1.

Waste Metal Repository for 
Adaptive Reuse

 Danielle Mensky l 1456518

Historical (Erasure) and the Toxic Mining Landscape of 
Johannesburg’s Central Basin



2.

“How do the conceptual agendas of designed 

landscapes engage, ignore or contradict the violent 

and problematic aspects of their material 

production” 

- Jane Hutton, Reciprocal Landscapes

The city of Johannesburg is defined by the commodity of gold. Upon finding its 
rock embedded presence along the Witwatersrand reef line, the city began to grow 
accordingly generating the historical formation of a city around the mining industry. 
This in turn accredits the city that exists today on the basis of these gold pockets; 
however, a history of the rich landscapes is commonly unacknowledged in the pro-
cess of identifying the final metallic product. In order to obtain the precious metal 
from the earth, a previously vigorous landscape was wounded and carved in order 
to extract the gold particles. In the wake of this landscape stripping, the carved-
out earth was displaced from its origins and placed above ground as mountainous 
landfills known as the gold mine dumps that scatter along the Johannesburg sky-
line from east to west. 

These compacted mounds create the memory of the scarred earth but further rep-
resent a toxicity that is deeply embedded in the mining industry. The soil upon its 
removal and exposure to air becomes toxic, contaminating soil, water, and dust. 
This creates an environment of toxicity that is caused by human landscape de-
struction that today requires chemical rehabilitation in order to detoxify the expan-
sive physical contamination. 

While physical contamination acts a marker of the environmental damage this in-
dustry has inflicted, a further toxicity exists in the form of social wounds. The mar-
ginalization, inequality and treatment historically imposed by the mining force is a 
toxicity that is more difficult to visualize that the physical extraction mounds of the 
landscape. 

Today the production of gold has decreased, and the city of Johannesburg has 
become more dependent on a series of other industries. The call for mine dump 
removal is essential to the expulsion of physical contamination; however the query 
arises around the removal of a historical marker and monument of social, environ-
mental and historical ruination. The design proposal objective of this research is to 
identify how these toxic wounds can be mended, while simultaneously creating a 
memory of historical erasure.

Abstract

Figure 0.2



3.

I, Danielle Mensky (student number 1456518) of Architecture  [Professional]  in the 

year 2022. 

I hereby declare the following:

I am aware that plagiarism [i.e. the use of someone else’s work without permission 

and/or without acknowledging the original sources] is wrong. I confirm that the work 

submitted for assessment for the above course is my own unaided work except 

where I have stated explicitly otherwise. I have followed the required conventions 

in referencing thoughts, ideas, and visual materials of others. I understand that the 

University of the Witwatersrand may take disciplinary action against me if there is 

a belief that this is not my unaided work or that I have failed to acknowledge the 

source of the ideas or words in my own work.

Danielle Mensky 

15 January 2023 

Declaration

Figure 0.3



4.

This document is a culmination of thoughts and ideas that have been generating 

since my initiation into architectural studies, as a result of the remarkable guidance 

and support I have received.   

An immense thank you to my supervisor Hilton Judin. This document truly would 

not be the same without your mentorship and guidance. Thank you for your 

absolute support, encouragement of every idea, and for pushing my thoughts and 

proposals far beyond their conception. I am extremely grateful.

To my past lecturer Deborah Kirkman, thank you for your continuous support and 

encouragement. 

To my parents: Morris and Aviva, and siblings: Gilad and Galia. Thank you for 

your unconditional support and entertaining every architectural notion. You have 

all played such a vital part to my architectural studies, and I am incredibly thankful 

for you all. 

Acknowledgements

Figure 0.4



5.

Acid Mine Drainage [AMD] 
“Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a major water quality problem as 

it reduces the pH of water resource, making dissolved metals 

readily available for uptake by benthic organisms and fish, which 

becomes a major pathway of their introduction into the human 

food chain.”

Diversion: 
“The action of turning something aside from its course.”

Erasure: 
“The removal of all traces of something; obliteration.”

Mine Dump:
“A large mound or hill of mining waste at the surface of a mine.”

Metallurgy:
“The branch of science and technology concerned with the prop-

erties of metals and their production and purification.”

Mineral Leaching:
“A chemical process in mining for extracting valuable minerals 

from ore. Leaching also takes place in nature, where the rocks 

are dissolved by water. Post leaching, the rocks are left with a 

smaller proportion of minerals than they originally contained.”

a glossary list of fundamental 

terms and definitions that are 

crucial to the study

Monument:
“A building, structure, or site that is of historical importance or 

interest.”

Ore:
“A naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valua-

ble mineral can be extracted profitably.”

Pyrite: 
“A shiny yellow mineral consisting of iron disulphide and typically 

occurring as intersecting cubic crystals.”

Resource: 
“A country’s collective means of supporting itself or becoming 

wealthier, as represented by its reserves of minerals, land, and 

other natural assets.”

Repository:
“A place where something, especially a natural resource, is found 

in significant quantities.”

Refinery: 
“The place where gold is separated from other metals or resi-

dues.”

Terminology



6.

Introduction

Historical development and 
ultimate decay created by 
the mining industry

The mine dump as monumental 
ruin

Historical ruination embedded 
into mining and metallic industry

Resulting states of ruination as 
amalgamation of physcial, social, 
and enviornmental wounds of 
metallic extraction

Historical significance of metal 
and gold

7.

10.

11.

15.

16.

The Metallic Inducement

Analysis of the symbiotic 
relationship of metal to 
monetary value.

Process of landscape stripping & 
metallic extraction

Resulting devastation inflicted by 
the moentary perspective

17.

20.

23.

27.

Exploration of the repository

46.

Immediate architectural concept: 
waste reuse as architectural 
program

Site selection 

Programmatic possibilities 
embedded in site 

Conclusion

47.

58.

61.

Sketch Charette - Metal Melting

Program & Accomodation
Schedule

Precedent Studies and Analysis

Form and Spatial Explorations

Technical Systems Bibliography

List of Figures

67.

69.

72.

75.

124.

130.

130.

Table of Contents

The Wounds of Mining

1
2

Toxic by-products caused by 
mining waste 

3.1.1 Dust

3.1.2 Soil 

3.1.3 Water

Impact of Acid Mine Drainage 
on Human Habitation 

Opportunities from toxic 
waste recylcing

33.

36.

3
The Toxic Result

2 4 5 6
The Possibilites of Waste

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

32.

31.

30.

44.

Sketch Charette 1-
Nitric Acid Experiment 38.

Design Development Final Design

5.1

5.2

   

5.3

5.4

5.5 85.

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

7.6

Ethics Clearance Certificate 130.

131.

137.

Appendices

Project Viability Report

Title Change Certificate

Research Proposal 
Certificate

7

Metallic appropriation 19.

Site Analysis 62. Technical Details

92.

98.

111.

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

Ecological Diagrams 119.

121.

Site Plan

Sections and Elevations

Floor Plans, Axonometrics &
3D Perspectives

93.Building Form Analysis



7.

Introduction to the research analysis of 

toxicity inflicted on Johannesburg by the 

mining industry

The state of being consists of a series of three fundamental stages:  the past, the 

present and the future. These stages while seemingly time stamped and defined 

by their occurrence are interwoven into an intricate network that defines the other. 

In essence the past will be diametrically linked to the future and the present will 

mediate the effect that one has on the other. These interrelated time lapses form 

the basis on the proposed architectural intervention. Past examination identifies 

memories that have created the ruination that require architectural intervention 

today, while simultaneously highlights the significance of memories as a form of 

documentation and time capturing (McLeod, 2021). Memories offer the ability to 

compare past and present states of toxicity to assess future architectural

remediation. 

Psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a model in 1968 

titled the: Multistore Model, which describes the transition of information into three 

different memory formats (Atkinson et al., 1968, p.92; Malmberg et al., 2019). 

The first format being short-term memory, which is directly related to a sense of 

currency and recent occurrence. The second memory format is: long term mem-

ory, being the ability to recall more distant events. The third memory system is 

the sensory store that; is a result of the reaction one’s olfactory (sensory) system 

responds to events (Atkinson et al., 1968, p.94).  These various memory stores 

are interrelated. For a long-term memory to be created, the sensory store and 

The Wounds 
of Mining1



8.

