006). Although this adaptive strategy presents emotional and physical challenges, the internet provides immediate but temporary relief from life’s worries (Cakmak & Gul, 2018). An implication of our findings is that a lack of physical social relationships could lead to the development or worsening of PIU. Many academic institutions have opted for e-learning or home-based schooling due to the imposed lockdown on schools (Donohue & Miller, 2020). This need for access to e-learning has contributed to increasing adolescents’ use of the internet beyond the two hours of daily use as rec- ommended by the Australian government (Hoare et al., 2016). This is because most academic programmes last for about three hours every day, with each session lasting about an hour. Undisciplined use of the internet can result, which can expose adoles- cents to X-rated sites or other platforms which are not age appropriate (Tahiroğlu et al., 2008; Hoare et al., 2016). Thus, more frequent use of the internet, regardless of whether it is under the guise of e-learning or communication or seeking information, can put adolescents at greater risk for PIU. The suggestions provided by the respondents about ways of mitigating PIU among adolescents included educating adolescents about the threats that PIU can pose to their present and future lifestyle. Parental monitoring of internet use was also cited as a means by which internet use could be kept at more appropriate levels among adolescents. Parental monitoring does not necessary imply excessive parental inter- vention in internet use, but implies the regulation of internet use for adolescents. The controlled use of the internet has been associated with the development of positive and protective habits that can ensure that adolescents become responsible adults in the future (Cakmak & Gul, 2018; Park et al., 2018). Suspension of the school closures was also, quite reasonably, stated as a potential mit- igating factor for PIU among adolescents. However, a precise public health approach is needed for the resumption of school activities (Donohue & Miller, 2020). Ado- lescent engagement in more productive tasks could also contribute to the prevention of PIU during the COVID-19 lockdown. These tasks could include practical music, vocational, or writing skills. This finding therefore clarifies that PIU can be prevent- ed if its prevention is seen as a responsibility of both adolescents and their parents/ guardians. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 18 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo In respect of the limitations of our study, it should be noted that, because this study was not conducted at the early stage of the COVID-19 outbreak in Nigeria, our findings could have been limited by recall bias. Also, the nature of this study could have concealed important knowledge that would have been obtained using a longi- tudinal study design. It is our recommendation that healthy internet use interventions should commence with children at an early age, to strengthen the positive use of the internet during adolescence. Parents should regulate adolescents’ access to the internet. Also, health education sessions on the risks of developing PIU through excessive internet usage should be communicated during health campaigns and should be broadcast on the media. In addition, further research needs to be conducted on the effects of PIU on adolescents’ mental and psychological health. References Aboujaoude, E. (2010). Problematic Internet use: An overview. World Psychiatry, 9(2), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00278.x  Afolabi, A. A., & Ilesanmi, O. S. (2021). Dealing with vaccine hesitancy in Africa: The prospective COVID-19 vaccine context. The Pan African Medical Journal, 38(3). https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2021.38.3.27401   Ajayi, O. (2020, March 21). Covid-19: FG shuts Enugu, Port Harcourt and Kano Airports. Vanguard. Brown, J. D. (2006). Emerging adults in a media-saturated world. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 279–299). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11381-012  Cakmak, F. H., & Gul, H. (2018). Factors associated with problematic internet use among children and adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Northern Clinics of Istanbul, 5(4), 302–313. https://doi.org/10.14744/nci.2017.92668  Ceyhan, A. A. (2008). Predictors of problematic Internet use on Turkish university students. Cyberpsychology & Behaviour, 11, 363–366. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0112 Donohue, J. M., & Miller, E. (2020). COVID-19 and school closures. JAMA, E1–E3. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.13092 Hoare, E., Millar, L., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., Skouteris, H., Nichols, M., Malakellis, M., Swinburn, B., & Allender, S. (2016). Depressive symptomatology, weight status and obesogenic risk among Australian adolescents: A prospective cohort study. BMJ Open, 6(3), e010072. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010072 Ilesanmi, O. S., Afolabi, A. A., Akande, A., Raji, T., & Mohammed, A. (2021). Infection prevention and control during COVID-19 pandemic: Realities from healthcare workers in a northcentral state in Nigeria. Epidemiology and Infection, 149(e15), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268821000017 AJIC Issue 27, 2021 19 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown Király, O., Potenza, M. N., Stein, D. J., King, D. L., Hodgins, D. C., Saunders, J. B., Griffiths, M. D., Gjoneska, B., Billieux, J., & Brand, M. (2020). Preventing problematic internet use during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consensus guidance. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152180 Kormas, G., Critselis, E., Janikian, M., Kafetzis, D., & Tsitsika, A. (2011). Risk factors and psychosocial characteristics of potential problematic and problematic internet use among adolescents: a cross-sectional study. 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Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 11, 537–543. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0165 Üneri, Ö. Ş., & Tanıdır, C. (2011). Evaluation of internet addiction in a group of high school students: a cross-sectional study [in Turkish]. Dusunen Adam: The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 24, 265–272. https://doi.org/10.5350/DAJPN2011240402 Volkin, S. (2020, May 11). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescents. https:// hub.jhu.edu/2020/05/11/covid-19-and-adolescents World Health Organisation (WHO). (n.d.). Coronavirus. https://www.who.int/health- topics/coronavirus#tab=tab_1 Worldometer. (n.d.). Coronavirus. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ Yang, S. C., & Tung, C. J. (2007). Comparison of internet addicts and non-addicts in Taiwanese high school. Computers in Human Behaviour, 23, 79–96. Young, K. S., & Rogers, R. C. (2009). The relationship between depression and internet addiction. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 1, 25–28. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.25 The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 20 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo Appendix: Questionnaire Sociodemographic characteristics 1. Age (last birthday): 2. Sex: 1. M 2. F 3. Highest class attained: 4. Who do you live with? 1. Parent 2. Guard- ian 3. Others (specify): 5. Father’s highest educational qualification: 6. Mother’s highest educational qualification: 7. Father’s occupation: 8. Mother’s occupation: 9. Family type 1. Nuclear 2. Extended 10. Number of siblings: 11. Father’s age: 12. Mother’s age: Pattern of internet use 13. Which of these devices do you currently own? 1. Smartphone 2. Desktop 3. Laptop 4. Tablet 5. Gaming device 14. How many hours per day do you have internet access? 