Towards a critical minerals strategy 

for South Africa 

Gudani Sivhabu 

9604564T 

9604564T@students.wits.ac.za 

 

A research proposal submitted to the Faculty of Commerce, Law and 

Management, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the 

requirements for the degree of Master of Management in the field of 

Business Administration 

 

Johannesburg, 2025 

 

 

Word count: 9,554 (excluding, abstract, declaration, acknowledgements, table of content, 

references and appendices) 

 

 

 

 



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Abstract 

The global transition towards renewable energy and advanced battery 

technologies has increased demand for critical minerals, necessitating strategic 

mineral resources management. South Africa, endowed with vast mineral wealth, 

has yet to formalise its critical minerals strategy (CMS) to align with global best 

practices and secure its position in the changing minerals economy. This study 

explores the foundational elements required to develop a CMS by analysing 

established strategies from leading mining economies which are the United 

States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and India, and assessing their 

applicability to the South African context. 

Using a qualitative case study research approach, this research examined critical 

mineral policies, regulatory frameworks, stakeholder relations, and supply chain 

strategies across these case study nations. The findings highlight key themes, 

including, national security, supply chain diversification, sustainability, 

stakeholder collaboration, and technological innovation, all of which are important 

for a robust but dynamic CMS. The study also covered South Africa’s 

opportunities and challenges, emphasising the need for policy coherence, 

investment in research and development, mineral exploration and infrastructure 

development. 

The paper concludes with recommendations for South Africa’s CMS discussing 

elements that can leverage South Africa’s mineral resources for economic 

transformation, industrial development and global competitiveness. This study 

contributes to academic discourse on resource governance by providing a 

structured framework for emerging economies to navigate the critical minerals 

development in a rapidly evolving geopolitical landscape. 

Keywords:  South Africa, Critical Minerals Strategy, Economic Development, 

Environmental, Social and Governance, Exploration, Beneficiation, Technology. 

 



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Acknowledgements 

I would like to express my gratitude to God for his wisdom and guidance 

throughout this journey. He provided for me the resources, opportunities and 

perseverance to complete this research. 

My wife, Nolwazi, your patience, understanding and support has been 

immeasurable, especially during the challenging periods of this study. Your 

support kept me grounded and motivated throughout this journey. 

I extend my sincere appreciation to my Supervisor, Dr Steven Mathetsa, for his 

guidance and mentorship. His expertise and constructive feedback have been 

instrumental in shaping this research.  

I also wish to thank my classmates whose collaboration, thought-provoking 

discussions and intellectual competitiveness made my academic experience 

enjoyable.  

To my entire family, your love, faith and encouragement have been a pillar of 

strength. I am deeply grateful for your support throughout this endeavour.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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Contents 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 1 

1.1 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE ................................................................... 1 

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .............................................................. 1 

1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM ......................................................................... 2 

1.4 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES ......................................................... 3 

1.5 RATIONALE ........................................................................................ 3 

1.6 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY............................................................. 4 

1.7 ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITION OF TERMS .......................................... 4 

1.8 ASSUMPTIONS ................................................................................... 5 

1.9 CHAPTER OUTLINE ............................................................................. 6 

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................... 8 

2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 8 
2.1.1 THE HISTORY OF MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA AND GLOBAL SUPPLY CONTRIBUTION ........... 8 
2.1.3 SOUTH AFRICAN MINING’S ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION .................................................. 9 
2.1.4 FUTURE-FACING CRITICAL MINERALS: IMPORTANCE AND IMPLICATIONS ....................... 10 
2.1.5 SOUTH AFRICA’S CRITICAL MINERALS STRATEGY ....................................................... 11 

2.2 STRATEGY, OBJECTIVES AND EFFECTIVE STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION .. 12 
2.2.1 WHAT IS STRATEGY? ............................................................................................... 12 
2.2.2 OBJECTIVES OF STRATEGY ....................................................................................... 12 
2.2.3 GENERAL EFFECTIVE STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION .................................................... 13 
2.2.4 EFFECTIVE STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR ................................. 13 

2.3 STRATEGY IN CRITICAL MINERALS ...................................................... 13 

2.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 16 

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................. 17 

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 17 

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................... 17 

3.3 CASE SELECTION ............................................................................. 18 

3.4 DATA COLLECTION ........................................................................... 18 

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................ 19 

3.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................ 20 

3.7 CREDIBILITY, AND TRUSTWORTHINESS ............................................... 20 

3.8 LIMITATIONS .................................................................................... 21 

3.9 SUMMARY ....................................................................................... 21 

3.10 NEXT STEPS: TRANSITION TO ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ....................... 22 



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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS .............................................................. 24 

4.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 24 

4.2. ANALYSISING GLOBAL PRACTICES IN CMS FORMULATION........................ 24 
4.2.1. THE USA'S CRITICAL MINERALS STRATEGY .............................................................. 26 
4.2.2. AUSTRALIA'S CRITICAL MINERALS STRATEGY ............................................................ 27 
4.2.3. UNITED KINGDOM CRITICAL MINERALS STRATEGY ..................................................... 29 
4.2.4. CANADA'S CRITICAL MINERALS STRATEGY ................................................................ 30 
4.2.5. INDIA'S CRITICAL MINERALS STRATEGY ..................................................................... 31 

4.3 KEY THEMES AND CONTRASTS ........................................................... 32 

4.4 CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 36 

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSIONS ...................................................... 38 

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 38 

5.2 SOUTH AFRICA’S NATIONAL RESOURCE ENDOWMENT AND ECONOMIC 

CONTEXT ......................................................................................... 38 

5.3 POLICY AND REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT ........................................... 39 
5.3.1 POLICY COHERENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA ..................................................................... 40 
5.3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY ALIGNMENT ............................................................ 41 

5.4 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT ............................................................ 42 
TO ALIGN WITH PRACTICES OF STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT AND INCLUSIVE APPROACH, THIS 

SUBSECTION ASSESSED THE COUNTRY’S KEY STAKEHOLDERS LIKELY TO INFLUENCE THE CMS AND 

THEIR ROLES IN RELATION TO THE MINING SECTOR. .......................................................................... 42 
5.4.1 GOVERNMENT AGENCIES .......................................................................................... 42 
5.4.2 THE MINERALS COUNCIL OF SOUTH AFRICA .............................................................. 43 
5.4.3 INVESTORS (INCLUDING COMMERCIAL BANKS, DEVELOPMENT BANKS AND PRIVATE 

EQUITY) ......................................................................................................................................... 44 
5.4.4 COMMUNITIES, ADVOCACY GROUPS AND THINKTANKS ................................................ 44 
5.4.5 REGIONAL ALLIANCES .............................................................................................. 45 

5.5 DEFINING CRITICAL MINERALS FOR SOUTH AFRICA .............................. 46 
5.5.1 CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT APPROACH ....................................................................... 46 
5.5.2 SUGGESTED INITIAL CRITICAL LIST ............................................................................ 46 

CHAPTER 6. RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 51 

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 51 

6.2 RECOMMENDED KEY THEMES FOR SOUTH AFRICA’S CMS ................... 51 
6.2.1 NATIONAL SECURITY ................................................................................................ 51 
6.2.2 DIVERSIFICATION OF SUPPLY CHAINS ........................................................................ 52 
6.2.3 SUSTAINABILITY AND ESG STANDARDS (INCLUDING INDIGENOUS AND LOCAL 

PARTNERSHIPS) ............................................................................................................................. 53 
6.2.4 INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT .......................................................... 54 

6.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK INTEGRATION .......................................... 54 



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CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION ....................................................... 57 

7.1 IMPLICATIONS FOR SOUTH AFRICA’S ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION AND 

THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION ...................................................... 57 

7.2 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS ........................................................ 58 

8. REFERENCES ..................................................................... 59 

9. APPENDIX A: Instrument ................................................... 70 

9.1 DOCUMENT ANALYSIS ............................................................................ 70 

9.2 PRIMARY DOCUMENTS ........................................................................... 71 

9.3 THEMES FOR ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 71 

10. APPENDIX B: Data analysis .................................................. 72 

10.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THEMES ................................................................. 72 

10.2 CODING AND CATEGORISATION PROCESS .............................................. 73 
10.2.1 STEP 1: FAMILIARISATION WITH THE DATA ............................................................... 73 
10.2.2 STEP 2: DATA CODING ........................................................................................... 73 
10.2.3 STEP 3: CATEGORISATION...................................................................................... 75 

10.3 APPLICATION TO THE DATA ................................................................... 75 

10.4 THEMES TABLE CONSTRUCTION ............................................................ 76 

10.5 METHODOLOGICAL RIGOUR .................................................................. 77 

10.6 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 77 

11. APPENDIX C: Criticality assessment ................................... 78 

11.1 STAGE 1: LESSONS FROM MAJOR MINING ECONOMIES ............................ 78 

11.2 STAGE 2: INPUT FROM CRITICAL LIST COLLABORATORS .......................... 80 

11.3 STAGE 3: SYNTHESISING INFORMATION TO PRODUCE A CMS FRAMEWORK

 ...................................................................................................... 81 

12. APPENDIX D: Ethics Clearance ............................................ 82 

 

 

 



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List of figures 

Figure 1. South African contribution to world mineral reserves (MCSA, 2023) .. 9 

Figure 2. The South African mining industry’s percentage contribution to the 

country’s GDP (MCSA, 2023) .......................................................................... 10 

Figure 3. South African CMS conceptual framework (Robbins & Coulter, 2017)

 ......................................................................................................................... 16 

Figure 4. Mind map summary of the research methodology ............................ 22 

Figure 5. Overview of CMS Chronology, excluding updates ............................ 25 

Figure 6. Theoretical framework and research objectives ................................ 55 

 

List of tables 

Table 1. South Africa’s targeted critical minerals (DMRE, 2022)...................... 11 

Table 2. Linking objectives and hypotheses ..................................................... 15 

Table 3. Linking objectives, hypotheses, data collection and analysis method 19 

Table 4. Next Chapters, Titles and Roles ......................................................... 22 

Table 5. Case study CMSs utilised in this research ......................................... 25 

Table 6. Common key themes across major economies’ critical minerals 

strategies ......................................................................................................... 33 

Table 7. Differences in approaches and immediate outcomes ......................... 34 



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Table 8. Key policies and legislation influencing South Africa’s critical minerals 

landscape ......................................................................................................... 39 

Table 9. Major economies’ CM classification lists with a suggested South African 

list (ANRC, 2022; DMRE, 2022; India Ministry of Mines, 2023) ....................... 47 

Table 10. Code development for theme categorisation .................................... 74 

Table 11. Theme categorisation frequency results ........................................... 76 



CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Statement of purpose 

This study explored the foundational steps required to establish a comprehensive 

critical minerals strategy (CMS) for South Africa. The aim is to identify the best 

global practices in formulation of CMS and assess their applicability and 

practicality in the South African context. 