The Wounds of Mining1

short-term memory need to correlate in order to produce a significant response 

for the individual allowing the engravement of a long-term memory (Atkinson et 

al., 1968, p.103). 

The skyline of Johannesburg encompasses these memories, with yellow-hued 

mounds of earth that define the city as ‘the city of gold’ amid the modernization 

and multifaceted growth that disguises Johannesburg’s history today (Ball, 2017; 

Latilla, 2018, p.). 

The mine dumps act as a remembrance of the toxicity that gold mining has inflict-

ed, but also as a historical memory of the formation of Johannesburg as a city, 

inevitably creating a past reflection for the development of Johannesburg (Latilla, 

2012). The resulting city of Johannesburg has stemmed from this environment 

of industrial promise and thus the spatial formations today, and planning scheme 

are indicative of a placemaking system defined by the commodity of gold (Latilla, 

2018).

While this physical demarcation left on the landscape acts a form of wound 

Figure 1.1 A Landscape of Mine Dumps (Spelterini, 1904)

An aerial photograph of the mining progression along the reef line 

taken from a hot air balloon



9.

The Wounds of Mining1

remembrance – the significance of mine dump removal in a post-mining urban 

landscape poses the issue of erasure amid a history that has defined the city 

economically, socially, politically, and environmentally. The impact these mine 

dumps hold, therefore requires an in-depth analysis ranging from: mining origins 

in Johannesburg, to the value of metal historically (Baldwin, 2012; Ball, 2017). 

The state of ruination that requires this detailed analysis further highlights the 

concern of its current decomposition. The research is aimed to analyse the con-

cerns of dual toxicity and mining wastage to ultimately identify an architectural 

solution that aims to redress the current state. The theory of power and difference 

through architecture - forms a primary viewpoint to the research of toxicity caused 

at the hands of the consumerist demand for gold, and thus its social and envi-

ronmental ramifications of decay (Blaga et al., 2019 ; Burger et al., 2015; Leach, 

1996, p.336).

The exploration through the perspective of memory and wastage therefore acts 

as the fundamental lens that this analysis will be conducted, thus defining the 

resulting proposal of an architectural intervention. 

The primary aim is to identify the evolution of this toxicity in all of its states (Bald-

win, 2012; Ball, 2017). The forced acceptance of the toxicity and wastage of 

industry forms the fundamental rationale for the proposal of architectural refor-

mation, in which the memory of mining has caused a permanent scar on the 

landscape despite the efforts to remove traces of toxic architectural formation.   

Figure 1.2 Mine Dump Removal (Author, 2022)

When mine dumps are removed a stain in the soil remains despite toxic 

rehabilitation. This creates a permanent scar within the landscape.



10.

The Wounds of Mining1

 1.1 Historical development of mining indus-

try, and impact on state of decay through the 

lens of spatial formation.

The memory of toxic mining is a result of the discovery of gold within the Witwaters-

rand reef in 1886 which created the catalyst start of the formation of the city. The 

gold findings along the reef line allowed for a superficial surface finding; however, 

the need to dig deeper and sink down vertical shafts required a more extensive 

amount of infrastructure in order to extract the gold particles. This would ultimately 

lead towards placemaking, in which the notion of temporary structures began to 

take on a more permanent nature (Chipkin, 1993, p.11).  The initial haphazard set-

tling around the reef line can be seen to have created a reverberation in which the 

city relied on a series of three rebuilds (Latilla, 2018, p.7-9; Unknown, 1986, p.115). 

The first build resulting in the temporary iron shacks and tents aimed at temporary 

habitation (Chipkin, 1993, p8-11). The second build as a result of the anticipation 

of the depth of gold creating a sense of permanence seen in the establishment 

of four-story brick and mortar buildings. The third build being the transition to the 

skyscraper, ultimately reflecting the success of the mining industry within Johan-

nesburg and thus the advancement of placemaking, occupation and the evolution 

of building technologies (Moeti, 1986). The prospect of gold as a commodity was 

a direct source of the city’s growth, within the first five years the city had expanded 

to a population of approximately thirty thousand, progressing to one hundred thou-

sand over the succeeding next five years (Latilla, 2012).  

Figure 1.3 Johannesburg Progression around the Mining Landscape (Author, 2022)

The city extended around the line; with a more formalised town planning scheme north of the line 

as people began to settle and permanently inhabit the initially proposed temporary landscape.



11.

1.2 Mine dump as monumental ruin

While the gold reef line can be seen to be the city’s outset, as the mining industry 

began to dig deeper, and more individuals began a more permanent settlement 

– the development north of the line grew more prominent. Mining by nature is an 

industrial process and thus the desire for permanent habitation away from industri-

al noise, dust and toxicity started to direct city planning further north (Latilla, 2018, 

p.9; Unknown, 1986, p.117).  This resulted in a degradation of desirability to live 

next to operational mines or alongside the radioactive and polluted dumps form-

ing a wasteland of oxidized mining particles. When identifying the planning layout 

that exists today there is cluster of factories and warehouses that surround these 

mining spaces with the exception of some of the informal settlements that live on 

the previously unoccupied and abandoned sites as a result of pollution (Liefferink). 

The price of residential zoned land is lower than those further north as a result of 

the mining industry. This raises the first issues of toxicity, that the solution to the 

contaminated land is industrial zoning, mild remediation and placing warehouses 

and industrial parks in place of mine dumps (Blaga et al., 2019). 

The deployment of warehouses and industrial parks on extracted mine dumps pos-

es a twofold problem. The first concern deals with the depth of soil remediation 

from the mine dumps; while the second deals with the abandonment of landscapes 

and memory (Daniel, 2018). The landscape pre mining featured an unscathed en-

vironment of bleached limestone and veld landscape. The gold was embedded 

deep into the rock below the soil and removed via forced separation from the rock 

walls. This process disturbs meters to kilometres of substrata and soil from the nat-

ural environment resulting in resource depletion and drainage; the previously rich 

and resource abundant landscape is labelled undesirable and stamped with the 

label of perpetual industry in the form of a warehouse (Daniel, 2018). 

Mining landscapes therefore showcases the primary principles of resource exhaus-

tion.  The book Reciprocal Landscape: Stories of Material Movement by Jane Hut-

ton (2020) most effectively describes this process of drainage as an “appropriation” 

of “nature”, in which we have physically emptied the natural landscape of its liberty 

for the sake of commodity trading and demand. 

This by essence positions the mine dump as the ruination of a landscape in its 

medial form. The mine dump is now the symbol of exhaustion and separation while 

simultaneously holds the contrasting ideology of the possibility of waste (Hutton, 

2020. P.37). The mine dump is essentially formed from the tailing particles of a 

mine, notably highlighting the wasted metal value that is embedded in the wastage. 

The process of the tailings occurs when the inside of mine shaft is excavated, and 

the residual tailings are deposited to form the large mounds (Daniel, 2018; Kardas, 

2010). The particles of these dumps therefore vary- containing soil and sand par-

ticles, to rock as well as metallic minerals. It is estimated that the mining industry 

produces one hundred billion tons of mining waste per annum globally (Khorami). 



12.

The Wounds of Mining1

While these mounds are categorized as waste, they often still contain various met-

al content, ranging from common metals to precious metals such as: gold, silver, 

and platinum (Humphries et al., 2016). The particles are often much smaller than 

what is examined for within the mine. The metal content of the dump can be sifted 

through the retrieve any abandoned commodities; however, the value of the metal 

is often inconsequential to the major mine conglomerate to expend resources and 

infrastructure to extract the minerals. This negligible perspective often results in 

abandonment of the dumps (Michaud, 2016). 