15. Time spent online per day (specify): 16. Age of onset of internet use (specify): 17. Frequency of internet use 1. Less than once a week 2. 1-3 times a week 3. 4-6 times a week 4. Daily 18. Device used for internet access 1. Smartphone 2. Desktop 3. Laptop 4. Tablet 5. Gaming device 19. Internet point of access 1. Home 2. School 3. Free public hotspots 4. Paid hotspots 5. Person- al phone 20. Reason(s) for going online 1. Communication 2. Socialization 3. School assignment 4. Infor- mation research 5. Others (specify): 21. What have you done online in the past 24 hours? 1. Watching movies/serials/videos 2. Down- loads 3. Reading magazines/books 4. Listening/watching music 5. Online gaming 6. Chatting with friends 7. Using e-mails 8. Making phone calls 9. Internet social networking 22. Parent’s awareness of internet use 1. None 2. Good 3. Very good 23. Used internet social networking type 1. Facebook 2. WhatsApp 3. Instagram 4. Snapchat 5. Twitter 6. Eskimi 24. Do you perceive you have problematic internet use? 1. Yes 2. No 25. What are the causes of problematic internet use among high school during the COVID-19 lockdown? 26. What are the likely effects of problematic internet use on high school during the COVID-19 lockdown? 27. What are the factors associated with increased internet use among high school during the COVID-19 lockdown? AJIC Issue 27, 2021 21 Problematic Internet Use (PIU) Among Adolescents during COVID-19 Lockdown 28. What can you suggest should be done to reduce problematic internet use among high school students during the COVID-19 lockdown period? 29. Internet Addiction Test Key: 0: does not apply; 1: rarely; 2: occasionally; 3: frequently; 4: often; 5: always Score Questions 0 1 2 3 4 5 1. a. How often did you stay online longer than you intended before the lockdown? b. How often did you stay online longer than you intended during the lockdown? 2. a. How often did you neglect household chores to spend more time online before the lockdown? b. How often do you neglect household chores to spend more time online during the lockdown? 3. a. How often did you lose sleep due to late night log-ins before the lockdown? b. How often do you lose sleep due to late night log-ins during the lockdown? 4. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you try to hide how long you’ve been online? b. During the lockdown, how often do you try to hide how long you’ve been online 5. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you feel depressed, moody, or nervous when you’re offline, which goes away when you’re back online? b. During the lockdown, how often do you feel depressed, moody, or nervous when you’re offline, which goes away when you’re back online? 6. a. Before the lockdown, how often did your school grades or work suffer because of the amount of time you spend online? b. During the lockdown, how often do your school grades or work suffer because of the amount of time you spend online? 7. a. Before the lockdown, how often did your job performance or pro- ductivity suffer because of the internet? b. During the lockdown, how often does your job performance or productivity suffer because of the internet? 8. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you become defensive or secre- tive when anyone asks you what you do online? b. During the lockdown, how often do you become defensive or secre- tive when anyone asks you what you do online? 9. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you check your e-mail before something else that you need to do? b. During the lockdown, how often do you check your e-mail before something else that you need to do? The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 22 Ilesanmi, Afolabi and Adebayo 10. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you find yourself anticipating when you will go online again? b. During the lockdown, how often do you find yourself anticipating when you will go online again? 11. a. Before the lockdown, how often did others in your life complain to you about the amount of time you spend online? b. During the lockdown, how often do others in your life complain to you about the amount of time you spend online? 12. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you find yourself saying “just a few minutes more” when online? b. During the lockdown, how often do you find yourself saying “just a few minutes more” when online? 13. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you try to cut down the amount of time you spend online and fail? b. During the lockdown, how often do you try to cut down the amount of time you spend online and fail? 14. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you prefer the excitement of the internet to intimacy with your family? b. During the lockdown, how often do you prefer the excitement of the internet to intimacy with your family? 15. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you form new relationships with fellow online users? b. During the lockdown, how often do you form new relationships with fellow online users? 16. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you block out disturbing thoughts about your life with soothing thoughts of the internet? b. During the lockdown, how often do you block out disturbing thoughts about your life with soothing thoughts of the internet? 17 a. Before the lockdown, how often did you fear that life without the internet would be boring, empty, and joyless? b. During the lockdown, how often do you fear that life without the internet would be boring, empty, and joyless? 18. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you snap, yell, or act annoyed if someone bothers you while you are online? b. During the lockdown, how often do you snap, yell, or act annoyed if someone bothers you while you are online? 19. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you feel preoccupied with the internet when offline, or fantasize about being online? b. During the lockdown, how often do you feel preoccupied with the internet when offline, or fantasize about being online? 20. a. Before the lockdown, how often did you choose to spend more time online over going out with others? b. During the lockdown, how often do you choose to spend more time online over going out with others? AJIC Issue 27, 2021 1 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education: Marginalisation of Traditional Medicinal Treatments in Rwandan TVET Animal Health Courses Chika Ezeanya-Esiobu Senior Lecturer (Visiting), College of Business and Economics, University of Rwanda, Kigali https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2244-0843 Chidi Oguamanam Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Ottawa; Senior Fellow, Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Waterloo, Canada; Steering Committee Member and Researcher, Open African Innovation Research (Open AIR) network https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4301-9388 Vedaste Ndungutse Lecturer, College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Musanze https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9357-071X Abstract This study explores Rwandan ethno-veterinary knowledge and the degree to which this knowledge is reflected in the country’s technical and vocational