1.2 Background of the study 

South Africa's mining sector, which has a rich and diverse history, plays a 

significant role in its economic development. At the time of writing, the country 

had already developed a significant number of policies to enhance the mining of 

minerals to be sold for various purposes both internally and to external markets 

(Government of South Africa, 2024). South Africa is also a source of numerous 

minerals – widely known as critical minerals – that are essential to future-facing 

markets, including copper, nickel, lithium, rare-earth metals, graphite and cobalt. 

All are widely valued for substantial contributions to their respective industries 

(DMRE, 2022),such as the green technologies, electronics, defence and 

renewable energy sectors, and have become pivotal for steering the world toward 

a sustainable future (Africa Natural Resources Management and Investment 

Centre (ANRC), 2022). 

However, despite being endowed with a wide range of minerals and policies to 

regulate them, South Africa is yet to formalise a strategy focused on critical 

minerals essential for modern technologies and a green economy (Government 

of South Africa, 2024), despite Barteková and Kemp (2016) arguing that a 

formalised CMS is essential for guiding policy development and implementation, 

enabling the systematic growth of a robust mineral industry. It s necessary to 

bridge this gap with a comprehensive CMS for South Africa as contemporary 

developments highlight the need for sustained supplies of these minerals towards 

energy transition and other enhanced technologies. 



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1.3 Research problem 

Recent developments in the energy transition movement (International Climate 

Change Agreements, the Paris Agreement, the UN’s Sustainable Development 

Goals, etc) may further drive the decline in the use of, and thus the demand for, 

coal. However, these changes also present an opportunity to exploit access to 

the minerals that are crucial for this transition. The South African mining sector 

has implemented a number of initiatives aimed at reviving or boosting mining 

activities, such as addressing the backlog for minerals rights applications and 

setting up the Junior Mining Exploration Fund (JMEF), aimed at supporting 

private or low-market-cap public companies focused on mineral exploration and 

development. The newly launched Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) 

exploration fund and a private-public partnership called the National Energy and 

Logistics Crisis Committees have also been tasked with addressing operational 

issues at Transnet, Eskom and other organisations (Government of South Africa, 

2024), further contributing to the efforts to improve mining infrastructure and 

boost the country’s economy, which has lagged in the recent past. To all these 

initiatives, procuring a service provider for the design, implementation and 

maintenance of a mining licensing system will be key. 

Müller (2023), however, argues that there has not been a focused, consolidated 

effort to take advantage of the current critical mineral supply chain challenges 

that countries in the global North are experiencing due to geopolitical events 

including Covid-19 and the Russia-Ukraine conflict. One solution Müller suggests 

is establishing a CMS which consolidates all the available resources and directs 

them toward global mining partnerships, which would immensely benefit South 

Africa and the African region in general (Ge & Liu, 2020). 

The lack of a formalised CMS could result in the country missing opportunities to 

explore and utilise these resources for economic growth and technological 

advancement in the renewable energy sector, among another uses. It therefore 

is imperative that South Africa develop a CMS to enable the strategic and cost-

effective domestic production of renewable energy components (Benard, 2018). 



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Therefore, this study assessed CMS and how it may be utilised to enhance South 

Africa’s capability to supply critical minerals locally and globally. 

1.4 Research aim and objectives 

The aim of this study was to identify mechanisms for the development of an 

efficient and beneficial CMS that lays the groundwork for proper management 

and utilisation of critical minerals, benefitting South Africa’s socio-economic and 

environmental endeavours. To this end, the following objectives were formulated: 

a.  Identify global practices in the formulation of CMS 

b. Analyse the relevance and applicability of these practices in the South 

African context 

c. Propose a framework for South Africa’s CMS development that can 

contribute towards the country's 2002 Mineral and Petroleum Resources 

Development Act (MRPDA) objectives 

1.5 Rationale 

This paper aimed to contribute to the discussion around enhancing South Africa’s 

role as an active and competitive participant in the global mineral industry. 

Achieving this will uplift socioeconomic conditions in the country and the region 

through the deployment of critical minerals in the decarbonisation process, 

economic development, job opportunities and technological advancement, both 

at home and globally (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2023). 

By developing a comprehensive strategy, South Africa can leverage its vast 

mineral resources to achieve economic growth, enhance its national security and 

promote sustainable development (Minerals Council of South Africa (MCSA), 

2023). 

The findings  provide a roadmap for policymakers, industry stakeholders and the 

academic community, fostering collaboration and ensuring that the benefits of 



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critical minerals are maximised, while minimising negative environmental and 

negative social impacts. Additionally, the strategy will advance South Africa and 

the global communities’ goals in the energy transition by supplying critical 

minerals essential for the manufacture of renewable energy components 

(Government of South Africa, 2024). 

1.6 Delimitations of the study 

This is an exploratory study using qualitative methods to uncover insights and 

understanding in a relatively under-explored area. This research was restricted 

to publicly available and accessible data, primarily comprising peer-reviewed 

academic literature, published policies and regulations, and strategies from 

selected countries with established CMS. Data was retrieved from academic and 

government websites and databases and may not include unpublished reports or 

proprietary information. This study assumes that future technological 

developments will support demand for critical minerals as they are currently 

defined. 

1.7 Abbreviations and definition of terms 

CM: Critical mineral. A mineral essential for the economic development and 

national security of a country whose supply chain may be vulnerable to disruption 

due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues or other factors. Examples include 

lithium, cobalt and rare earth elements (International Energy Agency (IEA), 

2023). 

CMS: Critical minerals strategy. A framework designed to secure the sustainable 

and reliable supply of critical minerals (IEA, 2023). 

PGMs: Platinum group metals. A set of six metallic elements comprising platinum 

(Pt), palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), iridium (Ir) and osmium (Os). 

These metals are valued for their catalytic properties, resistance to wear and 



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tarnish, and use in industries such as automotive, jewellery and electronics 

(Minerals Council of South Africa (MCSA), 2023). 

DMRE: Department of Mineral Resources and Energy. This South African 

government department is responsible for administration of the mining and 

energy sectors. After the May 2024 elections, this ministry was divided into two: 

the Ministry of Minerals and Petroleum Resources and the Ministry of Electricity 

and Energy (Government of South Africa, 2024). 

ESG: Environmental, social and governance. Criteria for assessing a company's 

sustainability and ethical impact. ESG standards guide investors and corporate 

strategies towards sustainable practices (MCSA, 2023). 

IDC: Industrial Development Corporation. A South African national development 

finance institution that supports economic growth and industrial development 

(Government of South Africa, 2024). 

JMEF: Junior Mining Exploration Fund. A fund to which the DMRE and the IDC 

have jointly contributed R400 million (R200 million each), whose aim is to 

advance the exploration of critical minerals within the junior mining sector, 

fostering growth and enhancing South Africa’s mineral exploration capacity 

(Government of South Africa, 2024). 

1.8 Assumptions 

This study assumed that nations with a developed CMS are more likely to have 

a thriving and productive mining industry than those without. The study assumes 

that South Africa will remain an enabling environment, or even improve in this 

regard, and that its critical minerals are perceived to be as clean and conflict-free 

as any other produced in the developed world and can therefore compete fairly. 



6 

 

1.9 Chapter outline 

This thesis is structured as follows: 

Chapter 1. This chapter provides a contextualisation of the study and discussed 

the research problem, objectives and justification of the study. 

Chapter 2. This chapter reviewed the foundational strategic management 

literature, emphasising the strategic significance of critical minerals. It discussed 

the alignment of study objectives with the hypothesis and concluded with a 

conceptual framework linking the theory to CMSs. 

Chapter 3. This section outlined the research methodology and design and 

detailed the data collection process and its linkage to the hypotheses. It 

concluded with a description of the thematic analysis process employed. 

Chapter 4. Research execution – this chapter presented findings of Critical 

Mineral Strategies from major mining economies and interpreted the themes from 

Appendix B to satisfy research objective (a): Identifying global practices in the 

formulation of Critical Minerals Strategies (CMS). This was achieved through  a 

combination of qualitative document analysis and case study methods to explore 

international CMS approaches.. 

Chapter 5. Analysis and discussions – provided a structured analysis and 

discussion of the findings and explored the relevance and applicability of 

international CMS practices to South Africa, aligned with objective (b). . 

Chapter 6. Recommendation – synthesised the key learnings into a proposed 

approach for a South African CMS, incorporating strategic, institutional, and 

operational elements. This chapter proposed a CMS framework to support the 

objectives of South Africa’s 2002 Mineral and Petroleum Resources 

Development Act (MPRDA), addressing objective (c). 



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Chapter 7. Conclusion – the final chapter offered the study’s conclusions, 

summarised the key insights, and presented recommendations for policy and 

future research. 



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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 Introduction 

This chapter briefly discusses the fundamental inputs, objectives and preferred 

outcomes of a general strategy, public sector strategy and CMS from a scholarly 

perspective (Lenox et al., 2017). It further delves into the specific area of CMSs, 

highlighting their strategic importance in economic development. 

2.1.1 The history of mining in South Africa and global supply contribution 

According to Huffman and Woodborne (2021), mining activities in South Africa 

can be traced back to pre-colonial times – before the arrival of European 

explorers or colonial agents. Examples such as Mapungubwe, in the northern 

part of South Africa, underwent substantial mining activities between the years 

900 to 1300 CE (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation 

[UNESCO] 2002). The 1867 discovery of diamonds near Kimberley, followed by 

the 1886 Witwatersrand gold rush, catalysed extensive mining activity, leading to 

the rapid development of mining towns and infrastructure. This era laid the 

foundation for South Africa's dominance in global mineral markets, particularly in 

gold, diamonds, platinum group metals (PGMs), coal and manganese (Nauright, 

2004). 