Two other scenarios often arise from the detachment of the major mining compa-

ny to the dumps. The first involves additional companies coming in and removing 

the dump in hopes of extracting the metal content (Humphries et al., 2016). This 

scenario is closely linked to mine remediation policies, where legislation specifies 

the required licenses and processes required under the National Environmental 

Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008. The second scenario is a series of infor-

mal artisanal mining – in which individuals come and manually pan through the 

dumps for metals. These informal miners are locally known as ‘Zama Zama’ Miners 

and they are often vulnerable owing to the toxicity exposure of manual extraction 

processes, as well as the lack of formalized legality to mine the dumps (Mugai, 

2020). The Zulu term ‘Zama Zama’ encapsulates the notion of this process of pan-

ning through waste – translating directly to the words ‘try try’; however, the phrase 

roughly means: “those who try to get something from nothing.” This artisanal and 

legally labelled mining contributes towards 20% of total metal production from Afri-

ca (Mugai, 2020; Reuters, 2014). 

Figure 1.4 Zama Zama Mining (Smith, 2019)

The photographic nature puts the miners at risk by ex-

posing their identity; therefore most photographic activi-

ties conceals the faces of the individuals who mine. 



13.

The Wounds of Mining1

The physical toxicity of these mine dumps poses an extremely pressing concern. 

The metals and minerals embedded in the dust and soil are now entangled in a poi-

sonous toxicity as a result of iron disulphide oxidation (Coetzee et al., 2010). Pyrite 

is a form of iron disulphide with a high arsenic content (Kardas, 2010). This mineral 

exists underground alongside the other metals and poses a toxic threat once it has 

been extracted. The mineral gains its arsenic properties upon exposure to oxygen 

and thus begins to contaminate the soil, water, dust, and air that surrounds the 

mine dump (Coetzee et al., 2010; Mwenda, 2018). 

While re- mining of landscapes both formally and informally deals with the first 

stages of toxicity in terms of miner health – the seepage of the toxicity creates 

pollution that can travel on urban scales – affecting expansive water networks, air 

breathability and the state of soil (Burger et al., 2015; Mwenda, 2018). 

This mining of landscapes highlights the extraction of value and the result of leav-

ing behind the mine dump as this entity that is in between waste. It is rich in metal 

yet poses a toxic threat creating an anecdote of what has happened to the land-

scape. This memory stands for how the city has developed and evolved, but also 

symbolic for the ruination that the industry has caused (Fitz et al., 2019, p.10-13; 

Mwenda, 2018). 

Figure 1.5 Mine Dump as a Monument ( Larkin, 2010)

Photograph by artist Jason Larkin, captures the landscape 

of transportation and roads was built around the mining en-

vironment. This in turn creates a diametric link between the 

mine dump and the experience of movement throughout the 

city.



14.

The Wounds of Mining1

The notion of memory narrates the history of the mine dump as monumental sym-

bol nature there is also a sense of ritual that occurs within these places of valuable 

discard. The positioning of some of the mine dumps as seen adjacent to Klip River, 

and the water channels within Olifantsvlei, Boysens and Zwartkoppies highlights 

the relationship between water bodies and these large ephemeral – abandoned 

mounds of the mine dumps (Burger et al., 2015). This spatial relationship between 

the two create a link to the placemaking potential for spirituality and ritual amongst 

the mine dumps. Baptism and prayer are closely associated with water bodies and 

purification. The process of physical, spiritual, and emotional cleansing is tied to 

the physicality of free-flowing water bodies. This draws attention to the significance 

of these water sources as an opportunity for these rituals to occur. The proximity 

to the mine dumps offers an isolated, emphatic location adorned with the expan-

siveness of its site. This often leads to these mine dumps becoming a place of 

ritual (Harrisberg, 2019). The concern arises as a result of the tailings toxicity. The 

potential seepage and contamination of the adjacent water bodies from the mine 

tailing raises the concern for the effect bathing and drinking these waters will have 

on the user. The toxicity of mine tailing and particularly the contamination of water 

– known as acid mine drainage is harmful physically and can lead to carcinogenic 

implications (Harrisberg, 2019; Mwenda, 2018). 

The emphatic principle that arises from this form of ritual is paradoxical in its ap-

proach to purification. While the ritual is embodied in a process of cleansing, the 

water source itself is contaminated; polluting the experience of purification. 

Figure 1.6 Prayer Ritual at the Mine Dump (Larkin, 2010) 

Photograph captured by Jason Larkin explores the notion 

of prayer rituals being a linked construct to time and water 

source, resulting in prayer rituals occuring at sunrise and 

sunset. 



15.

The Wounds of Mining1

1.3 Historical impact of ruination embedded 

socially into mining and metallic industry 

While documenting the physical effects of mining, the question arises around the 

effects the industry has caused both socially and emotionally. This raises a further 

layer of embedded historical contamination and poses a fundamental discussion 

to the toxic symbolism these mine dumps reflect upon, and thus the significance 

of the call for social reformation (Mwenda, 2018).  Kathryn Yussof’s book ‘A Billion 

Black Anthropocenes or None’ (2018) explores the individual and human toxicity 

that the mining industry has inflicted. Yussof captions the industry as a visualisation 

of “the historic regime of metallic power.” (Yusoff, 2018, p.15) This highlights the 

corruption and enslavement attached to mining, in which lives have been exploited 

and equated to a monetary gain. Mine workers in the earlier instalments of the min-

ing industry in Johannesburg can be analysed through a lens of racial profiling and 

inequality. The start of the mining industry in Johannesburg resulted in the demand 

for labourers (Mwareya, 2014). This brings to attention the employment of a form 

of slavery within the Johannesburg mining industry, in which taxes and rights cre-

ated the working force that could be deployed beneath the ground. This in essence 

begins to discuss the toxicity of racial division that is attached to the history of the 

mining industry. The taxes and regulations imposed under the Apartheid regime 

created a sense of pressure and lack of rights generating a venomous system of 

forced labour (SAHA). Mine and Workers Acts from 1911 created opportunity for 

‘the white man’ and a servitude ‘for the coloured man.’ This system would result 

in a lack of rights, unequal wages, longer working hours and precarious environ-

ments for the black miner as opposed to benefacting conditions of the white miner 

(Mwareya, 2014; Mwenda,2018; SAHA). The African labour recruited for the indus-

try represented ten times the amount to the white miner (Mwareya, 2014; SAHA). 

Mining conditions by nature are harsh and carry a high degree of danger. The gold 

reef line of the Witwatersrand radiated the possibilities for deep embedment of 

gold that would require long underground mining shafts and extensive equipment 

to extract gold from rock veining (Mwareya, 2014). These conditions pose endless 

hours of laboursome work and underground activity in an environment identified 

as virulent. The mineralogical demand however overweighs the effect these pro-

cesses can wreak on one’s physical being, as well as mental and emotional state. 

The experience of underground confinement is explored through various prison 

architectures and designs (Leach, 1996, p.339). The power and oppression these 

architectural archetypes possess is directly related to the experience of forced la-



16.

The Wounds of Mining1

bour underground (SAHA). 

1.4 Resulting states of ruination as 

amalgamation of physical, social, and 

environmental wounds of metallic extraction

Together the mining environment, forced recruitment and labour rights and benefits 

are indicative of the historical contamination of the mining industry in Johannes-

burg. African men were entrapped into an unequal system of forced settlement and 

mining labour at the hands of mining conglomerates who equated human life to a 

monetary and commodity value. Individuals were forced to abandon their homes 

and families to create a livelihood against the imposed taxes from a colonialist 

system. This entangles a deep history of ruination that has affected both the miner 

and those they were forced to leave behind. This ruination is left in the monuments 

that scatter across Johannesburg. Throughout the developed skyscrapers and city 

CBD – the mine dump mounds act as a form of memory of the toxicity caused to 

build the city that exists today (Latilla, 2012).

The dumps left in the path of resource depletion showcases the effect we have 

thrust upon the natural environment. The by-products of this industry have exploit-

ed people, animals and nature causing an originally stable landscape to be subject 

to ground movement in our wake for mineral extraction. Through the architectural 

theory of power and difference the perspective of the mining landscape can be 

analysed. The theories lens showcases the Johannesburg layout as result of the 

power of colonial mining rule and the effect this in turn has inflicted historically. The 

mine dumps essentially act as the ruins left by the mining industry; a physical de-

marcation of wounds from the history of mining; politically, economically, socially, 

and physically (Leach, 1996, p.342). An estimate by the Chamber of Mines states 

that extractable gold resources will have depleted by 2033. This statement high-

lights the finite nature of these resources and emphasises the mine dump as the 

final memorial sentiment for the resulting “future [we have] built on the annihilation 



17.