education and training (TVET) instruction. The knowledge considered is the Indigenous medici- nal knowledge used by rural Rwandan livestock farmers to treat their cattle. Through interviews with farmers, TVET graduates and TVET teachers, and an examination of the current TVET Animal Health curriculum, the research identifies a neglect of Indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, despite the fact that local farmers use numerous Indigenous medicinal innovations to treat their animals. The focus of the Rwanda’s TVET Animal Health curriculum is on Western-origin modern veterinary practices. The authors argue that this leaves Rwandan TVET Animal Health grad- uates unprepared for optimal engagement with rural farmers and with the full range of potential treatments. Keywords livestock farming, cattle, animal health, Indigenous knowledge, ethno-veterinary medicine, medicinal herbs, technical and vocational education and training (TVET), Rwanda The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 2 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse Acknowledgements This research was carried out under the auspices of the Open African Innovation Research (Open AIR) network, which is a partnership between the University of Cape Town, the University of Johannesburg, Strathmore University in Nairobi, the Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, The American University in Cairo, and the University of Ottawa. The authors acknowledge the support provided for this research by Open AIR, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Coun- cil of Canada, and the International Development Research Centre. The opinions expressed, as well as any errors, are entirely those of the authors. The authors also acknowledge the support provided by the University of Rwanda’s College of Busi- ness and Economics and its College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine. The authors are thankful for the time and cooperation of all respondents, who patiently provided answers and guided the authors around research sites during the field visits, and for the dedicated research assistant work by University of Otta- wa JD/MA student Jessica Hennings, who is a member of Open AIR’s New and Emerging Researchers Group (NERG). This article draws on elements of a working paper (Ezeanya-Esiobu et al., 2020). DOI: https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/31372 Recommended citation Ezeanya-Esiobu, C., Oguamanam, C., & Ndungutse, V. (2021). Indigenous knowledge and vocational education: Marginalisation of traditional medicinal treatments in Rwandan TVET Animal Health courses. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC), 27, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/31372 This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 1. Introduction Often dismissed as fetish, retrogressive, superstitious, and of no scientific validity, Africa’s Indigenous knowledge systems were mostly ridiculed by the colonial admin- istrations. There was little critical consciousness of the implications of the imposi- tion of an alien episteme on local communities possessing their own sophisticated Indigenous knowledge systems. The end of colonial rule in Sub-Saharan Africa did not generate a meaningful departure from reliance on Western knowledge systems, and the colonial state of affairs largely persists in many African countries in respect of the treatment of Indigenous knowledge in official, formal education curricula. Meanwhile, in other parts of the world—for example, in China, India, and Japan— tremendous progress has been made in the recognition of traditional knowledge in AJIC Issue 27, 2021 3 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education the fields of governance, medicine, architecture, social organisation, technology, agri- culture, and conflict resolution. In this study, we explore Rwandan farmers’ use of Indigenous knowledge to treat ailments in cattle, and the degree to which this ethno-veterinary medical knowledge is reflected in the country’s technical and vocational education and training (TVET) instruction in Animal Health. Through interviews with farmers, TVET graduates and TVET teachers, and an examination of the current TVET Animal Health cur- riculum, the study identifies a stark contrast between the large body of Indigenous knowledge being used by Rwandan rural livestock farmers and the near-complete absence of representation of this knowledge in the country’s TVET system. 2. Research design Rwanda was judged to be an appropriate context for this case study because of its majority agrarian population and that population’s centuries of Indigenous knowl- edge, particularly the agricultural and ethno-veterinary knowledge held and curat- ed by traditional pastoral farmers. We conducted the study via qualitative means, with data collected in two forms: semi-structured interviews, guided by an interview protocol, with rural livestock farmers, TVET Animal Health teachers, and TVET graduates; and scrutiny of the curriculum content for the Rwandan TVET Animal Health qualifications (WDA, n.d.). Eighteen interviews were conducted, with: • six experienced livestock farmers (three female, three male), aged between 62 and 84, who had been keeping livestock for between 17 and 50 years; • four less-experienced, younger livestock farmers (all male), aged between 27 and 34, who had been keeping livestock for between five and 10 years; • three TVET Animal Health teachers (males), with teaching experience of two, three, and nine years, respectively, and two of whom were involved in TVET Animal Health curriculum development; and • five TVET Animal Health graduates (males) now working in rural com- munities (three as veterinary pharmacists, two as veterinary clinicians), all in their positions for between three and six years. The interviews were conducted in two locations: • Mpenge cell, Muhoza sector, Musanze District, Northern Province; and • Remera cell, Kiyumba sector, Muhanga District, Southern Province. Purposive sampling was used to identify the farmers, TVET teachers, and TVET graduates interviewed in the two districts. The interview questionnaire was devel- oped in English and translated into Kinyarwanda. The interviews were conducted in Kinyarwanda, and the responses were translated and transcribed into English for the data analysis. Each interview took about 30 minutes to complete. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 4 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse 3. Research context Indigenous knowledge, education, colonialism, and African agriculture Our definition of Indigenous knowledge takes account of elements of definitions of Indigenous knowledge and its synonyms or constructs (such as, notably, traditional knowledge and local knowledge) in law (WIPO IGC, 2019) and in the extant liter- ature (Oguamanam, 2006; Kiggundu, 2007; Bruchac, 2014). We use the term to ref- erence multiple, open-ended, and complex sites of lived experiences through which non-Western Indigenous peoples and local communities engage with phenomena by way of language, practices, innovations, and ways of life, including stewardship (and co-stewardship with other life and non-life forces) for sustainable living; ecological and environmental cohesion; and spiritual, cultural, social, and economic harmony. The theoretical underpinnings of Indigenous knowledge systems in general, and the place of Indigenous knowledge in education curriculum development, are still evolving. However, if education is generally accepted as a