South Africa's contribution to the global commodities supply is significant. The 

country was the world's largest producer of gold for many decades; however, its 

output has declined in recent years owing to the depletion of reserves and rising 

production costs. Furthermore, South Africa is a significant provider of PGMs, 

accounting for much of the global supply of platinum (74%), palladium (39%), 

rhodium (82%), iridium (81%) and ruthenium (90%) (Moller, 2022) – critical 

components in automotive catalytic converters and various electronics (IEA, 

2023). Additionally, South Africa is a major supplier of manganese and chromium, 

which are pivotal in the global metal and energy sectors (Geological Survey, 



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2024). Figure 1 illustrates the country’s contribution to global commodities, as 

well as its critical role in the global sphere and its advancement through mineral 

reserves. 

 

Figure 1. South African contribution to world mineral reserves (MCSA, 2023) 

2.1.3 South African mining’s economic contribution 

The contribution of the mining industry to the South African economy has evolved 

over the years, reflecting changes in global markets, domestic economic policies 

and structural shifts within the sector (Benard, 2018). Although mining was once 

a dominant force, it contributed barely 4.4% of South Africa’s gross domestic 

product (GDP) in 2022, down from 21.3% in 1970, as illustrated in Figure 2 

(Minerals Council of South Africa, 2023). Benard further highlights that the mining 

sector has also been instrumental in driving infrastructure development, from 

transportation and logistics to energy and water supply, further underscoring its 

integral role in South Africa's economic landscape. Despite these contributions, 

its downward trajectory suggests the need to review key strategies to revive its 

35,0%

40,0%

91,30%

8,70%

15,70%

9,60%
13,50%

South Africa's minerals as % of world reserves

Chromium Manganese Platinum group metals Zirconium minerals

Fluorspar Gold Vanadium



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contribution towards the country’s economic prosperity. This demonstrates an 

urgent need to investigate strategies around the exploitation of emerging 

minerals – particularly those critical minerals that are essential to rapid global 

developments and applications such as the energy transition. Figure 2 illustrates 

the mining industry’s declining contribution over time to South Africa’s gross 

domestic product. 

 

Figure 2. The South African mining industry’s percentage contribution to 

the country’s GDP (MCSA, 2023) 

2.1.4 Future-facing critical minerals: importance and implications 

Critical minerals encompass a broad range of elements, such as lithium, cobalt, 

nickel, rare earth elements (REEs) and graphite, which are integral to the 

manufacture of batteries, electric vehicles (EVs), wind turbines and other 

renewable energy technologies. The burgeoning market demand for these 

minerals is mostly related to the escalating necessity to mitigate greenhouse 

gases (GHGs) in accordance with the Paris Agreement, advancements in 

technologies and rising government funding for low-carbon economies (IEA, 

2023). These minerals are found in abundance in South Africa and the Sub-

Saharan Africa (SSA) region, prompting the former to prioritise exploring these 

critical minerals to supply global demands such as energy transition. As outlined 

in Table 1, South Africa’s minerals that are critical to energy transition and thus 



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targeted for exploration include copper, lithium, nickel, manganese, cobalt, 

graphite, chromium, molybdenum, zinc, silicon, rare earth elements, coal and 

uranium (Department of Minerals Resources and Energy, 2022). 

Table 1. South Africa’s targeted critical minerals (DMRE, 2022) 

Minerals Current/future needs 

  Minerals of the future/green economy 

Cobalt   

Nickel   

Copper   

Zinc   

Lead   

Rare earth minerals   

  Battery minerals 

Vanadium   

Lithium   

  Steelmaking 

Manganese   

Iron ore   

  Energy minerals 

Coal   

Uranium   

  Hydrogen economy and decarbonisation 

PGMs   

Chrome   

2.1.5 South Africa’s critical minerals strategy 

Several developed countries, such as the United States of America (USA), 

Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom (UK), have established mineral 

strategies to align their policies and resources with participating in future-facing 

mineral industries (India Ministry of Mines, 2023). Barteková and Kemp (2016) 

argue that that such a strategy provides a framework for prioritising investments, 

streamlining regulatory processes and fostering innovation, which are critical for 

securing the sector’s sustainable development. By aligning national objectives 

with global trends, a well-structured strategy enhances the country’s capacity to 

meet economic and technological demands while ensuring long-term resource 



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security. However, to date no African countries have developed or published a 

critical strategy document – despite the continent being one of the most mineral-

rich across the globe (Africa Natural Resources Management and Investment 

Centre [ANRC], 2022). This highlights the need for countries such as South Africa 

to put in place systems and processes to explore their critical minerals to enable 

their energy transition imperatives and other needs associated with these 

commodities. 

2.2 Strategy, objectives and effective strategy implementation 

2.2.1 What is strategy? 

Strategy in an organisation encompasses a complex set of actions and resource 

commitments aimed at achieving superior results (Lawler & Howell-Barber, 

2007). According to Fairbanks and Buchko (2018), it involves a pattern of 

decisions that allocate resources to long-term goals, clearly revealing and 

determining an organisation's objectives, purposes and goals. Lenox et al. (2017) 

and Nickols (2008) further emphasise that effective strategy is not just about 

planning but also about positioning the organisation within its competitive 

environment to meet these desired outcomes. This provides a foundational 

understanding of the specific objectives that strategies aim to achieve. 

2.2.2 Objectives of strategy 

The objectives of an organisation's strategy focus primarily on gaining a 

sustainable competitive edge and responding adeptly to market opportunities and 

threats, as noted by Fairbanks and Buchko (2018) and Nezhad et al. (2017). 

Kaplan and Norton (2004) add that successful strategies involve selecting and 

excelling in activities that create a sustainable difference in the marketplace, 

leading to improved performance relative to competitors and the mobilisation of 

intangible assets for value-creating processes. These objectives underline the 



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importance of strategic alignment with market demand, setting the stage for 

exploring how such strategies are formulated and implemented. 

2.2.3 General effective strategy implementation 

Effective strategy formulation and development require comprehensive planning, 

clear decision-making and strategic oversight. Integrated models that combine 

the resource-based view and the industrial organisation perspective, as proposed 

by Arvand & Baroto, 2016; and Baroto et al., 2014, emphasise the role of 

balanced scorecards in this process. Borawska (2017) and Neilson et al. (2008) 

highlight the importance of clarifying decision rights and enhancing information 

flow within organisations, which are crucial for the successful execution of 

strategies. This approach not only ensures well-conceived strategic initiatives but 

also facilitates their effective implementation – essential in the public sector 

where the stakes include public welfare and service delivery. 

2.2.4 Effective strategy implementation in the public sector 

In the public sector, strategies’ effectiveness is determined through a variety of 

factors that include robust partnerships and a modern understanding of strategic 

management (Chiwawa et al., 2020; Elbanna et al., 2016). The use of balanced 

scorecard systems, as suggested by Setiawan (2012), helps in translating, 

evaluating and harmonising strategies with organisational goals, thereby 

improving community service. This systematic evaluation is essential for ensuring 

that public sector strategies are both effective and adaptable, aligning with the 

ongoing discussion in the literature about the strategic importance of critical 

minerals and how CMS should be formulated and subsequently implemented. 

2.3 Strategy in critical minerals 

The classification and strategic significance of minerals into ‘key’, ‘strategic’ and 

‘critical’ categories, underscores their importance in the green economy and 



14 

 

major industries. Galos et al. (2020) and Wu et al. (2020) describe methodologies 

for identifying these minerals based on consumption and import reliance, 

highlighting their pivotal roles in modern technology and industry. This discussion 

leads to broader strategies which countries adopt to secure these vital resources, 

emphasising the need for robust CMSs. 

National strategies for critical minerals, as analysed by Ge and Liu (2020) and 

Lee et al., (2022), focus on ensuring resource security and supporting national 

development. The importance of these strategies in maintaining economic 

stability and reducing supply risk is also noted by The US Presidency (2017), 

which underscores the necessity of secure and reliable supply while sustainably 

serving socio-economic needs. The literature threads strategic management 

across sectors to illustrate a comprehensive view of how strategies are 

developed, implemented and evaluated to meet both organisational and national 

goals. Table 2 links the study objectives described above to the hypothesis used 

to articulate this study. 

2.3.1 Relevant strategic management theories for CMS development 

In developing a national CMS, it is essential to ground the approach in strategic 

management theories that support public sector planning, stakeholder 

integration, and long-term competitive advantage. Several frameworks are 

particularly relevant. 

a). The balanced scorecard framework enables public institutions to align 

operational activities with broader strategic objectives by translating vision into 

measurable targets across four perspectives which are financial, customer, 

internal processes, and learning and growth. For a CMS, this allows performance 

measurement beyond extraction volumes, including sustainability, beneficiation, 

and local development (Freitas et al., 2021). 

b). Stakeholder theory asserts that organisational success depends on satisfying 

key stakeholders’ needs which are particularly relevant for mineral strategies 

involving government, communities, industry, and global partners. Effective CMS 



15 

 

design must engage these diverse actors to ensure legitimacy, resilience, and 

equitable benefit-sharing (Braga et al., 2016). 

c). Policy coherence theory is relevant for inter-sectoral strategies like a CMS, 

policy coherence ensures alignment across departments (e.g., minerals, 

environment, trade). This framework evaluates the compatibility of objectives and 

instruments, which is critical in South Africa’s fragmented policy environment 

(Cairney, 2025). 

d). Resource-based view focuses on internal capabilities as sources of 

competitive advantage. Applied to CMS, it argues for leveraging South Africa’s 

unique endowment of critical minerals to build strategic capabilities in processing, 

innovation, and trade partnerships (Madhani, 2010). 

These theories were integrated to frame both the conceptual approach (see 

revised Figure 3) and the recommendations in Chapter 6, ensuring academic 

rigour and real-world applicability. 

Table 2. Linking objectives and hypotheses 

Research 
objective 

Research objective 
description 

Hypothesis 

a 
Identify global practices in 
the formulation of CMS. 