The Metallic
Inducement2

2.1 Historical significance of metal and gold

While the mining industry in Johannesburg can be analysed by its respective ruina-

tion as the premise for this research; the significance of the metal industry as whole 

is a direct source of ongoing contamination. The prevalent questions that arise is: 

why these mined commodities are so valuable? 

The metals that have been found along the fifty-six kilometres of the expansive 

Witwatersrand, reef range from precious metal: gold, silver, and platinum to base 

metals of aluminium, copper, iron, nickel, and uranium. The vast resources are all 

mined along the reef, Gold; however, has always been the primary driver in mining 

owing to its ongoing demand and high value (Browd, 2016; Letourneau, 2014).

Metals historically have been used for ornamentation, as jewellery and in construc-

tion technologies to feeding the demand for excavation as the mining industry grew 

in Johannesburg. Gold specifically as a metal can be delineated into its various 

chemical properties and attributes (Fisher, 2021). Gold has a good level of electri-

cal and thermal conductivity, making it an important element in electronic and aer-

onautical industries. The precious metal is noncorrosive and has a high boiling and 

melting temperatures at 1065 degrees centigrade - yet this is easily achieved in a 

controlled environment (Bullivant, 2019). The material is both ductile and malleable 

with the flexibility and moldability as required by various industries including jewel-

lery, furniture, and art. The metals appearance is matte-like but can be polished to 

a high glossed finish (Bullivant, 2019; Fisher, 2021).

The value of precious metals today is intrinsically tied to a market demand. These 

metals form tradable commodities to which a monetary value can be attached. 

Universally these metals have long been perceived as valuable due to their finite 

nature. There is a fixed amount of embedded metal that can be mined creating 

speculative demand, related to the scarcity of the resource (Truswell, 1978). 

The link between gold specifically as a metallic value has been a socio-psychologi-



18.

The Metallic Inducement2

cal phenomenon that goes back to the roots of some of the oldest religions and cul-

tures. The Jewish Torah, Christian bible and Islamic Quran, all contain imagery that 

links the metal to power, value, and opulence (Kesselman, 2017; The Editors of 

The Encyclopaedia, 2008). Religious ideas of ‘the golden calf’ as a powerful sym-

bol of idolatry similarly apply to the adornment of mosques or religious texts (Kes-

selman, 2017).  These religious perspectives see metal adornment as a creation of 

opulent facades and envelopes that can detract from the connection of spirituality 

by adding the object of the metal as a physical barrier often identified in religions 

as ‘idol worship.’ This in synopsis is the negative relationship that the opulence of 

the material can create. Contrastingly in Greek, and Egyptian mythology gold is 

perceived as a symbol of beauty and strength (Schorsch, 2017). Its gold lustre is 

tied to the notion of ‘The Gods’ giving a sense a divine strength to those who have 

access to it. These various historical and belief orientated perspectives creates the 

view of extravagance and fancify that is attached to the nature of the metal. 

Figure 2.1 Use of Gold in Ancient Egypt (Greco, 2022)

Engraved panel on Tuttenkhamen’s tomb in order to 

explain his story of death in the 

afterlife.



19.

The Metallic Inducement2

2.2 Metallic Appropriation

While the ownership of metal can be debated to its natural placement within a land-

scape, a further argument arises around the regional and cultural possession of 

the metal. This notion refers to the findings of a significantly rare, mined commodity 

that is extracted, declared, and then removed by a more powerful state or entity. 

This showcases the underlying power and scarcity associated with these finite re-

sources (Girdlestone, 2019). 

The ’golden rhino’ is an instance of this question of appropriation in which an eight-

hundred-year-old artefact discovered in the Mapungubwe region in South Africa is 

being transported to the British Museum. While this narrative is publicised as an 

educational experience “for new audiences” the other hand refers to the removal 

of a cultural symbol that signifies a historical understanding of a civilisation that oc-

curred eight centuries ago (Brown 2016; Tiley-Nel, 2016). The sculpture was found 

in 1930 by an archaeologist in the grave of a Mapungubwe leader on the top of the 

hill. This finding generated an archaeological dig below – uncovering remains

indicating an entire civilisation and ancient technologies (Brown, 2016; Girdlestone, 

2019).The statue therefore creates a significance to understanding the mining en-

vironment, and cultures implored in South Africa that are substantially older that the 

reef line discovery in Johannesburg. This creates a timestamp of value predating 

metals current worth. The ability to create these sculptures indicates the technol-

ogy of mining, smelting, and casting prior to universal mining technologies. This 

would suggest that the rhino is as a physical attestation of a cultural history of gold 

and its use (Girdlestone, 2019). 

The physical property of metal for engraving has a similar poetic comparison to 

its historical movement and findings. The process of the metal’s lifecycle indicates 

an entire history that is embedded into the metal. The question of metallic power 

is therefore deeply etched into the use, findings, and movement of metal globally. 

This in turn forms one of the primary notions of historical and social toxicity that 

governs the demand for the metal (Tiley-Nel, 2016). 

Figure 2.2 The Golden Rhino (Tiley -Nel, 2016)

Wooden infill with gold encasement foil. 



20.

The Metallic Inducement2

2.3 Symbiotic relationship of metal to 

monetary value, analysis of fundamental 

demand that stimulates mining 

 
While gold has always held a detailed connection to sculpture and ornamenta-

tion. The metal has further been a denotation of monetary value throughout histo-

ry, acting as an exchangeable currency that is non tarnishable and non-corrosive 

(Beattie, 2022; Fisher, 2021). This enhances the notion of gold as a commodity; 

being a tradable resource. The tangibility and scarce nature of the metal allows the 

resource to hold a value that is associated with its production constraints (Beattie, 

2022). The creation of gold coins or precious metal coins such as silver is a process 

that undergoes ‘minting’ ensuring the metal is produced into even sized discs and 

stamped. This minting process occurs under governmental authority –previously 

under rulership and kingship - to ensure the legitimacy of a standardised, portable, 

and durable currency (Extra History, 2016; Whipps, 2017).  The historical stamping 

adornments that are inscribed on the metals identifies the country of origin and ties 

the metal back to a sense of power by showcasing the current reigning ruler as the 

emblematic stamped symbol (The Editors of the Encyclopaedia; Whipps, 2017). 

The finite nature of the gold is a direct relation to its demand as a commodity. In 

turn this will affect the possessed value of a gold coin. The use of a coin creates 

a medium for trade that is acceptable between both parties (Clayton, 2020; The 

Editors of the Encyclopaedia).

Monetary exchanges today have evolved to the use of paper money and even 

digital reserves and values. A rationale for this trading shift of legitimate gold coins 

is a result of the metals limitations. While the price of goods over time goes up the 

use of money as a currency forced the need for an increase of coins per each pur-

chase. This would be heavy and non-transportable, as well as positioning econom-

ic growth to the equivalence of available gold. A further concern that arose from 

the primary placement of gold as a monetary value system was the opportunity for 

base metal application to the gold structure. This term of alloying is a fundamental 

process to gold production as it makes the metal harder to ensure the metal keeps 

its shape. However, the process of alloying also allows the metals gold value to 

fluctuate by changing the purity. This achieved through the introduction of base 

metals such as zinc or copper. This would suggest that coin could be valued for 

more than its intrinsic value (Clayton, 2020; Extra History, 2016; The Editors of The 

Encyclopedia).

One of the most fundamental uses of gold through the lens of economic use, is its 

security against economic inflation. This was greatly expressed through the Gold 



21.

The Metallic Inducement2

Standard that was implemented in 1870 till 1920 and focused on a global stand-

ardisation of international currency in which paper money would act as a physical 

representation and security for a quantity of gold held in the reserve bank (Funds 

Europe, 2021; Learn Liberty, 2013). From the initiation of this system onwards it 

has been illegal for unwrought gold commodities to be held by the public or any 

persons without a permit specifying they may hold raw forms of gold (unwrought). 