process through which individuals are able to acquire knowledge for specific goals that will be beneficial to themselves and society, then for education to successfully fulfil its objectives in any locale, an acknowledgement and incorporation of the pre-existing knowledge of its host community in curricula is needed. In several classic works on education, Dewey is specific about the place of community in successful learning. For Dewey, one of the aims of learning should be to work with communities in inculcating their banks of knowledge into younger generations (Dewey, 1959). Indigenous knowledge and education In the 1962 book The Structure of the Scientif ic Revolution, Kuhn opines that reference to “knowledge” as “universal” is in fact a reference to Western scientific knowledge, which, in turn, calls into question all other forms of knowledge and assumes that they are either irrelevant or sub-par (Kuhn, 1962). The idea that knowledge gener- ated in the West should be wholly embraced by other regions is instrumental in the West’s continued domination of the rest of the globe. So-called “Western culture”, according to Oguamanam (2006, p. 19), is “a local tradition, which has been spread worldwide through intellectual colonization” . For a curriculum to produce learners who are aware of the opportunities and chal- lenges within their immediate environment, its contents must reflect the real life and lived experiences of learners. White (1983) notes that no curriculum, educational programme, or policy should be analysed outside of its ideological, political, or envi- ronmental foundations. Educational curricula are inherently and directly connected to societal dynamics and power; therefore, whether intentionally or inadvertently, more emphasis is often placed on some knowledge form or system of knowledge over others. What is included, highlighted, downplayed, or excluded will grant or deny power to a segment of the population (White, 1983). In Pedagogy of the Oppressed, AJIC Issue 27, 2021 5 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education Freire maintains that it is critical that curricula in any educational setting are repre- sentative of “situations familiar to the individuals whose thematics are being exam- ined, so that they can easily recognize the situations (and thus their own relation to them)” (Freire, 1968, p. 107). Educators who aim to produce learners who can create innovations grounded in Indigenous knowledge must focus attention on how their curriculum either affirms the knowledge forms, values, and ideals of the students’ cul- tural milieu, or ignores, de-emphasises, and even ridicules it (McLaren, 2003). A core challenge then lies in integrating locally generated content, instructional strategies, and techniques in the curriculum design (Trifonas, 2003). Indigenous knowledge, education, and colonialism Van Niekerk (2004) makes a case for the contextualisation of all curricula in order to reflect societal dynamics. Such contextualisation often requires the re-assessment of curricula, especially in formerly colonised territories (Danmole, 2011). According to UNESCO, “there is an urgent need to enhance the intergenerational transmission of indigenous knowledge, as a complement to mainstream education” (UNESCO, n.d.). Accordingly, UNESCO promotes efforts “to bring indigenous language and knowledge into school curricula and to move learning back into the community, thus reaffirming the status of elders as knowledge holders” (UNESCO, n.d.). National education systems in most parts of Africa have their origins in colonialism. Curricula were copied verbatim from the education systems of colonial authorities, without thought being given to the Africans’ cultural practices, Indigenous episte- mologies, ontologies, and pedagogies. In the few instances where Africa’s Indigenous knowledge found its way into colonial era curricula, it was often included in order to ridicule it, deride it, or cast it in a negative light, while holding up Western knowl- edge as the ideal. Empowerment, creativity, and innovation did not play a role in the design of academic programmes in colonial Africa (Freire, 1968; Nhalevilo, 2013; Owuor, 2007). Had they been considered, Africa’s epistemologies would have been at the forefront, since their aim is to build confidence in learners and a sense of respect for their environments and lived realities. The colonial governments’ Victorian-era norms for male and female roles likewise influenced the structure of education in the colonised territories (Ezeanya-Esiobu, 2019). Despite the fact that across much of the continent, African women worked alongside their husbands, the colonisers established all-male schools and hired most- ly men to work in government offices and establishments. For women, domestic management and training schools were established to orient them towards skills in, for example, “sewing, dressmaking, baking, cooking”, decoration, and general home and housekeeping skills (Oguamanam, 2019, p. 16). The end of colonial rule did not result in significant changes in curricula across much of Sub-Saharan Africa, since post-colonial governments remained dependent The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 6 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse on the colonial authorities for education funding. Beyond that, many educated Af- ricans whose task it was to educate the younger generation were beholden to the West and looked derogatorily upon Indigenous knowledge (Msila, 2016). For the most part, Western-based education continued to thrive across Africa, decades after the end of colonial rule (Gumbo, 2016). In a few instances of deviations from this norm, such as in Kenya, the government recognised the need to incorporate Indige- nous knowledge into curricula. However, the government abandoned the idea due to the lack of manpower and technical know-how needed to adequately conceptualise and aggregate the Indigenous knowledge of the many ethnicities that make up that country (Owuor, 2007). African agriculture Across Africa, pastoralists have for generations successfully employed Indigenous medicinal knowledge in rearing livestock. Such ethno-veterinary medical knowledge abounds on the continent, especially in rural areas. However, practitioners of this knowledge are scarcely recognised. Much of the agricultural production in Africa happens at the smallholder level (Kamara et al., 2019). A report released by the Al- liance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) concludes that smallholder farm- ers “will be vital to the continent’s long-awaited green revolution” (AGRA, 2019). In terms of sustainability and conservation, smallholder farmers use predominantly natural or biodegradable pesticides, which are less toxic to the body and the envi- ronment than the conventional pesticides used in industrial agriculture (Barucha, 2019). Studies have established that “many of these small farmers are increasingly using innovative ways of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change” (Barucha, 2019).  