Global practices can be systematically 
identified through a comparative analysis 

of countries with established mineral 
strategies. 

b 

Analyse the relevance and 
applicability of these 

practices in the South 
African context. 

Certain global practices in CMS are 
relevant and can be effectively adapted to 

the South African context. 

c 

Propose a framework for 
South Africa’s CMS 

development that can 
contribute towards the 

country's 2002 Mineral and 
Petroleum Resources 

Development Act (MRPDA) 
objectives. 

Implementing a specifically designed CMS 
framework based on adapted global 

practices can contribute to South Africa's 
mining economy and ESG imperatives. 



16 

 

These hypotheses are structured to provide a clear direction for research and to 

establish a cause-and-effect relationship between global practices and their 

applicability to South Africa, as well as the potential impact of a tailored CMS on 

the country’s economic and environmental goals. 

2.4 Conclusion 

This review highlighted the importance of strategic management in attaining 

organisational success and national security in diverse industries. An effective 

strategy formulation requires thorough preparation, execution and evaluation 

while continually adjusting to the ever-changing global environment. Strategies in 

the public sector prioritise adaptation, stakeholder engagement and thorough 

evaluations to improve service delivery. Similarly, the strategic management of 

crucial minerals emphasises the necessity for nations to ensure the development 

of key resources necessary for technological progress and economic stability. 

These learnings collectively demonstrated that innovative and adaptable 

strategies are necessary to maintain long-term success and resilience in a 

complex and constantly changing world. Figure 3 illustrated the conceptual 

framework that this study followed. 

 

Figure 3. South African CMS conceptual framework (Robbins & Coulter, 

2017) 



17 

 

CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter outlined the research methodology used to analyse the key aspects 

and processes used in formulating global CMSs. A qualitative case study 

approach using secondary data was applied to this analysis, enabling a thorough 

examination of intricate phenomena within these nations’ contexts and facilitating 

a nuanced understanding of the initial effects and strategic orientations of each 

country's CMS. 

3.2 Research design 

Qualitative case study research is a method used to explore complex 

phenomena, often in the social and life sciences (Pateliya & Shah, 2013; Sitorus, 

2021). It involves in-depth analysis of an individual unit, such as a person, group 

or event, within its context (Pateliya & Shah, 2013). The qualitative case study 

method allowed the exploration of different interacting factors within a natural 

setting (Debout, 2016). Using a case study approach, it delved into examples 

from the selected countries to reveal insights that could aid the formulation and 

implementation of a well-rounded CMS for the South African context, ensuring 

that country-specific nuances are not overlooked. Ratnasari and Sudradjat (2023) 

highlight that case study research is a versatile methodology used across various 

disciplines to investigate complex phenomena in real-life contexts. A qualitative 

multiple-case study design was used to investigate how five major mining 

economies developed their CMSs. This design was selected for its strength in 

exploring complex, context-dependent processes (Pateliya & Shah, 2013; 

Sitorus, 2021). The multiple-case study approach allows for analytical 

generalisation rather than statistical generalisation, facilitating the comparison of 

strategic development processes across diverse jurisdictions.. 



18 

 

3.3 Case selection 

The Northern Miner Group (2024) and the IEA (2023) report that the global 50 

most valuable mining companies are located in Canada, China, the USA, 

Australia, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Russia, India, Mexico and Saudi 

Arabia. The case studies for this research were chosen exclusively from nations 

on this list that have developed and published their CMSs (IEA, 2023), specifically 

Canada, the US, Australia, the UK and India – those economies with the most 

valuable mining industries that have also published their CMSs. 

3.4 Data collection 

. 

This study employed qualitative document analysis as the primary data collection 

method. Official documents were collected from government portals, international 

agencies, and industry associations across five selected countries: Australia, 

Canada, the USA, India, and the UK. The selected documents included critical 

minerals strategies, policy papers, ministerial statements, and government 

reports published between 2017 and 2024. 

The search strategy involved purposive sampling to ensure the selection of only 

those documents that explicitly outlined national positions on critical minerals. 

Search terms used included 'critical minerals strategy', 'green minerals', 'mining 

policy', and 'mineral supply chain'. A total of 27 documents were identified, 

downloaded, catalogued, and prepared for thematic analysis. All documents were 

assessed for authenticity, credibility, and relevance to the research question. 

In this case, the population related to the inclusion of documents that were guided 

by relevance to strategy formulation, critical minerals strategy implementation 

and potential applicability of insights to the South African context. 



19 

 

3.5 Data analysis 

Thematic analysis was employed to code and interpret data across the five case 

studies. A hybrid approach combining inductive coding (emerging themes) and 

deductive coding (based on pre-identified themes such as governance, criticality 

assessment, and implementation frameworks) was applied. Manual coding 

enabled immersion in the data, facilitating nuanced cross-case comparisons. 

Government documents were thoroughly analysed and coded using manual 

content analysis. The objective was to discern the patterns, themes and 

classifications that arise from a comparative examination of textual data. This 

approach follows Ge and Liu (2020), who employed similar analytical instruments 

for their research study and established their effectiveness. summarises the 

objectives, hypotheses, research methods and analysis methods proposed for 

this scholarly research. The data analysis has been fully and successfully 

conducted in Appendix B. 

Table 3. Linking objectives, hypotheses, data collection and analysis 

method 



20 

 

Research 

objective 

Research objective description Hypothesis Data 

collection 

Analysis 

method 

a Identify global practices in the 

formulation of CMS. 

Global practices can be 

systematically identified through a 

comparative analysis of countries 

with established mineral strategies. 

Case study Thematic 

b Analyse the relevance and 

applicability of these practices in 

the South African context. 

Certain global practices in CMS are 

relevant and can be effectively 

adapted to the South African 

context. 

Case study Thematic 

c Propose a framework for South 

Africa’s CMS development that can 

contribute towards the country's 

2002 Mineral and Petroleum 

Resources Development Act 

(MRPDA) objectives. 

Implementing a specifically 

designed CMS framework based on 

adapted global practices can 

contribute to South Africa's mining 

economy and ESG imperatives. 

Case study Thematic 

3.6 Ethical considerations 

This study upheld the principles of fairness and scholarly ethics, ensuring that 

sources are accurately cited and that findings are presented without bias. In 

addition, the study only used information in the public domain, extracted from 

online sources or in hard-copy printouts. 

3.7 Credibility, and trustworthiness 

Quality assurance within the study was maintained through validation techniques 

including researcher checking with industry experts and peer debriefings.  



21 

 

To ensure rigour in this qualitative study, (Kakar et al., 2023) criteria for 

trustworthiness were adopted, focusing on credibility, transferability, 

dependability, and confirmability. 

Credibility was strengthened through systematic comparison of CMS features 

across the five countries and through peer review of emerging codes and themes. 

Transferability was enhanced by providing detailed context for each national 

strategy, allowing readers to assess relevance to the South African context. 

Dependability was ensured by applying a consistent and documented coding 

procedure (see Appendix B). Confirmability was achieved by maintaining a 

transparent record of document sources, coding justifications, and analytical 

memos. 

3.8 Limitations 

While case study methodology offered rich, contextual insights, its 

generalisability to other settings, such as South Africa, were interpreted 

cautiously. Furthermore, reliance on document-based data excludes 

contemporaneous stakeholder perspectives which could have further enrich 

findings. 

3.9 Summary 

This chapter developed a robust methodological framework for studying global 

CMSs, which served as the basis for conducting a detailed analysis. The findings 

from this analysis were used to develop a customised approach specifically for 

South Africa, as represented by the mind map in Figure 4 below. 



22 

 

 

Figure 4. Mind map summary of the research methodology 

 

3.10  Next Steps: Transition to Analysis and Findings 

To guide the reader in navigating the research analysis and findings, the structure 

of the forthcoming chapters is clarified below. This structure followed the 

progression of the research objectives and thematic analysis process and is 

shown in the Table 4.  

Table 4. Next Chapters, Titles and Roles 

Section Presentation Corresponding Research 

Objective 

Role 

Appendix B Coding of raw data and 

identification of themes from case 

studies 

Supports all study objectives Analysis 



23 

 

Chapter 4 Analysis and results of CMSs from 

major mining economies – 

Thematic comparative analysis 

Objective (a): Identifying 

global CMS formulation 

practices 

Findings 

Chapter 5 Applying global lessons to the 

South African context – Relevance 

testing of themes within local 

conditions 

Objective (b): Analysing 

relevance and applicability to 

SA 

Contextualising 

of Findings and 

Application 

Chapter 6 Recommendations toward a South 

African CMS – Strategic framework 

proposition 

Objective (c): Proposing a 

framework for South Africa’s 

CMS 

Discussion 

Chapter 7 Conclusion: Offered the study’s 

summary with key insights and 

future research recommendations 

Objectives (a), (b), and (c) Summary 

  

 



24 

 

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS   

4.1. Introduction 

This chapter analysed the collected themes and  on how the major mining 

economies of the USA, Australia, the UK, Canada and India have developed their 

critical minerals strategies in support of the research objective (a). 

4.2. Analysising Global practices in CMS formulation 

The study’s first objective aimed to systematically identify and compare the 

formulation practices of the major economies’ strategies. The study identified four 

essential contextual inputs, namely national resource endowment and economic 

context, policy and regulatory environment, stakeholder engagement, and criteria 

for defining critical minerals, needed to analyse the CMSs of major mining 

economies. These inputs were selected based on their broad applicability and 

relevance as outlined in the frameworks of Barteková and Kemp (2016) and 

Zhang et al. (2023), which emphasise the importance of economic conditions, 

governance structures and participatory processes in shaping effective resource 

strategies. By examining these inputs, the study captured the diverse factors that 

influenced the drafting and execution of CMSs in the selected countries, offering 

comprehensive insights into their contextual underpinnings. This approach 

ensured that the analysis not only reflects the unique attributes of each economy 

but also provides transferable lessons for developing a robust South African 

CMS, tailored to the country’s specific needs and global positioning (Zhang et al., 

2023). Figure 5 outlines graphical representation of the CMS publications, 

excluding updates, in chronological order. 