Gold commodities can only be held by the public in the form of manufactured prod-

ucts, in particular - jewellery or sculpture - as well as in the form of gold coins and 

commemorative medals. 

The gold standard epitomised the restraints on economic capabilities as a result of 

the finite commodity. The standard while creating stability in relation to paper val-

ue was also subject to fluctuations according to gold production. Gold’s increased 

findings create more accessibility and thus a decrease in value, whereas the scar-

city heightens the metals attached value (Beattie, 2022; Funds Europe, 2021). 

Metal value can still be seen in the use of coins today. Krugerrands are minted 

coins that are accessible to public purchase through means of banks and financial 

brokers – this allows individuals to purchase and own gold (Ash, 2007). The coin is 

a notoriously and globally used coin that is minted in South Africa which holds one 

ounce of pure gold. The coin is purchased at the gold price at the time of purchase 

with an estimated 8% mark up for the minting labour that went into the manufac-

turing of the coin (Allen et al., 2020). This fee is significantly lower than the labour 

fees that would accompany jewellery manufacturing but offer the opportunity for 

individuals to own gold. The value of the coin is tied to the gold price. This means 

individuals can hold the metal for reasons of economic value (Allen et al., 2020; 

Ash, 2007). 

Figure 2.3 Kruggerand (Direct Bullion, 2020)

A full krugerrand coin minted in casings 

equivalent to ounce of gold



22.

The Metallic Inducement4

Figure 2.4 An analysis of South Africa’s mineral production in 2010 in comparison to 2021-2022, in relation to global production (Author, 2022)

The graph indicates a significant drop in gold production. In 2010 the production of gold within South Africa had dropped to 0.35%, this indicates the reality behind 

metal production in South Africa, and thus the production within the city of gold is largely placed on PGM (platinum group metals: rhodium, platinum and palladium).

Figure 2.5 2010 South Africa Contribution to Global Metal Production

(Author, 2022)

Figure 2.6 2021South Africa Contribution to Global Metal Production

(Author, 2022)

Gold: 7.56%

Silver: 0.35%

Rhodium: 90.4%

Palladium: 40.5%

Platinum: 74.7%

Gold: 3%

Silver: 0.2%

Rhodium: 85%

Palladium: 40%

Platinum: 66%

Value drop in metal production from 2010-  2020/2021. PGM ma-

terials such as Rhodim, Palladium and Platinum are still dominant 

in the South African production market. The price of these metals 

is indicative of the demand with rhodium being the most expensive 

metal in the world at an average of R 7500/ gram  (statistic taken on 

17/09/2022).



23.

The Metallic Inducement2

2.4 Process of landscape stripping and 

metallic extraction- though legislation

While Johannesburg historically has been a vital contributor to the global produc-

tion; producing 67% of global gold production till 1970 (Letourneau, 2014; Truswell, 

1978). Today South Africa’s contribution to global production has lowered to 4.2% 

(Harrison et al., 2012; Letourneau, 2014). South Deep Mine located along the Wit-

watersrand today is still the largest gold mine in the world, despite the depleting 

production (Creamer, 2021; Ellis, 2022). This statistic highlights the resource deple-

tion we have inflicted in our wake to keep up with global economies, demands and 

standards. The natural deposits along the reef have been drained – quantifying the 

metals value above that of the landscape (Creamer, 2021; Harrison et al., 2012).

With an estimate of forty-four active gold mines in Johannesburg, the gold mines 

are still a fundamental part of the cityscape. The mining environment in South Af-

rica owing to its previous history of dominant gold production is notorious for its 

mining technologies and mine sizes (Hollands, 2022). Out of the top ten deepest 

mines in the world, Johannesburg houses fours of them, being: Maponeng Gold 

Mine, Driefontein Mine, South Deep Gold Mine, and Kusasalethu Gold Mine (Faku, 

2022). This statistic is further enhanced with Maponeng mine being the deepest 

current mine in the world at minus 3.8 kilometres sub surface (Faku, 2022). The list 

of ten deepest mines then further includes two more mines in South Africa located 

in the Vaal dam region. This approximates six of the ten deepest mines housed 

alone within in South Africa (Analysis, 2019; Hollands,2022). 

Figure 2.7 Mponeng Gold Mine (Graccon)

The current deepest mine in the world, located 

in Johannesburg transports approximately 4000 

mine works down the elevator shafts.



24.

The Metallic Inducement2

The mining process for gold can be analysed via formal and informal processes. 

These two methodologies highlight the contamination and toxicity they inflict, un-

dergo, and suffer (Liefferink). The process between the formal and informal is also 

a direct result of economic capabilities and government allowance and regulations. 

The formalised processes as proceeded by mining companies starts by sinking 

shafts underground and blasting or drilling ore particles from rock walls where gold 

is presumed (Haldar et al., 2018). These ore particles are then removed from the 

mine and processed through crushing equipment to break down the large rock par-

ticles. The crushed ore is processed through large scale milling equipment to grind 

down the ore further to fine particles that are easier for transportation as well as 

making the extraction of valuable materials an easier method (Haldar et al., 2018). 

The next process involves leaching the gold from the ore; the fine particles are 

treated with arsenic –achieved in a liquid form that chemically pries the gold away 

from the ore (Haldar et al., 2018). The leaching process is achieved over twelve 

to thirty hours while maintaining a constant temperature (Altinkaya et al., 2020). 

The leached liquid solution is then filtered through a system called: the clarification 

leaf processor. The clarification leaf filters any solid substrate particles. The filtered 

solution goes through a system of ‘vacuum de-aeration’ which removes gases from 

the solution. This essentially will remove oxygen and carbon dioxide from the gold 

solution (Ball, 2017; Haldar et al., 2018). The solution will then be treated with Zinc 

powder which will precipitate gold out of the solution – essentially allowing the gold 

to be ‘recovered’ from the solution into a solid state (Ball, 2017; Haldar et al., 2018). 

The total solution will go through a filter press to remove the liquid solution from 

the solid gold particles. The gold is then washed to remove any excess solution. To 

ensure all other substances are removed the metal is put through a high heating 

system of smelting – which will burn off substances. The gold can then be poured 

into a specified form that can be transported to a refinery for processing (Auerswald 

et al., 2005). 

Figure 2.8 Ore to Gold Manufacturing Process (Author, 2022)

The ore pieces go through a series of manufacturing before 

reaching the consumer. The main requirement is to extract the 

gold as the ore contains other minerals and acids.  

Ore to Gold Manufacturing Process



25.

The Metallic Inducement2

Contrarily artisanal and non-formal mining extracts the ore from existing veins that 

have already been mapped out through mines that have been abandoned. The 

ore is manually drilled from the rock surface and crushed via available tools or 

via a crusher. The milling process turns the rock chunks to dust via a ball mill drill 

attachment that is found at most hardware stores (Mugai, 2020). The gold then 

needs to be separated from the ore as seen in the leaching process – this how-

ever is achieved using a box that allows water to run through it relying on gravity 

to separate the heavier metal from the lighter sands and soil components (Mugai, 

2020). The box is known as a ‘sluice box’ and can be made by the artisanal miner 

(Brock, 2015). The leaching process if further carried out using mercury solutions 

to extract the metal further forcing the gold to amalgamate with the mercury to form 

a softer solid. The substance is then melted to evaporate the remaining mercury 

leaving behind the metal composition in the form of solid metal mix (Mugai, 2020; 

Reuters, 2014). This in essence will expose the artisanal miner to high levels of 

poisonous contact from mercury as well as the toxicity from the pyrite particles they 

will breathe in through the process of extraction and crushing (Reuters, 2014).

Figure 2.9 Zama Zama Mining (Mohlala, 2017)

The creation of a ‘Phenduka’ (sluice box) from an 

upcycled gas canister to create the gravity system 

to replace the formalised process of metallic sorting.



26.