Goal 2 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is the eradication of hunger. To achieve that goal, the UN targets an increase, of no less than 200%, in agricultural productivity for smallholder farmers (UN, 2020). There is an expectation of an increase by the same percentage in the income of vulnerable populations who engage in smallholder agriculture, such as women, pastoralists, and fishing commu- nities. A commitment to working with smallholder farmers inevitably places Indig- enous knowledge of agriculture at the core of discussions of the SDGs (IISD, 2020). In a report, Realizing the Future We Want for All, the UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda noted the significance of Indigenous knowl- edge in the sustainability discourse, by observing that “[t]raditional and indigenous knowledge, adaptation and coping strategies can be major assets for local response strategies” (UN, 2012, p. 28). Indigenous knowledge of animal health is essentially an organic-friendly endeavour (Chander et al., 2011). Organic farming supports the use of local or native breeds since they are “less susceptible to stress and disease, and so the need for allopathic medicines and antibiotics is much lower.” Therefore, “indigenous technical knowl- AJIC Issue 27, 2021 7 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education edge, available in poorer and developing countries, may provide an effective substi- tute for veterinary care” (Kumar et al., 2006, quoted in Chander et al., 2011, p. 977). According to a 2008 UN report on a study that explored the relationship between organic agriculture and food security in Africa, the study findings “support the argu- ment that organic agriculture can be more conducive to food security in Africa than most conventional production systems, and that it is more likely to be sustainable in the long term” (UNCTAD & UNEP, 2008, p. iii). Rwandan livestock farming and Indigenous treatments Rwanda’s livestock sector contributes roughly 16% of the country’s GDP (Mazim- paka, 2017). The Rwandan Government has initiated the Girinka (One Cow per Poor Family) Programme, promoting the rearing of cattle to increase wealth and productivity (USAID Rwanda, 2016). Cattle are integral to Rwandan culture, with the Inyambo breed traditionally used in royal ceremonies. It is an established practice to give a cow as a gesture of friendship and goodwill. Cows are also gifted as dowry, and can be offered as a sacrifice to the gods (Hirwa et al., 2017a). Due to the embed- dedness of cattle in Rwandan culture, maintaining their health is a central aspect of Indigenous knowledge that is handed down from one generation to the next. Cattle breeds reared in Rwanda can be divided into three categories: Indigenous, im- ported, and cross breeds. A study conducted in Nyagatare District, Eastern Province, found that 67.03% of cattle in the district were Indigenous breeds, 28.37% were cross breeds, and 4.6% were imported breeds (Mazimpaka, 2017). Figure 1: Imported-breed cattle, Musanze District Photo source: Vedaste Ndungutse The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 8 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse Imported breeds were introduced in Rwanda due to the low milk production of Indigenous breeds. However, these imported breeds are very susceptible to disease, and thus the government encourages cross-breeding between imported and local Indigenous breeds (Mazimpaka, 2017). The government also promotes the rearing of fully Indigenous breeds, due to their resilience to disease (Hirwa et al., 2017a). Indigenous cattle also have better heat tolerance, and adapt more easily to low quality food and limited quantity of feeds (Hirwa et al., 2017a). Indigenous breeds are also more resilient to tsetse flies, whose attack is often fatal for foreign breeds (Hirwa et al., 2017a; Mazimpaka, 2017). Approximately 40% of cattle in Rwanda are fed via open grazing, with the rest fed via semi-grazing, which is a hybrid between open grazing and zero-grazing (where all feeds are transported to pens to feed animals) (USAID Rwanda, 2016). The Rwan- dan Government encourages zero-grazing, due to a shortage of land and in order to prevent the land degradation caused by open grazing (USAID Rwanda, 2016). Research conducted in Nyagatare District reported that 23.3% of cattle are being fed through zero-grazing (Mazimpaka, 2017). More than 600 Rwandan Indigenous plant species are used as herbs in cosmetics, agriculture, food and beverage production, traditional medicine, and construction (Rwanda Environment Management Authority, 2019). In the areas surrounding Bu- hanga Forest in the Northern Province—specifically in Bikara Cell, Nkotsi Sector, Musanze District—around 45 herbs belonging to 28 families have been identified as useful in Indigenous medicine (Runyambo et al., 2016). In Buhanga Forest, six plant species have been identified that are traditionally used in treating cattle diseas- es, while another three species have been identified as being used for the traditional treatment of both cattle and human diseases (Runyambo et al., 2016). Traditionally, Rwanda’s pastoralists prepare medicine in the form of juice by pound- ing or crushing plant parts with wood or stone. Water is then typically used to di- lute the juice (Runyambo et al., 2016). In Rwanda’s Indigenous veterinary medical practice, medicine is administered through oral application 84% of the time, through external application on the skin 8% of the time, through the ears 5% of the time, and as an anal application 3% of the time, depending on the infected part of the animal and the type of disease (Runyambo et al., 2016). At the same time, veterinary doctors providing modern treatments are located all over the country, and thus most livestock holders in Rwanda, if they have the re- sources to pay for the service, have ready access to a veterinary doctor to take care of their sick animals. The Government of Rwanda recognises the value of Indigenous knowledge. There is a public policy on traditional human medicine, and a forum of about 3,000 tra- AJIC Issue 27, 2021 9 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education ditional healers operating all over the country with government-sponsored training (Rwanda Environment Management Authority, 2019). Rwanda has signed the Na- goya1 and Swakopmund2 Protocols and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) for the use and protection of In- digenous knowledge, including farmers’ practices (Rwanda Environment Manage- ment Authority, 2019). Rwandan TVET provision TVET was introduced in the Rwandan education system following a 2009 national audit that indicated a 60% shortage of skilled people in the country (Kiberu et al., 2009). The number of Vocational Training Centres (VTCs) grew from 61 in 2010 to 116 in 2012, resulting in a roughly 50% increase in TVET enrolment (Ministry of Education, 2013). In 2013, for every 10 students attending TVET schools, eight were from rural areas, compared to 2005, when there were only four rural-origin students for every 10 TVET learners (Ministry of Education, 2013). The policy establishing TVET is aligned with, among others, Rwanda’s Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) Policy and its National Employment Policy (Ministry of Education, 2008a). The training offered under TVET aims to respond to the labour market in the country and in the broader East African region (Ministry of Education, 2008b). In 2009, the government established the Workforce Develop- ment Authority (WDA), responsible for coordinating TVET via the identification of subjects to be taught; the development of curricula; the training of teachers; the provision of examinations; and the certification, accreditation, regulation, and in- spection of TVET institutions (Ministry of Education, 2013). In its curriculum development work, the WDA considers the labour market needs of the private sector and potential employers, who are included in curriculum devel- opment meetings. Emphasis is placed on hands-on skills, with more hours allocated to practical activities than to theoretical learning. In order to be part of the TVET curriculum development process, a TVET teacher must possess knowledge and skills in the subject matter being developed; knowledge and skills in information and com- munication technologies (ICTs); and a minimum of three years of teaching experi- ence built around learner-centred, competence-based curricula. 