25 

 

 

 

Figure 5. Overview of CMS Chronology, excluding updates (India Ministry of 

Mines, 2023; Nwaila et al., 2024) 

The collected data presented in Table 5, depicting each strategy’s development 

timeline in chronological order (although most were subsequently revised and/or 

updated) (Hotchkiss et al., 2024). It should be noted that, where publicly 

available, this study made use of the latest versions of CMSs. 

Table 5. Case study CMSs utilised in this research 

Country Title of critical minerals strategy 
First 

published 
Updated  

United 
States of 
America 

Executive Order 13817: A Federal 
Strategy to Ensure Secure and 
Reliable Supplies of Critical Minerals  

December 
2017 

January 
2021 

Australia 

Critical Minerals Strategy 2023–
2030: Australian Government 
Department of Industry, Science and 
Resources  

July 2022 June 2023  

United 
Kingdom 

Resilience for the Future: The United 
Kingdom’s Critical Minerals Strategy 

July 2022 March 2023  

Canada 

Canada’s Critical Minerals Strategy: 
From Exploration to Recycling – 
Powering the Green and Digital 
Economy  

December 
2022 

June 2024  

India 
Critical Minerals for India: Report of 
the Committee on the Identification of 
Critical Minerals 

June 2023  N/A 

Executive Order 13817, 
USA

Dec. 2017

Australia's Critical 
Minerals Strategies 
(Updated June 2023)

Mar. 2022

UK Critical Minerals 
Strategy

July 2022

Canada’s Critical 
Minerals Strategy

Dec. 2022

India’s Critical Minerals 
Report

June 2023



26 

 

4.2.1. The USA's critical minerals strategy 

4.2.1.1. National resource endowment and economic context 

The USA has a diverse but underdeveloped mineral resource base, necessitating 

a strategy that focuses on both increasing domestic production and securing 

international supply chains. Because its economy is already one of the world’s 

largest, the US’s CMS concentrates more on maintaining strategic interests, 

technology leadership and energy security than on economic development. 

(Department of Energy, 2021). The US government recognises that it may have 

to form strategic alliances to ensure its supply of those mineral resources it lacks, 

or of which it has insufficient quantities (Vivoda et al., 2024). This presents an 

opportunity for resource-rich countries and regions such as South Africa to 

collaborate with global partners in fostering a robust and sustainable critical 

minerals industry. 

4.2.1.2. Policy and regulatory environment context 

The USA’s policy environment is shaped by a strong emphasis on national 

security. The regulatory framework encourages domestic exploration and the 

production of critical minerals, along with efforts to develop substitutes and 

enhance recycling. The strategy is implemented through a series of executive 

orders such as the Inflation Reduction Act, 2022 (IRA), and supported by federal 

funding aimed at bolstering the country’s critical mineral supply chains 

(Concordel, 2024).With such sound policy and regulatory systems developed and 

implemented at government level to bolster this framework, the US’s CMS is well-

supported. 

4.2.1.3 Stakeholder engagement 

The country’s strategy was developed through coordinated efforts among 

multiple federal agencies, including the Departments of Energy, Defence and 

Commerce, with the Department of Energy leading the charge. The development 

process also incorporated input from private sector stakeholders, including the 



27 

 

Minerals Investment Network for Vital Energy Security and Transformation 

(MINVEST Partnership), reflecting a comprehensive approach to securing critical 

mineral supply chains (US Department of Energy, 2021). It is observed that 

stakeholder engagement is a critical element in the development of strategies 

within the country, including its CMS. 

4.2.1.4 Defining critical minerals 

The USA has defined critical minerals based on their supply risk and importance 

to national security and economic prosperity. The strategy prioritises minerals 

that are essential for defence technologies, renewable energy systems and other 

critical infrastructures, with a focus on reducing reliance on foreign sources 

(Concordel, 2024; Vivoda et al., 2024). The US thus acknowledges that a clear 

definition of ‘critical minerals’ is important, as is a solid understanding of each 

mineral’s importance to its economic endeavours. 

4.2.2. Australia's critical minerals strategy 

4.2.2.1 National resource endowment and economic context 

Australia is endowed with a vast array of mineral resources and a mature, well-

developed mining sector, positioning it as one of the world's leading producers of 

critical minerals such as lithium, rare earth elements and cobalt. The country's 

economic reliance on mining, coupled with its strategic focus on green 

technologies, underscores the importance of securing a stable supply of these 

minerals (Northey et al., 2023; Sinclair & Coe, 2024). As outlined by the 

Australian Department of Industry (2023), its strategy leverages these resources 

to strengthen the country’s position in global supply chains and to support its 

transition to a low-carbon economy. Australia's approach aims to solidify its 

position as a leading player in the critical minerals sector. 



28 

 

4.2.2.2 Policy and regulatory environment context 

Australia’s policy environment is characterised by strong government support for 

the mining sector, including incentives for the exploration and development of 

critical minerals. The regulatory framework emphasises sustainable mining 

practices, focusing on environmental protection and community engagement. 

This strategy is supported by significant government funding aimed at enhancing 

Australia’s critical mineral processing capabilities and securing international 

partnerships (Northey et al., 2023; Sinclair & Coe, 2024). Australia’s case thus 

demonstrates the need for government support in establishing and implementing 

a robust CMS. 

4.2.2.3 Stakeholder engagement 

The development of Australia's CMS, headed up by the Department of Industry, 

Science, Energy and Resources, involved extensive engagement with a wide 

range of stakeholders, including government agencies, industry bodies and First 

Nations communities. The inclusion of Indigenous Australians in these talks was 

a significant aspect of this engagement, designed to ensure that the benefits of 

mining activities were equitably shared (Australian Department of Industry, 2023). 

The task force responsible for the strategy actively sought input from all these 

groups to ensure that the strategy reflected their needs and priorities, building on 

the Critical Minerals Report developed by Geoscience Australia. 

4.2.2.4 Defining critical minerals 

Australia defines critical minerals as those essential for economic well-being but 

whose supply may be at risk due to factors such as geological scarcity, 

geopolitical considerations or market dynamics. The strategy emphasises 

maintaining a diversified supply base and enhancing domestic processing 

capabilities to mitigate supply risks. The list of critical minerals is regularly 

reviewed and updated to reflect global market changes and Australia’s evolving 

economic priorities (Australian Department of Industry, 2023; Sinclair & Coe, 



29 

 

2024). It is clear from Australia’s case that regular definition and review of critical 

minerals is an important aspect of a country’s CMS planning. 

4.2.3. United Kingdom critical minerals strategy 

4.2.3.1 National resource endowment and economic context 

Unlike the USA and Australia, the UK has limited domestic mineral resources, 

making it heavily reliant on imports of critical minerals. The country’s strategy 

acknowledges this dependency and seeks to strengthen the UK’s position 

through international partnerships and investments in innovation. The economic 

context is driven by the need to secure critical inputs for key industries such as 

aerospace, automotive and renewable energy (UK Department for Business, 

2023). 

4.2.3.2 Policy and regulatory environment context 

The UK’s policy and regulatory environment focused on promoting sustainable 

and responsible sourcing of critical minerals. This strategy is supported by 

government initiatives aimed at enhancing the UK’s status as a leader in ESG 

standards and fostering global cooperation in critical mineral supply chains. 

Regulatory frameworks are in place to ensure that all imports meet high 

environmental and social standards (Josso et al., 2023; UK Secretary of State for 

Business, 2022). 

4.2.3.3 Stakeholder engagement 

The UK government, through its Department for Business, Energy and Industrial 

Strategy, engaged with various stakeholders including industry representatives, 

financial institutions and international partners in developing its critical mineral 

strategy. This led to the development of the Task and Finish Group on Industry 

Resilience for Critical Minerals’ report to support the UK’s CMS (Josso et al., 

2023). According to the UK’s then-Secretary of State for Business (2022), the 



30 

 

strategy prioritises traceable supply chains and high ESG standards, reflecting 

the UK’s commitment to responsible sourcing. This further necessitates the need 

for the involvement of various stakeholders in the development of the UK’s CMS. 

4.2.3.4 Defining critical minerals 

The UK defines critical minerals based on their economic importance and the risk 

of supply disruption. The strategy focused on minerals essential for the UK’s 

industrial sectors and aims to mitigate supply risks by diversifying sources and 

enhancing domestic capabilities (Josso et al., 2023). This approach is particularly 

prudent for a nation with limited domestic reserves of critical raw minerals. 

4.2.4. Canada's critical minerals strategy 

4.2.4.1 National resource endowment and economic context 

Canada is rich in mineral resources, including significant deposits of nickel, cobalt 

and rare earth elements. The mining sector is a vital component of Canada’s 

economy and contributes significantly to its GDP and employment. The country’s 

focus on transitioning to a low-carbon economy further elevates the importance 

of securing a stable supply of critical minerals (Canada Minister of Energy and 

Natural Resources, 2024) 

4.2.4.2 Policy and regulatory environment context 

Like the UK’s, Canada’s policy framework emphasises sustainable development 

and ESG standards. The regulatory environment is designed to promote 

responsible mining practices while fostering innovation in critical mineral 

processing and recycling. The strategy is bolstered by government initiatives 

such as the Environmental Protection and Reconciliation Initiative and the Critical 

Minerals Infrastructure Fund, which aim to increase Indigenous participation in 

the sector and secure Canada’s position in global critical mineral supply chains 

(Canada Minister of Mineral Resources, 2022; Kerr, 2023) 



31 

 

4.2.4.3 Stakeholder engagement 

Similar to the other countries discussed, Canada’s CMS development was 

marked by a comprehensive stakeholder engagement, further cementing this 

element’s importance in the CMS development process. Through its Natural 

Resources Canada department, the government also conducted extensive 

consultations with Indigenous communities, industry stakeholders and provincial 

and territorial governments. This inclusive approach was part of Canada’s 

broader commitment to reconciliation, ensuring that Indigenous peoples are 

active partners in the critical minerals sector (Saint, 2023). 

4.2.4.4 Defining critical minerals 

Canada’s definition of critical minerals is informed by considerations of economic 

security, environmental sustainability and its role in the global transition to a low-

carbon economy. The strategy includes a dynamic list of critical minerals which 

is regularly updated to reflect shifts in global demand and technological 

advancements (Kerr, 2023). 