The Metallic Inducement2

The two processes - despite their formality or lack of - highlights the significance 

of chemical positioning that is essential to the extraction of the gold. The process 

is entangled in a contamination in order to produce a product that is labelled pure 

(Reuters, 2014). This in essence will affect those who exposed to the pollution but 

also a resulting by-product of pollution that can seem into the air, the water, and the 

landscape (Clark, 2019; Mwenda, 2018). 

The dangerous nature of mining as previously discusses results in toxic exposure 

but also the hazardous environment of the vertical shafts. This threat affects both 

formal mining process and informal (Reuters, 2022). While artisanal mining is a 

form of economic generation that is stimulated from the abandoned waste, it still 

poses the threat of a dangerous working environment. The abandonment of a mine 

often leads to the removal of infrastructural systems that aided in mining safety. 

Without safety systems in place, the miners are exposed to a larger risk that has 

resulted in numerous fatalities as a result of shaft instability and acid mine drainage 

water levels (Sullivan, 2021).

A further danger that persists around the informal process is the lack of physical 

security that is highly installed in formalised operations. The shift from a mining 

conglomerate to individual artisanal miners showcases the notion of ‘each to their 

own,’ where each can earn on the basis of their findings (Jamasmie, 2015). This 

can lead to internal fighting and danger that threatens the miner (Mugai, 2020).

  

While the physical result of mining is demonstrated in the monuments of a mine 

dump, there are further effects that are not as visually apparent. Mining originally 

to the cityscape causes ecosystem degradation and in some instances series of 

deforestation to remove vegetation (Betournay, 2011). The soil further is subject to 

instability and erosion. The exposure of these excavation sites to water and wind 

can cause soil to become displaced and to move away from origins. A further con-

cern is the effect of excavation on the creation of sinkholes (Papas, 2017). These 

cavities can be detrimental and life threatening to the region they are in. The sink-

hole can collapse spontaneously and rapidly (Papas, 2017).

Figure 2.10 Ecological Effects of Excavation (World Atlas)

The deforestation caused by mining. The natural landscape can 

be stripped in order to accommodate the industry; however out-

skirts trees are necessary to soil stabilisation and in turn the trees 

are cut back to create perimeter edges. This creates a juxtapo-

sition between ruin and necessity between landscape and de-

struction.



27.

The Metallic Inducement2

2.5 Resulting devastation inflicted by the

monetary perspective 

In essence metallic value has been an in-demand commodity throughout time. 

A quote by Nils Bubandt et al - in the essay collection: ‘Arts of Living on a Damage 

Planet’ phrases this demand as an “era of human destruction [that] has trained our 

eyes only on the immediate promises of power and profits.” (Bubandt et al,.2017, 

p.15) Its ever-changing desired rationale for extraction -while ranging - has always 

had a connection to power and perceived value. The construct of wealth and signif-

icance encompasses the deposits acting as a motivator to strip landscapes and ap-

propriate the existing natural environment (Bubandt et al,.2017, p.15). The metals 

embedded value from the social constructs we have created – stimulates a moral 

rationale for those in power to create this toxicity that extends from social, political, 

economic to environmental devastation (Olalde, 2016). This justification of toxicity 

leaves high levels of waste – Six thousand mines lie abandoned upon the Witwa-

tersrand Reef with mine dump wastelands left to pollute the environment because 

of conglomerates removing as much minerals as economically beneficial and de-

claring unprofitability to not exhaust efforts (Clark, 2019; Olalde, 2016). This means 

that the mining waste is abandoned. The promised duty of environmental obligation 

is second to profitability. The mines create open wounds within the landscape that 

can be polluted from the now exposed pyrite particles. While mining regulations 

aim to prohibit this abandonment of waste, these regulations did not regulate the 

industry during mining peaks allowing for landscapes to be drained and abandoned 

(Harrison et al., 2012; Olalde, 2016). 

Figure 2.11 Soil Instability (Tama, 2012)

Soil collapse and toxic water leaching in Virginia, America



28.

The Toxic
Result3

3.1. Toxic by-products caused by mining waste
 

Kathryn Yussof raises the notion of society’s perception of commodities in her book 

‘A Billion Black Anthropocenes or None,’ as she phrases the metal extraction indus-

try as “the language of exchange [where], it might be assumed that something was 

given rather than just taken” (2018, p.40).

This notion accentuates the concept of the post-production and marketed product. 

This positions a perception of metal production as a systematic process that starts 

with cause and leads with a produced good. Through the lens of the consumerist 

this instant gratification of the resource is seen through its commercial acquisition. 

Commercial retail stores of the metal showcase the final product in its polished and 

purified form. 

This creates an absence in the consumers realisation of the true nature of the prod-

uct. They see the final abundance of material in a store and yet the memory of the 

toxic process is unaccompanied in the final form. The advertisement of the mining 

industry showcases the abundance of materiality and fortune to be found to ben-

efit us as a global society. This serves as a form of promotion that ties to Yussof’s 

statement: in which there is the understanding that this material is somehow owed 

to us rather than a natural element that has been disturbed and forcibly removed. 

This enhances the significance of documenting the state of toxic liminality that 

exists between the possibility of gold findings to the production of goods, the state 

the most do not see (Fitz et al., 2019. p.12; Yussof, 2018, p.40). The occurrence 

that poses the most enduring threat - socially, environmentally, and economically, 

is overwhelmingly: pollution. 

The mine dumps are the monuments that symbolise the toxic waste created by the 

mining industry. They visually highlight their existence as their purpose is 



29.

solely related to mining wastelands. This highlights their importance to the notion of 

memory, however; there is an extensive amount of pollution that exists that is not 

as easily landmarked. 

There are three forms of pollution that the pyritic particles inhabit. Dust, Soil and 

Water. These three forms of ruination in nature occur on various scales in the Jo-

hannesburg region, which ultimately affects their degree of toxicity and therefore 

their degree of ruination (Balch, 2015; Schrader et al., 2015). 

Figure 3.1 Natural Mineral Repository Collage (Author, 2022)

Collage exploration of the dust, soil and water toxicity from the mining industry.



30.

3.1.1 Dust

The dust particles that contain this sulfuric contamination are mixed into the ex-

isting dust of the Johannesburg landscape. This creates a toxicity that is undistin-

guishable and easily hidden into the malignant history that accompanies the mate-

rials production (Smallhorne, 2012). The small particles are therefore able to travel 

expansive distances via wind direction and inhabit the surrounding cities, informal 

settlements and factories that line the surrounding mines and mine dumps. This 

movement allows the toxic dust to enter inhabitants’ respiratory systems; suggest-

ing that the inhabitant will be breathing in this toxic dust that has been associated 

with the creation of carcinogenic conditions, neurological concerns, and respiratory 

ailments (Balch, 2015; Nkosi, 2018). The height of the mine dumps also creates the 

opportunity for these particles to travel larger distances because of a higher wind 

velocity at the mine dumps peak (Nkosi, 2018; Grange, 1973). 

Figure 3.2 Habitation on the Mine Dump (Google Earth, 2013)

Featured is a house built on part of the mine dump - the concern arises around the dust proximity 

and potential respiratory concerns that arise from the spatial relationship between the two.



31.

3.1.2 Soil

The second pollution that occurs is the contamination of soil. The sulphuric acid 

content seeps into the ground soil below penetrating below the surface. This cre-

ates the concern that when a mine dump is removed, the space below still holds 

the contaminated earth in its wake. The result will affect the habitancy of the nat-

ural landscape (Blaga et al., 2019). This concept of toxic soil is most indicative of 

ruination of the landscape we have stolen from. Its original resources are depleted 

and what is left is poisonous, replacing abundance with radiation and carcinogen. 

The use of the land post mining therefore requires extensive remediation in which 

the soil requires cleansing through chemical neutralisation to balance the sulphu-

ric levels of the soil (Sinkala et al., 2011. P5-7). While the soil can be neutralised 

over time and through expensive infrastructural processing the apprehension aris-

es around the quality of the soil (Blaga et al., 2019). This in essence reflects on the 

potential stripping of nutrients from the soil in which the soil is potentially socially 

usable but not environmentally habitable. This raises the notion of our irreparable 

pollution in which; “the planet we live on and live with is exhausted, drained, deplet-

ed, damaged [and], broken” (Fitz, et al, 2019). 