4. Findings on livestock farmers’ use of Indigenous treatments Of the six experienced livestock farmers interviewed, most stated that they learned livestock farming from their parents, with one specifying that he also acquired knowledge from other livestock farmers. All four of the younger, less-experienced 1 Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2 Swakopmund Protocol on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Folklore. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 10 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse livestock farmers interviewed said they learned livestock farming from their parents and grandparents. When asked if they have used traditional cures to treat sick animals, all six of the experienced farmers, and three of the four less-experienced farmers, said they have done so, and gave numerous examples (Table 1). The experienced farmers were found to have far more knowledge of the Indigenous treatments than the younger farmers. Table 1: Indigenous treatments of cattle, as identified by farmer interviewees Ailment Symptoms Treatments, and medicinal substances used rutandara, or intan- dara retention of fluids in the mouth of the cow increased temperature, unstable limbs, immobility, refusal to graze • A blood vessel located on the neck of the cow is cut and allowed to bleed (a process known as irago in Kinyarwanda). • Leaves of traditional Colocasia are pounded, mixed with water, and administered orally to the animal. • The Tetradenia riparia (Umuravumba) plant is administered orally (dosage depends on the animal’s age). • The Umusange (Entada abyssinica) plant is mixed with a Colocasia plant called Iteke and administered orally. • The animal is beaten using Acanthus pubescens (Amatovu), a plant with thorns (a remedy known to be especially effective and allowing for speedy recovery of the sick animal). Ikibagari- ra, or inka igira umuriro mwinshi fever caused by ticks • The Ikibomwe plant is administered orally to the animal (a remedy said to not be very effective, with many cows dying even after receiving the treatment). • A hot knife is used to burn the Ganglion cysts, caused by fever, under the ears. gufuma retained placenta: inability to release placenta and afterbirth from the uterus after delivery One of these two treatments is implemented to induce release if a cow’s placenta and afterbirth are not released within six hours of giving birth (if not treated, a retained placenta can cause com- plications, include heavy bleeding and infection, which can be detrimental): • The Phyllanthus nummulariifolius (Umuhanurankuba) or Umuhoko (Phytolacca dodecandra) plant is pounded, mixed with water, and administered orally. • The Umuyobora and Umubogora herbs are pounded, mixed with water, and administered orally. As a preventive measure, animals are given the pounded leaves of Umuhoko or Ikawa mixed in water orally, minutes after delivery, in order to speed up the process of placenta and afterbirth discharge. AJIC Issue 27, 2021 11 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education Akanyaga general body pain, lethargy, loss of hair on skin • Approximately 3 to 4 litres of blood are bled from the cow via the process known as irago (see treatment of rutandara above). Then animal hair is used to stop the bleeding, while umwumano (milk from a cow in gestation) is poured over the hair to bind the hair to the incision. • Another treatment, mentioned by a single farmer among the experienced male farmers, is to collect human bodily fluids, after sexual intercourse, on a towel, and then rub the fluids on the body of the animal (in order to prevent the disease from progressing to the hair-loss stage). Uruhiga or amashyuyo fever, causing disruption of feeding and loss of weight • The cow is bled via the irago process (see treatment of rutandara above), and then taken to a place where there is plentiful feed and encouraged to eat to its satisfaction. Ibyashi fungal infection between the hooves • Faecal matter of a hen in incubation (amatoto y’inkoko irariye) is rubbed on the infected area. • Cow butter (amavutay’inka) is heated and melted on the infected area. • Black “charcoal” from a disused radio battery is rubbed on the infected area. Ifumbi mastitis: pus and blood coming from teats • The herbs Mitragyne rubrostipulosa (Umuzibaziba), Umunkamba, Umukuzanyana, Umutanga, and n’ imizi y’umutarishonga are administered orally. Ubutaka fever, difficulty in breathing • The Umusange and Magaru herbs, and a banana species called Intokatoki, are mixed together and administered orally. (During the treatment, the cow is not provided with bedding, i.e., is not given organic materials such as straw and sawdust usually put in the pen to support the animal when at rest.) impiswi diarrhoea • The Umuhati, Umuzingangore and Idoma herbs (and sometimes also the Umunaba plant) are administered orally. • Englerina schubotziana/solanaceae/solanum sp (Umutobotobo utagiraamahwa) (without the thorns) is administered orally. Amata acika production of sedimented, non- homogenised milk • The Magaru, Umureterezaho, Umuzigangore herbs, and Englerina schubotziana/solanaceae/solanum sp (Umutobotobo utagiraamahwa) (without the thorns) are administered orally. Inkubasi increased temperature in feet and legs, with liquids dripping from the mouth and nose (usually occurs in early months of gestation) • Umusange herbs are administered orally. Umuzimire blood in faeces • Umuzigangore herbs are administered orally. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 12 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse Figure 2: Cow treated for mastitis Researcher with cow that has been cured of ifumbi (mastitis) with medicinal herbs, Musanze District Photo source: Vedaste Ndungutse All the farmers, both experienced and less-experienced, unanimously agreed that In- digenous treatments are still effective for animal disease treatment. Another farmer indicated that he is no longer using Indigenous methods to treat his animals because, in his experience, the necessary herbs have become difficult to find. One farmer, who presently keeps only imported cows (also called “exotic” cows by farmers), pointed out that Indigenous medicine tends to be practised mostly on Indigenous cows, espe- cially in rural areas. However, at the same time, he confirmed that for diseases such as rutandara and akanyaga, he still uses traditional methods, even for his imported cows. All the farmers were of the view that remedies based on Indigenous knowledge are much more cost-effective than their Western counterparts. Despite the availability of government subsidies and generous livestock insurance programmes, many of the farmers still find the cost of Western-method treatments for their cattle to be beyond their means. In the words of one respondent farmer: Modern medicine is very expensive. [The] traditional one is cheaper, and with 2,000 Rwandan francs [approx. USD2.20], an animal can be treated with Indigenous methods since plants used are obtained locally. According to another farmer: Modern medicine is very effective. Animals are treated after consultation to