4.2.5. India's critical minerals strategy 

4.2.5.1 National resource endowment and economic context 

India has significant mineral resources, but many critical minerals such as lithium 

and cobalt are not found in sufficient quantities to fulfil domestic needs. The 

economic context of India's strategy is shaped by its ambition to become a global 

manufacturing hub, which necessitates a stable supply of critical minerals for 

sectors such as electronics, defence and renewable energy (India Ministry of 

Mines, 2023). As with the other countries in question, India’s economic ambitions 

demonstrate the need to align the supply of minerals with strategies such as 

CMS. 



32 

 

4.2.5.2 Policy and regulatory environment 

India’s policy environment is geared toward enhancing domestic exploration and 

processing of critical minerals. The strategy is supported by government 

initiatives such as the Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation 

Amendment Act of 2023 (MMDR), aimed at attracting investment in mining and 

processing infrastructure as well as fostering international partnerships. 

Regulatory frameworks are being developed to ensure that sustainable and 

responsible mining practices are in line with global standards (Jain, 2024). 

4.2.5.3 Stakeholder engagement 

India’s strategy, spearheaded by the Ministry of Mines, was developed through 

extensive inter-ministerial consultations and engagements with international 

organisations and industry stakeholders. This collaborative approach ensured 

that the strategy addressed critical mineral needs across various sectors of the 

economy (Indian Ministry of Mines, 2023). 

4.2.5.4 Defining critical minerals 

India defines critical minerals as those essential for economic development and 

national security, particularly those at risk of supply disruption due to geopolitical 

factors or concentrated supply sources. The strategy emphasises the importance 

of diversifying supply chains and increasing domestic production to reduce 

dependency on imports (Indian Ministry of Mines, 2023). 

4.3 Key themes and contrasts 

This sub-section identified the key themes that emerge from an examination of 

the various mining economies’ critical mineral strategies, as shown in Table 5, 

using the thematic analysis method (covered in Appendix B). These key themes 

assist the author in guiding the formulation of the South African CMS. The author 

also conducts a comparative analysis of the critical minerals strategies, outlined 



33 

 

in Table 5, which, when used together with the context provided above, 

streamlines the issues relating to the formulation of CMSs. 

Table 6. Common key themes across major economies’ critical minerals 

strategies 

Theme/component Description 

National security and 

economic resilience 

All the strategies discussed emphasised the need to 

secure access to critical minerals as vital to national 

security, economic stability and technological 

advancement. This is especially important in 

reducing reliance on imports, particularly from China 

(Australia Department of Industry, 2023; US 

Department of Energy, 2021). 

Sustainability and 

ESG standards 

There was a shared focus on promoting sustainable 

mining and processing practices, with an emphasis 

on meeting high ESG standards (Canada Minister of 

Energy and Natural Resources, 2024; UK 

Department for Business, 2023). 

Indigenous and local 

partnerships 

Countries like Canada and Australia have highlighted 

the importance of including Indigenous communities 

in decision-making and ensuring equitable benefits 

from critical mineral projects (Australia Department of 

Industry, 2023; Canada Minister of Energy and 

Natural Resources, 2024). 

Diversification of 

supply chains 

All countries aimed to reduce reliance on a few 

dominant suppliers (e.g., China) by diversifying 

supply chains through domestic development and 



34 

 

international partnerships (Indian Ministry of Mines, 

2023; US Department of Energy, 2021). 

Innovation and 

technology 

There was significant investment in research and 

development for recycling technologies, substitution 

of critical minerals and alternative materials to 

mitigate supply risks (UK Department for Business, 

2023; US Department of Energy, 2021). 

Table 6 showed the major mining economies’ critical mineral strategies focus 

areas and their immediate outcomes. These CMSs have been formulated 

recently, in the last five to eight years, as seen in the CMS chronology table. The 

immediate outcomes provided a benchmark for what is possible when a mining 

economy has a formulated CMS. 

Table 7. Differences in approaches and immediate outcomes 

Country Approach Immediate outcomes 

United 

States 

The US’s strategy is heavily 

focused on national security 

and reducing reliance on 

Chinese supply chains. It 

emphasises domestic 

production and the 

development of advanced 

recycling technologies (US 

Department of Energy, 2018). 

The US has committed 

substantial funding to bolster 

domestic critical mineral 

production and recycling. For 

instance, the Department of 

Energy announced over  

USD3 billion across 25 projects 

through the Bipartisan 

Infrastructure Law to extract, 

process and recycle critical 

minerals and materials, as well 

as to support next-generation 



35 

 

battery manufacturing (The 

White House, 2024). 

Canada Canada’s strategy centres on 

economic reconciliation with 

Indigenous peoples and 

sustainable development. It 

emphasises collaboration with 

provincial governments and the 

private sector to expand 

exploration and processing 

capabilities (Canada Minister of 

Mineral Resources, 2022). 

Canada has committed up to 

CAD3.8 billion over eight years, 

beginning in 2022–23, as part of 

its inaugural critical minerals 

strategy. This funding supports 

activities such as geoscience 

exploration, mineral processing, 

manufacturing, recycling and 

research and development 

(Minister of Natural Resources, 

2022). 

Australia Australia focuses on leveraging 

its geological endowment to 

become a global leader in 

critical minerals – especially in 

lithium, rare earth elements and 

cobalt. Its strategy promotes 

exploration of underexplored 

regions and investment in 

domestic processing 

capabilities (Australian 

Department of Industry, 2023). 

Australia has committed AUD2 

billion to developing its critical 

minerals industry. It aims to 

reduce reliance on Chinese 

imports and is expanding its 

processing capabilities. 

Partnerships with the US and 

Japan have been established to 

diversify supply chains (The Hon 

Madeleine King MP, 2023). 

United 

Kingdom 

The UK emphasises resilient 

and traceable supply chains, 

with a strong focus on 

sustainability and ESG 

The United Kingdom has 

allocated GBP15 million to the 

Circular Critical Materials Supply 

Chains programme, aimed at 



36 

 

standards. The strategy 

encourages the development of 

alternative materials and 

recycling technologies (UK 

Secretary of State for Business, 

2022). 

enhancing the recycling of rare 

earth elements and 

strengthening critical mineral 

supply chains. The UK has 

established international 

partnerships to secure critical 

mineral supplies to bolster 

supply chains for materials like 

copper, lithium and nickel 

(Department for Business and 

Trade, 2023). 

India India’s approach is driven by its 

need to fuel its growing 

manufacturing sector and 

reduce import dependency. Its 

strategy includes forming 

international partnerships and 

enhancing domestic 

exploration and processing 

capabilities (India Ministry of 

Mines, 2023). 

The Geological Survey of India 

(GSI) has increased its 

exploration projects for critical 

and strategic minerals from 118 

in 2021–22 to 196 in 2024–25, 

reflecting a concerted effort to 

bolster domestic supply chains 

(Ministry of Mines, 2024) and 

signed several MoUs with 

countries like Australia and 

Argentina to secure minerals 

such as lithium and cobalt (The 

Economic Times, 2023). 

4.4 Conclusion 

While common goals exist across these CMSs, such as securing supply chains, 

promoting sustainable practices and fostering innovation, each country tailors its 

approach to its specific national needs. Collectively, these national strategies 

demonstrated a global acknowledgement of the critical role that minerals play in 



37 

 

national security and economic prosperity. Each country’s tailored approach 

addressed specific national priorities and leveraged its unique geographic, 

economic and technological advantages. 



38 

 

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSIONS 

5.1 Introduction 

This chapter contextualises the findings from Chapter 4 and applies the lessons  

to a South African context.. This chapter therefore covered t research objective 

(b) , which is to analyse the relevance and applicability of these practices in the 

South African context. 

5.2 South Africa’s national resource endowment and 

economic context 

South Africa's extensive mineral wealth and well-established mining and export 

capabilities have historically cemented its status as one of the leading global 

mining powers, contributing significantly to its economy for over 150 years. In 

2022, the contribution of the mining sector to the national GDP increased by 4%, 

reaching nearly ZAR494 billion, maintaining a consistent share of approximately 

7.5% compared to 2021. The sector also saw a net increase of 15,500 jobs, 

raising total employment in the mining industry to over 475,000 (DMRE, 2023; 

MCSA, 2023). 

South Africa relies heavily on coal-fired power plants to supply approximately 

80% of the nation's electricity, highlighting the commodity’s critical role in the 

country’s energy-intensive economy (DMRE, 2023). In 2022, mineral production 

reached a record high of ZAR1.18 trillion, driven by elevated global commodity 

prices and influenced notably by geopolitical tensions such as the conflict in 

Eastern Europe (International Energy Agency, 2024). However, the need for 

energy transition both globally and locally requires a new approach to mineral 

exploration activities. This context underscored how critically important it is that 

South Africa seize the opportunity presented by the emergent demand for critical 

minerals to drive much-needed national improvements such as energy transition 

(among others). 



39 

 

5.3 Policy and regulatory environment 

South Africa has developed a regulatory framework to guide its mineral 

exploration and mining activities in a sustainable and socio-economically 

beneficial manner. Specifically, some of the key applicable policies that influence 

the critical minerals landscape in South Africa are outlined in Table 7. These 

demonstrated the country’s progress so far regarding the regulatory framework 

and its intended purpose of ensuring suitability for enhancing the country’s socio-

economic endeavours. 

Table 8. Key policies and legislation influencing South Africa’s critical 

minerals landscape 

Category Policy/legislation Description 

National 
policies 

National Development 
Plan (NDP) 

Sets long-term development 
objectives for economic 
growth. 

Integrated Energy Plan 
(IEP) and Integrated 
Resource Plans (IRP) 

Outlines energy strategies for 
sustainability and security. 

Industrial Policy Action 
Plan (IPAP) 

Emphasises industrialisation 
through value addition and the 
development of strategic 
sectors. 

Electricity Pricing Policy 
(EPP) 

Ensures equitable electricity 
pricing. 

Paris Agreement (2016) 
Commits South Africa to 
climate action and carbon 
reduction strategies. 

Primary 
legislative 
frameworks 

Mineral and Petroleum 
Resources Development 
Act, 2002 (Act No. 28 of 
2002) 

Governs mineral rights and 
promotes sustainable 
development. 