Figure 3.3 Sinkhole in Chile (Unknown, 2022)

Formation of a 50m sinkhole caused by metal 

mining.



32.

The Toxic Result3

3.1.3. Water

The third contamination that poses the most extensive threat is pollution of water 

known as Acid Mine Drainage. While the previous two pollutions are vitally critical 

their extent of contamination is region based. Acid Mine Drainage contamination 

however begins to toxify hundreds of kilometres worth of water bodies that are es-

sential to our drinking water supply (Burgess et al., 2010). 

Acid mine drainage is the result of the pyrite oxidation, which creates a chemical 

reaction resulting in the previously mentioned iron disulphide. When the contami-

nated particle counters water from existing dams or rainwater runoff, the resulting 

reaction forms toxic sulphuric acid sludge known as Acid Mine Drainage. The heav-

ily rich metal water is now toxic and transfers a red-orange property to the originally 

clean water. The effect small rivers and streams inflict on major water sources is a 

result of the city layout. Johannesburg’s development as a city as a result of gold 

deposits is an enigma in terms of city planning (Humphries et al., 2016, p.95-98; 

McCarthy, 2012). The traditional rationale for city formation is the location of ma-

jor water bodies or religious activity such as churches. Johannesburg however is 

uniquely positioned around the extents of the gold reef line of the Witwatersrand. 

In turn this results in a city that lies between water basins using “tributary” smaller 

streams and rivers to connect the city to the larger water supplies of the Vaal Dam, 

and primarily to the Lesotho High Lands catchment (Burgess et al., 2010; Hum-

phries et al., 2016, p.95-98; Schrader et al., 2015). 

This creates a scenario of water veining that connects the water catchments be-

tween the mining town- resulting in the allowance for the acid mine drainage to run 

into flowing streams and dilute within the connecting water, mixing toxicity into a 

fundamental water supply (Burgess et al., 2010). 

This creates the ability to ascertain the expansiveness of contamination and ruin-

ation. The mines have spread the toxicity along the reef line; however natural and 

fundamental elements such as wind and water have aided the toxicity to move and 

spread, creating a spreading horizontal plane effect to the vertical tainting that in-

dustry has inflicted. (Cukrowska et al., 2002; McCarthy, 2012).      

Figure 3.4 AMD Water (Musingafi, 2013)

Contaminated water source, depicting 

the saturated discolouration that affects 

the water.



33.

The Toxic Result3

3.2 Impact of Acid Mine Drainage on 

habitation  

A major concern arises around the nature of informal settlement placement to the 

mine dumps. This proximity brings up the emotional toxicity of marginalisation that 

is directly associated with the mining industry but also the toxicity that occurs from 

the close nature of occupation. According public and mine health specialist: Vusu-

muzi Nkosi, “[a] estimated 1.6 million people live in informal and formal settlements 

on – or directly next to – mine dumps in South Africa” (Nkosi, 2018).

While the dust particles play a large factor in respiratory concerns in these are-

as, affecting these areas most prominently, the water supply or more significantly, 

the lack of, plays a vital role in the imminence of this pollution (Balch, 2015; Bur-

gess et al., 2010). Water and sanitation access are fundamental resources that 

are commonly inaccessible to informal settlements that surround the mine dumps 

(Schrader et al., 2015). This fundamental right and access to basic needs that has 

been unattended, results in inhabitants using the surrounding rivers and streams 

as water sources. The toxicity concern therefore arises as inhabitants are bathing, 

cooking, and drinking from the sulphuric water (Cukrowska et al., 2002; Kotze, 

2011). A key takeaway from this notion: regards the point of intervention that occurs 

for toxic water treatment. 

A major concern is that generates this toxicity is abandonment. While this toxicity 

is almost a second-hand repercussion – further fatal repercussions exist upon the 

physical existence of the mining landscape. Mining alone is a dangerous activity; 

however, the abandonment of mining landscapes is dangerous to the occupants in 

surrounding areas (Clark, 2019). This is of both for the originally operational mine 

and the mine dumps. Leaving access to the mining unattended can be life threat-

ening. Mines fill with water which have led to drownings and landslides (Hendriks, 

2022). A further concern is falling within the confined spaces (Clark, 2019). 

Today’s mining regulations and legislation prescribes the removal of waste from 

acid mine drainage to be chemically treated to neutralise the contamination for the 

water to be fed back to nation water supply systems (Trans- Caledon Tunnel Au-

thority, 2011).  This is achieved through treatment plants on active existing mines, 

as well as through a government implemented treatment program in collaboration 

with the TCTA (Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority). 

While the operational mines today indicate the immediate removal of toxic water, 

the need for the major plant system showcases the toxicity inflicted by one hundred 

and thirty-six years of mining ruination (Balch, 2015). 



34.

The Toxic Result3

The impact this has on informal settlements is a direct result of pre-regulatory 

actions. The contamination of water from older mines that were abandoned, and 

unimpeded mine dumps results in a dormant situation of untreated water that is 

used by individuals who inhabit the spaces between the mines. This heightens the 

need for intervention. 

The toxic water of Acid Mine Drainage is indicative of wastage in its most harmful 

formation. The waste piles that form the mine dumps are the first stage of waste 

that has been carved out of the ground and transferred to mounds that allow the 

runoff to occur for the second stage of contamination. This history and memory of 

pollution is embedded into the notion of wastage which has been deemed to this 

point as hazardous and toxic (Fitz et al., 2019. p.12). The reality of the waste how-

ever is also opportunistic. The waste is contaminated and dangerous, yet rich in 

metal and mineral content, containing small pockets of precious metals that were 

not worth the mining facilities to extract (Cukrowska et al., 2002). 

Figure 3.5 Natural mineral repository collage (Author, 2022)

Collage exploring the toxicity of underground mining through 

the exposure of shaft access openings to water build up caus-

ing acid mine drainage. Mine operations historically continued 

during these conditions until the declaration of the safety con-

cerns surrounding acid mine 

drainage. 



35.

Martial Eagle 
(vulnerable)

South African 
Hedgehog

African Marsh Harrier Pinkbacked 
Pelican (endangered)

Black Footed Cat Black Stork 
(vulnerable)

Lesser Kestrel
(vulnerable)

Blue Crane
(endangered)

Cape Vulture
(endangered)

Rough Haired Golden 
Mole(endangered)

Tremelo Sand Frog Common River Frog Common Caco Raucous Toad

Wetland Surface Water

Ground Water Grassland

The Toxic Result3

The toxicity from dust, soil and water has a further effect on further habitation af-

fecting fauna and wildlife. The major toxic concern in this instance is the water 

and its relative effects on ecology. Aquatic animals such as amphibians may be 

exposed to an intense volume of acid mine drainage. Contaminated streams may 

result in fatality, respiratory concerns, and reproductive anomalies (Bega, 2022). 

The water sources are fundamental to the survival of various fauna species, and 

therefore contaminated water sources become an increasing concern.  

Soil instability poses a threat to animal habitation andtheir relative spatial occupa-

tion, and thus regions with ground water and wetlands conditions may be more  at 

risk to soil collapse and sinkholes.

Figure 3.6 Fauna Mapping (Author, 2022)

Fauna and Amphibians affected by the 

toxicity of the mining industry



36.

The Toxic Result3

3.3. Shift in perspective; opportunities from 

toxic waste and metallic waste recycling

The previous discussion on metallic value heightens this notion of wastage. These 

metals have been deemed of extreme value to the level of landscape appropriation 

and devastation with an estimate over one hundred billion tons of metallic wastage 

in South Africa per year- a large quantity of mining efforts in this form of waste are 

deemed ‘scrap’ (Cukrowska et al., 2002).

This raises the questions around the possibility for metal extraction and recovery 

as a process of wastage reuse. This queries the methodologies and the possibility 

of metal precipitation from the toxic wastewater of acid mine drainage. Similarly, 

to the notions explored through metal refinery, a notion of chemical treatment can 

be applied to coax the metal out of liquid form to a precipitated solid formation. 