be sure of the disease to be treated. However, it is very expensive. In- digenous medicine is cheaper. In some cases, you offer one bottle of local banana wine to a traditional healer after he has healed the animal. AJIC Issue 27, 2021 13 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education All respondent farmers were generally of the view that modern veterinary medicine is superior in most respects to Indigenous medicine. There was consensus that mod- ern veterinary medicine excels in diagnoses and in the precise prescription of a rem- edy to treat identified disease, while traditional veterinary medicine lacks this kind of diagnostic precision. With Indigenous treatments, the dosage regimes and treatment strategies are not precise. Sometimes several different herbs are given to the animals without knowing exactly which one is most effective. The lack of precision can some- times result in animal fatalities. The respondents identified some modern veterinary medicinal remedies or practices for which there are no Indigenous alternatives or equivalents, including the proce- dures of artificial insemination and Caesarean section. At the same time, one farmer pointed out that some diseases, such as akanyaga and rutandara, are best treated with Indigenous medicine. This farmer did, however, agree that some ailments are more efficiently treated with modern medicine, citing the example of ikibagarira: Traditionally, we did not know the cause of ikibagarira. It was in 1980 that we were trained on its cause, where they told us that it is caused by ticks. Since then, modern medicine has been used mostly in the treatment of ikibagarira very well. It is widely felt that foreign-breed cows should be treated using only modern medi- cine, while Indigenous cattle (and cross breeds) can be treated using both Indigenous and modern remedies. One of the interviewees noted that fewer and fewer farmers are using Indigenous treatments—in part because of the many new diseases that have come to Rwanda with the introduction of foreign cattle breeds. Another reason given for the decline in the use of Indigenous treatment methods is the government mandate that a veterinary doctor is to be called whenever a cow is sick. One farmer was of the view that Indigenous and modern medicines are comple- mentary, although he added that modern medicine is superior. Some of the farm- ers reported that for most ailments suffered by their livestock, they first commence treatment using Indigenous treatment methods, with a veterinary doctor sought only when traditional cures fail or where no traditional cure is known. 5. Findings on TVET Animal Health instruction Curriculum content In our review of the curriculum documents for Rwanda’s TVET Animal Health cer- tificate and diploma programmes, we found that there is no Indigenous knowledge content (WDA, n.d.). The curricula could easily be applicable to any European or North American country. And although Kinyarwanda is the language most easily understood by many TVET students and teachers, none of the curriculum content is in Kinyarwanda. There is no indication that students serviced by the curriculum are The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 14 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse going to apply their trades in locations where longstanding Indigenous knowledge and Indigenous animal health practices are present. There is, in fact, no mention of the Rwandan context in the curriculum. Farmers’ views Most of the farmers interviewed were found to be in favour of the idea of incorpo- rating Indigenous knowledge into the TVET Animal Health curriculum. The most prevalent view was that the TVET courses should teach students how to use local herbs in treating animal diseases and how to effectively combine them with modern veterinary medicine. There was also a widely held view that including Indigenous knowledge in the curriculum would allow useful animal health Indigenous knowl- edge to spread all over the country, rather than being, in some cases, localised within districts. Only two farmers had opinions that diverged strongly from the others. One believed that including Indigenous knowledge in the TVET curriculum should be for the purpose of cultural preservation only, and that students should be taught to conduct all treatments using modern medicine. The other was of the opinion that modern medicine had effectively replaced its Indigenous counterpart, and that, accordingly, teaching Indigenous knowledge at TVET schools would amount to teaching “back- wardness”. Thus, in his view, there is no need to include Indigenous knowledge in the TVET Animal Health curriculum. Graduates’ views All five of the TVET Animal Health graduates interviewed said they are aware of the value that traditional livestock farmers attach to Indigenous animal health treat- ments. They also confirmed that they were not taught any form of Indigenous animal health knowledge during their TVET studies. Four of the five graduates interviewed did not consider the curriculum’s exclusion of Indigenous knowledge to be problem- atic. According to one of these four respondents, “it is not necessary to add Indige- nous knowledge in TVET curriculum. We have veterinary doctors who are trained, and their knowledge is enough.” According to another of the four respondents not concerned with the absence of Indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, “modern medicine is more trustable, and we advise livestock farmers to use it rather than [the] Indigenous one”. In the view of these four respondents, such knowledge is only fit to be passed on oral- ly from generation to generation, since it is “archaic” and was only used prior to the advent of modern veterinary medicine. One of the four expressed his conviction that, by every standard, modern veterinary medicine is superior to Indigenous medicine, and that any contrary belief is only upheld in some rural areas: “[These] few remote areas are behind in development. Therefore, the adoption of modern vet medicine is slow.” Another stated that livestock farmers often try to convince him that Indige- AJIC Issue 27, 2021 15 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education nous knowledge is superior to modern knowledge in the treatment of certain diseas- es, but his response is always to advise them to rely only on modern medicine. One of the four was of the view that Indigenous treatments can have severe side-effects, especially for foreign breeds that do not tolerate traditional medicine, and can even lead to livestock death. The one respondent with a differing perspective was of the view that Indigenous medicine is as important as modern medicine, because in many cases animals can be treated and healed through its application. Thus, in this respondent’s opinion, teach- ing Indigenous ethno-veterinary knowledge in TVET schools is necessary to equip students with all the available skills required for livestock management. All five of the TVET graduates interviewed listed the disadvantages of Indigenous animal medicine when compared to Western approaches, including the concern that, with Indigenous medicine, inaccurate diagnoses result in high rates of fatality, and the concern that there is a lack of standardisation of dosages. With modern veteri- nary health care, they pointed out, diagnosis is much more precise, and the admin- istration of medicine follows scientifically established dosages. One graduate now working as a vet practitioner observed that—unfortunately, in his view—the low cost of Indigenous