40 

 

Mine Health and Safety 
Act, 1996 (Act No. 29 of 
1996) 

Ensures the health and safety 
of workers in the mining 
industry. 

Mining Titles 
Registration Act, 
Diamonds Act, Precious 
Metals Act, Geoscience 
Act, Mineral Technology 
Act 

Regulates various aspects of 
mining and geological 
activities. 

Energy sector 
legislation 

National Energy Act, 
2008 (Act No. 34 of 2008) 

Provides a framework for 
energy governance. 

Electricity Regulation 
Act, 2006 (Act No. 4 of 
2006) 

Governs the regulation of 
electricity generation and 
distribution. 

Petroleum Products Act, 
1977 (Act No. 120 of 
1977) 

Regulates petroleum product 
use and distribution. 

Central Energy Fund Act, 
1977 (Act No. 38 of 1977) 

Establishes the management 
of energy resources and 
funding mechanisms. 

Nuclear Energy Act, 1999 
(Act No. 46 of 1999) 

Regulates nuclear energy and 
safety. 

Environmental 
legislation 

National Environmental 
Management Act, 1999 
(Act No. 107 of 1999) 

Integrates environmental 
sustainability into mining and 
energy practices. 

5.3.1 Policy coherence in South Africa 

Policy coherence, defined as the alignment of objectives, processes and actions 

across government departments and agencies, is critical for effective governance 

and sustainable development (Shawoo et al., 2023). However, according to 

Emmanuel (2024), South Africa faces persistent challenges in achieving such 

coherence, particularly within key sectors such as mining and energy. Misaligned 

objectives, fragmented institutional frameworks and overlapping mandates create 

regulatory uncertainties and inefficiencies which hinder economic growth and 



41 

 

policy implementation (Cloete, 2018). For instance, the lack of coordination 

between environmental and mining regulations has delayed critical projects, 

demonstrating the need for a more integrated approach (Cloete, 2018; 

Emmanuel, 2024). 

5.3.2 Recommendations for policy alignment 

To align current policies with the proposed CMS, South Africa should prioritise 

enhancing policy coherence by developing a cross-sectoral framework that 

integrates mining, environmental and industrial objectives (Montmasson-Clair & 

Patel, 2024). Establishing formal mechanisms for stakeholder consultation will 

ensure inclusive decision-making and foster trust among communities and 

industry players (Mbanda & Fourie, 2020). Institutional coordination must also be 

improved by streamlining interdepartmental processes and clarifying mandates 

to reduce inefficiencies (Zembe et al., 2022). 

Emmanuel (2024) and Montmasson-Clair and Patel (2024) conclude that 

supportive policies and regulatory frameworks are essential for the successful 

implementation of a critical minerals strategy. In the context of South Africa, this 

framework should be designed to promote sustainable mining practices, foster 

innovation and secure international partnerships. The intersection of policies in 

the minerals and energy sectors plays a significant role in shaping such a 

strategy. 



42 

 

5.4 Stakeholder engagement 

To align with practices of stakeholder engagement and inclusive approach, this 

subsection assessed the country’s key stakeholders likely to influence the CMS 

and their roles in relation to the mining sector. 

5.4.1 Government agencies 

The Ministry of Mineral and Petroleum Resources (DMRE), which oversees 

agencies such as the Geoscience Council of South Africa, collaborates in 

administrating the mining industry with several key stakeholders, including the 

Department of Electricity and Energy (DEE); the Department of Trade, Industry 

and Competition (DTIC); the Department of Agriculture (DoA); the Department of 

Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE); the Department of Science, 

Technology and Innovation (DSTI), which manages the Council for Scientific and 

Industrial Research (CSIR); and the National Treasury through the Department 

of Finance (DoF) (DMRE, 2023). To ensure it is aligned with its mandate, the 

DMRE outlined the following five priorities to be undertaken in their 2023/24 fiscal 

year: 

1. Implementation of the Mining Licensing System 

2. Addressing the backlog in licensing 

3. Launching exploration support funds 

4. Developing South Africa's CMS 

5. Supporting artisanal and small-scale mining (DMRE, 2023) 

The first three items have seen some progress, along with efforts to boost critical 

mineral exploration and foster new mining opportunities. The fourth item, 

however, is most relevant to this study – and, according to the Government of 

South Africa (2024) and Minerals Council South Africa (2024), it has not yet been 

fulfilled by the DMRE. 



43 

 

South Africa’s exploration activities have declined significantly from 5% of global 

exploration expenditure in 2003 to below 1%, which could herald future 

production constraints (Minerals Council of South Africa, 2023). To counter this 

trend the DMRE, with support from the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC), 

launched a ZAR400 million exploration support fund for emerging miners (the 

Junior Mining Exploration Fund (JMEF)) that is targeted at critical minerals 

including copper, nickel, graphite, lithium and rare earth elements (McKay, 2024). 

According to Stoddard (2024), the DMRE has addressed 40% of the licensing 

backlog that was caused by inefficiency in the SAMRAD system for processing 

mining and prospecting applications, so further work is needed to fully resolve the 

system's efficiency. DMRE signed a service level agreement (SLA) with PGM 

Consortium to modernise South Africa's mineral licensing system (Project Indwe, 

which implements a cadastral system used to manage land parcels and property 

rights), enhance transparency, streamline regulatory processes and support 

sustainable mining growth (McKay, 2024). 

Challenges such as rail and port logistics, coupled with electricity shortages, 

remain significant constraints for the mining sector. The opportunity cost from 

logistical issues rose to ZAR50 billion in 2022 from ZAR35 billion in 2021, 

affecting the sector's ability to leverage high global commodity prices (Minerals 

Council of South Africa, 2023). The global race for critical minerals essential for 

a low-carbon future is intensifying, driven by substantial governmental 

investments to secure these resources for industries (IEA, 2023). South Africa’s 

rich mineral endowment must be leveraged not only for revenue but to support 

economic growth and sustainability (Montmasson-Clair & Patel, 2024). 

5.4.2 The Minerals Council of South Africa 

The Minerals Council of South Africa functions as an industry association 

representing mining employers and advocates for the interests of the South 

African mining sector. It provides strategic support and advisory services and 

promotes its members’ collective interests. One of its primary roles is to facilitate 



44 

 

interactions among mining employers to discuss policy and shared concerns, 

formulating unified industry positions. The council’s initiatives are designed to 

foster voluntary collaboration among members while respecting their autonomy 

(MCSA, 2024). The council also serves as an advocate for the mining industry, 

liaising with government entities to communicate policies and positions endorsed 

by its members. Notably, the Minerals Council has played an active role in 

contributing to the development of the South African CMS. It has participated as 

part of a committee dedicated to crafting this strategy, providing strategic input 

and facilitating the alignment of industry perspectives with national and global 

priorities (Creamer Media, 2023; MCSA, 2024). 

5.4.3 Investors (including commercial banks, development banks and 

private equity) 

Engagement with South African financial institutions such as Nedbank 

Investment Bank, Standard Bank Corporate and Investment Banking (CIB), and 

ABSA is essential for gathering insights into investors’ expectations of the CMS. 

Additionally, consultations with key development finance institutions including the 

Industrial Development Corporation (IDC), Development Bank of Southern Africa 

(DBSA) and the Public Investment Corporation (PIC) provide valuable 

perspectives on strategic investment requirements and financing expectations 

(Goga et al., 2019; gov.za, 2023). Furthermore, the inclusion of private equity 

firms in these discussions ensures a comprehensive understanding of private 

sector investment criteria and interests regarding the CMS (Goga et al., 2019; 

Govreau, 2024). 

5.4.4 Communities, advocacy groups and thinktanks 

Engagement with local communities is essential to ensuring alignment with the 

requirements of the mining industry and fostering inclusion, thereby preventing 

the conflicts that can arise from inadequate consultation and communication. The 

case of Xolobeni on the Wild Coast exemplifies the consequences of neglecting 



45 

 

such engagement: potential titanium mining was halted by community opposition 

due to insufficient consultation, resulting in a prolonged conflict marked by 

violence (Healy, 2022). This highlights the importance of effective and 

transparent communication to build trust and gain social license for mining 

projects (Healy, 2022; Montmasson-Clair et al., 2024). 

Several notable advocacy groups, thinktanks and similar entities – including the 

Mapungubwe Institute for Strategic Reflection (MISTRA), the African Centre for 

a Green Economy (AfriCGE), the Economic Policy Research Institute (EPRI) and 

Business Unity South Africa (BUSA) – are well positioned to contribute unique 

perspectives and specialised expertise to mining-related initiatives (MISTRA, 

2020; Jahre, 2021; Woermann & Engelbrecht, 2019; You et al., 2019). 

5.4.5 Regional alliances 

The development of a strategy that includes partnerships with regional bodies 

such as the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and the Southern 

African Development Community (SADC), as well as collaborations with 

individual Sub-Saharan economies such as Zambia, Botswana, Tanzania, 

Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), presents significant 

opportunities for procuring and beneficiating critical minerals in South Africa. The 

success of such collaborations, however, is contingent on the enhancement of 

infrastructure connectivity between South Africa and neighbouring regions to 

facilitate efficient transport and trade (ANRC, 2022; Debrah et al., 2024). 

The establishment of a regional mining district would strengthen Africa's position 

in the global minerals market and foster collective economic growth. This regional 

integration would not only bolster trade but also support value addition and 

industrialisation across member states (Montmasson-Clair et al., 2024). 



46 

 

5.5 Defining critical minerals for South Africa 

A clear and adaptive framework for defining critical minerals is essential. South 

Africa has already developed a critical minerals exploration target list, as shown 

in Chapter 2 (Table 1), which should be augmented to create a list of critical 

minerals that reflects its economic and security needs, with regular updates to 

account for global supply and demand dynamics changes. 

5.5.1 Criticality assessment approach 

Criticality assessment in a critical minerals strategy involved evaluating the 

importance and supply risk of minerals that are essential for various industries, 

especially for clean energy technologies (Hayes & McCullough, 2018; Hotchkiss 

et al., 2024). The key themes identified in Chapter 4 was used to assess how 

critical a mineral is to the economy and therefore to its critical minerals strategy. 

While this is important for this research topic, it did not fall under the objectives 

of this study, and for that reason is discussed in more detail in Appendix C. 

5.5.2 Suggested initial critical list 

The list aligned with the framework proposed by Zhang et al. (2023), which 

recommends that South Africa classify critical minerals (CMs) into two categories: 

• export-focused CMs – minerals critical to global markets 

• domestic-priority CMs – materials essential for national development and 

energy transition 

  



47 

 

Table 9. Major economies’ CM classification lists with a suggested South 

African list (ANRC, 2022; DMRE, 2022; India Ministry of Mines, 2023) 

No.  

Mineral Japan US 
South 
Korea 

Australia UK Canada India 
South 
Africa 

CMS published 2018 2021 2020 2023 2023 2024 2023 E2025 

1 Antimony ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

2 Beryllium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ x x ✓ ✓ 

3 Bismuth 
 

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

4 Cobalt ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

5 Gallium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

6 Germanium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

7 Graphite X ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

8 Indium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

9 Lithium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

10 Molybdenum ✓ x ✓ x x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

11 Niobium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

12 Nickel ✓ ✓ ✓ x x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

13 PGMs ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

14 REE ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

15 Silicon X x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

 

✓ ✓ 

16 Tantalum ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

17 Tellurium X ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

18 Tin ✓ ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

19 Titanium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

20 Tungsten ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

21 Vanadium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 



48 

 

22 Chromium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 

 

✓ x ✓ 

23 Magnesium ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ x ✓ 

24 Manganese ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ x ✓ 

25 Barite X ✓ ✓ x x x x x 

26 Caesium X ✓ ✓ x x ✓ x ✓ 

27 Copper ✓ x x x x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

28 Hafnium X ✓ ✓ ✓ x x ✓ ✓ 

29 Lead ✓ x x x x x x ✓ 

30 Rhenium ✓ x ✓ ✓ x x ✓ ✓ 

31 Scandium X ✓ x ✓ x ✓ x x 

32 Strontium ✓ x ✓ x x x ✓ ✓ 

33 Zinc X ✓ x x x ✓ x ✓ 

34 Zirconium ✓ x ✓ ✓ x x ✓ ✓ 

35 Phosphorous ✓ x ✓ x x x ✓ x 

36 Potash X x x x x ✓ ✓ ✓ 

37 High purity alumina X x x ✓ x x x x 

38 Aluminium X ✓ x x x ✓ x ✓ 

39 Arsenic X ✓ ✓ x x x x X 

40 Bauxite X x x x x x x x 

41 Boron X x ✓ x x x x X 

42 Cadmium X x ✓ x x x ✓ x 

43 Cerium X ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

44 Diamond ✓ x x x x x x x 

45 Dysprosium X ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

46 Erbium X ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

47 Europium X ✓ x x x x ✓ x 



49 

 

48 Fluorite ✓ x x x x x x x 

49 Fluorspar X ✓ x x x ✓ x ✓ 

50 Gadolinium x ✓ x x x x x x 

51 Gold ✓ x x x x x x x 

52 Gypsum x x x x x x x x 

53 Helium x x x ✓ x ✓ x ✓ 

54 Holmium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

55 Iron ore x x x x x x ✓ ✓ 

56 Limestone x x x x x x x x 

57 Lanthanum x ✓ x x x x x x 

58 Lutetium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

59 Neodymium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

60 Praseodymium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

61 Rubidium x ✓ x x x x x x 

62 Samarium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

63 Silver ✓ x x x x x x x 

64 Selenium x x ✓ x x x ✓ x 

65 Terbium x ✓ x x x x x x 

66 Thulium x ✓ ✓ x x x x x 

67 Uranium x x x x x ✓ x ✓ 

68 Ytterbium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

69 Yttrium x ✓ x x x x ✓ x 

70 Coal x x x x x x x ✓ 

Note: The minerals highlighted in green  are subsets of those 

highlighted in brown  , representing rare earth minerals, which 



50 

 

are listed separately for clarity. The light blue  highlights indicate 

minerals included in the exploration strategy critical minerals list discussed in 

Chapter 2. 

This initial list identified 38 minerals as critical, with 14 already featured in the 

2022 exploration strategy document. The accuracy of this initial critical minerals 

list can be supported by applying criticality assessment formulas developed by 

major global economies. 

This process was interactive, involving periodic feedback from collaborators, as 

outlined in Chapter 4. The list should be reviewed and updated every three to five 

years to align with national priorities and evolving economic and industrial needs 

(Zhang et al., 2023). 



51 

 

CHAPTER 6. RECOMMENDATIONS  

6.1 Introduction 

This section provides recommendations towards the development of South 

Africa’s critical minerals strategy. Given South Africa's developing economic 

position and its vast mineral endowment, including numerous critical minerals, 

the country’s strategy should be designed to maximise its competitive 

advantages while addressing structural challenges. This final chapter covered 

research objective (c) by proposing a framework to implement the proposed 

practices discussed in the previous chapter, thereby concluding the study with 

the recommended framework. The following recommendations outlined the 

approach focus areas, key themes and suggested outcomes for a South African 

critical minerals strategy. 

6.2 Recommended key themes for South Africa’s CMS 

6.2.1 National security 

As Australia did with its Exploring for the Future initiative, South Africa should 

invest in pre-competitive geoscience data to attract international and local 

investment (Australian Department of Industry, 2023). The IDC’s JMEF and the 

implementation of the cadastral licensing system discussed in the previous 

chapter will help to kick-start this process and play a pivotal role in mapping 

critical mineral resources and enhancing exploration efforts in underexplored 

regions of South Africa. 

There is a need for South Africa to expand its domestic processing capacity to 

retain more value within the country. Countries like Australia have shown that by 

building local processing industries, nations can reduce their dependence on raw 

material exports and increase economic value. South Africa is home to several 

lithium battery manufacturers and suppliers, contributing to the country's energy 



52 

 

storage and renewable energy sectors (Montmasson-Clair et al., 2021). By 

establishing downstream processing industries (e.g., battery manufacturing), 

South Africa can link its rich mineral resources to domestic job creation, as was 

the outcome of Canada’s focus on green technology and the EV supply chain 

(Canada Minister of Energy and Natural Resources, 2024). South Africa could 

thus develop industries around critical minerals to stimulate industrialisation and 

employment. 

These exploration and processing initiatives align with the dual priorities of 

addressing economic importance and mitigating supply risks, as highlighted by 

global economies and detailed in Chapter 4’s key themes. These initiatives reflect 

a strategic effort to secure critical mineral value chains while supporting economic 

resilience and reducing reliance on external sources. 

6.2.2 Diversification of supply chains 

South Africa should form strategic partnerships with major global economies such 

as the USA, European Union and Asian countries, following the example of 

countries like Canada and Australia, which have diversified their critical mineral 

supply chains by forging key international partnerships (Australia Department of 

Industry, 2024). The country should pursue similar agreements to secure 

technology transfer, investment and markets for its critical minerals. The US has 

an advanced policy environment, wherein the IRA provides incentives (funding, 

tax breaks, etc) to encourage local mining and processing of critical minerals. 

Should South Africa introduce similar policies to support its critical minerals 

industry and pursue strategic partnerships to supply critical minerals to the USA, 

this could yield significant benefits, particularly if the agreement includes a 

technology knowledge exchange component. 

Leveraging African partnerships to create a regional hub for critical minerals 

should be pursued. Regional collaboration with other African nations would 

enhance the region’s infrastructure, logistics and collective bargaining power in 

the global market, similar to Canada’s strategy of working closely with the US to 



53 

 

secure shared resources and infrastructure (Canada Minister of Energy and 

Natural Resources, 2024). 

Mitigating supply risk, focusing on strategies to enhance resource security and 

reduce vulnerabilities in critical mineral supply chains,is emphasised by global 

mining economies and outlined in Chapter 4’s key themes; both the US’s and 

Australia’s strategies emphasise the importance of supply chain diversification 

(Montmasson-Clair et al., 2024). Engaging with multiple international markets to 

diversify critical mineral supply chains will reduce South Africa’s reliance on a 

single country (such as China) and ensure the stability of supply chains. 

6.2.3 Sustainability and ESG standards (including Indigenous and local 

partnerships) 

Fostering sustainable practices and inclusive collaboration to ensure equitable 

benefits and strengthened community engagement within critical mineral supply 

chains is one of the key themes identified in Chapter 4. The UK's critical minerals 

strategy emphasises sustainable mining practices and ESG standards, making it 

an attractive partner for responsible sourcing (UK Department for Business, 

2023). The social upliftment of local communities is a stated priority for South 

Africa – and should be so for every organisation investing in its critical mineral 

mining activities – in accordance with the country’s Bill of Rights, its endorsement 

of ESG principles and the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), making 

community and indigenous participation central to its strategy. Furthermore, 

South Africa can learn from Canada's approach of ensuring that Indigenous 

communities benefit from mining projects with equitable participation in decision-

making and revenue-sharing models (Canada Minister of Energy and Natural 

Resources, 2024). 



54 

 

6.2.4 Innovation and technology development 

Aligning with another key theme outlined in Chapter 4, South Africa needs to 

invest in research and development (R&D) for alternative materials, recycling and 

processing technologies, focusing on strategies to enhance its technological 

resilience, foster innovation and ensure sustainable participation in critical 

mineral supply chains. The US and the UK both have made substantial 

investments in reducing dependency on specific critical minerals and enhancing 

recycling technologies (UK Department for Business, 2023; US Department of 

Energy, 2021). South Africa should prioritise R&D in key areas such as battery 

technology, alternative minerals and the circular economy to derive further value 

from progressing its critical mineral advantages (Montmasson-Clair et al., 2021; 

Moreno-Brieva & Merino, 2020). Organisations such as the Council for Mineral 

Technology (MINTEK) and the CSIR have a pivotal role to play in strengthening 

R&D efforts. 

6.3 Theoretical framework integration 

This research highlighted the importance of a well-developed CMS for South 

Africa, including the need for an integrated approach aligned with the theoretical 

framework provided. This framework, which emphasised stakeholder 

engagement, policy formulation and sustainable practices, underpins the 

development of a strategy that not only leverages South Africa's extensive 

mineral endowment but also aligns with global best practices. 

The