medicine, compared to paying for the services of trained vets, has a countervailing effect on the patronage of animal clinics and formal veterinary medical practices. Teachers’ views All three TVET Animal Health teachers interviewed were aware of the existence and use of Indigenous knowledge in animal health in Rwanda. However, they all said that they consider modern medicine to be far more efficacious than Indigenous medicine, on the grounds that livestock farmers who use Indigenous cures also need modern medicine, while others use only modern cures and do not need Indigenous medicine. Two of the teachers said they have never incorporated Indigenous knowledge into their teaching or encouraged its discussion in class. According to one, Indigenous knowledge is allowed [as] it is a localised knowledge. It varies from one area to another. There is no regulation restricting people to teach it. Myself, I do not teach Indigenous knowledge because I do not know it. I only teach modern medicine. The second teacher who does not incorporate Indigenous knowledge into his teach- ing said he believes that teaching such knowledge is not appropriate, and not al- lowed in the classroom, since it is not relevant, as “TVET is about teaching students modern medicine which is up to date.” According to these two teachers, the TVET The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 16 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse students are not interested in Indigenous knowledge, as they come to school to learn about modern medicine. Figure 3: TVET Animal Health teacher TVET teacher with grazing cattle, Muhanga District Photo source: Vedaste Ndunguste The third teacher interviewed, however, was of the view that Rwanda’s Indigenous ethno-veterinary knowledge can assist TVET Animal Health students when they graduate and go into the field. This is so, he said, because in his understanding some ailments are treatable only by Indigenous methods, with no available treatment in modern veterinary medicine. He added that, given the percentage of Indigenous cattle in Rwanda, it is important to ensure that Indigenous knowledge of animal husbandry is not marginalised. If incorporated into the TVET Animal Health cur- riculum, Indigenous treatments would complement modern medicine. The teacher also stated that, even though it is not part of the curriculum, he sometimes includes Indigenous knowledge in his teaching. For instance, he sometimes references the practice of treating animals with charcoal, the practice of treating animals with cow butter (amavutay’inka), and the process known as kwina, in which Indigenous medi- cine is administered to the animal anally through a piece of local bamboo straw, usu- ally as a treatment for constipation. He does this because, in his view, many students are interested in knowing about Indigenous treatments. The two teachers who had participated in developing the TVET Animal Health curriculum confirmed that Rwanda’s Indigenous knowledge is not considered during curriculum development. One of the two said this lack of inclusion of Indigenous AJIC Issue 27, 2021 17 Indigenous Knowledge and Vocational Education practices contrasted with government support for Indigenous knowledge in other sectors. He pointed to the example of the certification given by the government, through the Ministry of Health, to Indigenous knowledge practitioners of human medicine. 6. Analysis, conclusions and recommendations It is clear in the findings of this study that Indigenous knowledge of cattle treatments is both held and used by rural livestock farmers in Rwanda and, at the same time, that such knowledge is not being supported by the country’s TVET Animal Health cur- riculum. The livestock farmers interviewed hold nuanced views about the interfaces between Indigenous and modern Western treatments for their cattle. The farmers, both experienced and less-experienced, know about the Indigenous techniques, and all but one of the farmers has used them on their cattle, either directly or with the assistance of traditional animal health practitioners. A key advantage of Indigenous medicine cited by the farmers is its cost-effectiveness, with the use of modern treat- ments, via modern veterinary clinics, being prohibitively expensive and thus only used as a last resort or for ailments not treatable using traditional means. The farmers do, at the same time, acknowledge the greater precision and predictability of mod- ern veterinary treatments, and the greater efficacy of modern treatments for foreign breeds of cattle (with Indigenous breeds and cross breeds seen as compatible with effective treatment by both Indigenous and modern methods). Meanwhile, in TVET Animal Health education, the Indigenous medicinal knowl- edge known and practised by rural livestock farmers is not provided for in any mean- ingful way. The TVET Animal Health curriculum covers none of the Indigenous knowledge detailed by the farmers in the research interviews. Moreover, four of the five TVET Animal Health graduates interviewed, and two of the three TVET An- imal Health teachers interviewed, see absolutely no value in making Indigenous an- imal health treatments part of TVET instruction—and even the one graduate and one teacher who see some value in making TVET learners aware of such knowledge do not see the need for it to be part of the formal curriculum. The TVET graduates, who in their work as vets and animal pharmacists interact with rural livestock farm- ers, are not equipped with the knowledge necessary to optimally interact with these farmers. To be relevant to the continent’s overall advancement, Africa’s education curricula need to incorporate the continent’s Indigenous knowledge and practices across numerous fields and sectors (Msila, 2016). In the planning and development of curricula, knowledge that is Indigenous to learners’ locales must be infused generously, with the aim of such knowledge being appropriate human-centred development. As seen in the passage quoted earlier in this article from UNESCO, there is global recognition among education policymakers of the “urgent need to enhance the The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 18 Ezeanya-Esiobu, Oguamanam and Ndungutse intergenerational transmission of indigenous knowledge” and “to bring indigenous language and knowledge into school curricula” (UNESCO, n.d.). Rwandan policymakers need to pursue several elements if they wish to build Indig- enous knowledge into the country’s TVET Animal Health curriculum. At the foun- dation is a need for research into Rwandan Indigenous animal health knowledge, and the widespread dissemination of these research findings. Research is also needed into ways of improving Indigenous animal health practices in Rwanda, as the farmer re- spondents noted that lack of precision in dosages, and uncertainty about which herbs work for which disease, hinder the effectiveness of Indigenous treatments. Western medicine, which many respondents in this study consider to be much more effica- cious, is itself evolutionary, refined through centuries of research and development in order to attain the legitimacy and trust currently ascribed to it. Accordingly, there is a need to prioritise the establishment of research laboratories dedicated to indigenous Rwandan animal health by the nation’s Ministry of Education, and specifically the Ministry’s Directorate for Science, Technology and Research (DSTR). Another important element is teacher training. Before the TVET Animal Health curriculum can be transformed, teachers mus