This essentially creates the opportunity for waste recycling, retrieving back small 

particles from the toxic solution (Bryson et al., 1997, p.169-170). The significance 

of this exploration is based on the amount of toxic waste production but also on the 

finiteness of underground gold. 

Experimenting with waste metal retrieval on a home scale differs to that of the 

techniques of a metal refinery; however, the possibilities of this waste retrieval on 

both scales is ultimately achievable. This highlights the access and availability to 

the skills and resources needed to perform such a task on both the industrial for-

malised scale, as well as the smaller artisanal opportunity. 

The chemical term ‘precipitation’ in the context of liquid metal solutions - such as 

acid mine drainage - refers to the process of extracting the solid metal from its cur-

rent liquid state from the toxic sludge (Fleming, 2011). This allows the liquid to un-

dergo a chemical treatment to remove the wasted metals. The formalised process 

within metal refineries is a more chemically controlled process ensuring the fumes 

from the chemicals used to treat the various metal solutions. According to Michaud, 

metal solutions such as: nitric acid, sulphide and hydroxide do not contaminate 

spaces and are able to be reused (Michaud, 2018). The formalised process will 

also reduce the wastage significantly, using exact chemical compound formulas to 

monitor the process. The chemicals used to treat the solution are dependent on the 

metal they aim to extract outwards. The reactions occur dependently and thus will 

result in various approaches to the chemicals used for different metals (Michaud, 

2016). 

Figure 3.7 Chemical Metal Precipitation (Science Photo Library)

Metal salt state.



37.

The Toxic Result3

Figure 3.8 The Treatment Process (Author, 2022)

The chemical treatment process used in South Afri-
ca to treat the toxic water before rleasing the water 
back to the major outlet hubs.

Acid Mine Drainage Treatment and Equipment



38.

The Toxic Result3
Nitric Acid Sketch Charette

From the more artisanal approach, the author conducted a controlled charette ex-

periment under the supervision of a jeweller manufacturer. The experiment con-

ducted was around copper metal precipitation from nitric acid solution. The process 

relies on a chemical reaction between the copper and the nitric acid. The copper 

was in a completely dissolved liquid state when in the presence of the concentrated 

nitric acid and small portion of distilled water, transferring a blue colourant to the 

originally transparent chemical (Fleming, 2011; Red, 2018). The scientific terminol-

ogy for the reaction that occurs is the creation of Copper Nitrate (Cu (NO3)2). Dur-

ing the process of burning between the nitric acid and copper – the solution let off 

a dark orange smoke which is the ‘nitrogen dioxide.’ This is traditionally controlled 

using equipment in a metal refinery to ensure the fumes are contained; however, 

on the artisanal scale the experiment required to be performed outside to avoid 

fume inhalation (Sullivan. 2012). Once the fumes had begun to die down – indicat-

ing that the solution had either expended itself or the copper had been completely 

dissolved – the substance of urea was used to neutralise the acidity. This left a 

deep blue liquid of the dissolved copper. To get the copper into solid formation a 

further reaction was required (Fleming, 2011; Sullivan, 2012). 

The copper was required to undergo an electrical process using positive and neg-

ative charges (cathodes and anodes) to coerce the metal out of the liquid and into 

solid form- this in essence is a reaction using the principles of scientific attraction 

(Red, 2018). The placement of a steel rod into the solution allowed this process to 

occur. The copper particles became attracted to the rod and started forming filing 

type layers around the steel rod. Over the course of a few hours or overnight in 

terms of the experiment, the copper fully encased the rod (Sullivan, 2012). 

The steel rod was then be removed from the solution, and the copper scraped off 

the rod and rinsed in preparation for melting down into solid copper product- ready 

for use. 

Figure 3.9 Sketch Charette Cleansing (Author, 2022)

Draining and cleaning off any excess solution with 

distilled water and muslin cloth. 



39.

Cu (Copper) + HNO3 (Nitric Acid) 

O

-O
O

HN+

Cu + O

-O
N+

O

-O
N+

Cu2+

-O -O

O

-O
N+

O

-O
N+

Cu2+

-O -O

-O
N+

O
O

-O
N+

-O
Na+

The Toxic Result3

Stripped copper wire is flattened using a 

hammer and then placed in a glass 

container with pure nitric acid solution.

The previously clear solution begins to turn 

a light blue as it begins to ‘eat’ the copper 

wire. This occurs when the nitric begins to 

dissolve the solid wire.

The solution begins to take on a darker blue 

colour on the basis of how much copper is 

dissolved. Adding additonal copper will dark-

en the colour.

A brown smoke will begin to billow from 

the solution  releasing nitrogen dioxide as 

a result of the exposure to oxygen. Using 

approprirate apparatus can prevent this 

from escaping.

Once the brown smoke has ceased to bil-

low and any additional copper does not 

dissolve - the solution is at a state in ehich 

the nitric acid has expelled its energy and 

the solution can be neuralised with sodium 

hydroxide.

A steel rod is then placed into the solution 

causing the dissolved - liquid copper to at-

tract to the steel rod. This chemical reac-

tion is a result of positive- negative particle 

attraction between the protons and the 

electrons. This will draw the copper onto 

the rod in the form of solid copper coloured 

particles. 

1 2 3 4 5 6

CuNO3 (Copper (II) Nitrate) CuNO3 (Copper (II) Nitrate) NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide) Sodium Hydroxide WIth Nitric Acid (NaNO3)

Nitric Acid Sketch Charette

Figure 3.10 Sketch Charette - Chemical Processes (Author, 2022)



40.

The Toxic Result3

Figure 3.11 Sketch Charette Outcomes (Author, 2022)

The particles precipitated out of the nitric acid solution 

are soft and filing-like, The filings created their own or-

ganic form and would break upon touch. Placing the fil-

ings in a crucible and heating the element will allow the 

copper to form a solid shape- gaining its harder form.

Primarily the experiment was indicative of the possibility 

of extracting minerals out of acid mine drainage; through 

the particle change between solid, liquid and gaseous 

states. There was however a further understanding 

that the experiment highlighted, being: the organic for-

mations of metal. The recti-linear formations showcase 

straight and sharp edges that have moulded around the 

steel filing. The metal will in liquid form began to mould 

and form around the recti-linear shape of the steel file. 

While these soft particles broke off upon scraping - the 

inherent shapes remained.



41.

The Toxic Result3

This experiment highlighted the possibility for waste to be re-examined through the 

lens of toxic treatment as well as the prevention of refuse (Corder, 2019). 

The metallic industry apart from the mining waste – is a system that relies heavily 

on reuse. The jewellery industry alone is responsible for 78 percent of gold produc-

tion (Minerals Council South Africa). While they form the primary demand for the 

capitalism that drives the mining industry – the process of reuse is a principle that 

is heavily adopted within the practice. Jewellery by nature is a form of processed 

and sculpted metal – in which the original product undergoes a series of heating, 

casting, pouring, moulding, and shaping to produce the finished article. The pro-

cess follows a form shift of the metal where it has passed through several chemical 

states to achieve the final design; however, those changes are processes that can 

be repeated constantly (Alexander et al., 2018; Edden, 2016). The nature of metal 

allows for these pieces to be melted down to form a new function. This creates the 

sense of lifecycle behind the material. Its waste and production effects are too large 

to be unacknowledged however the nature of the continuous reproduction of the 

metal is a fundamental principle to its nature. The finite supply of gold findings with-

in the earth may have repercussions to the mining industries success. However, 

gold and metals are categorised by a strong possibility for adaptability and potential 

(Alexander et al., 2018). 

This notion highlights the jewellery industry as a twofold factor in gold production- 

one as a perpetuator of the need for mining but also as the possibility for waste and 

reuse to drive the industry and thus the future of gold in a world of post mining. Gold 

throughout history has been an economic investment but also one in social and 

fashion industries. Methods of first-hand reuse of gold is evident in most jewellery 

manufacturing factories. Old clients bring in pieces of jewellery that have grown 

outdated or unnecessary and regenerated into new forms to tie the metal to fashion 

and economic changes (Alexander et al., 2018). 

Figure 3.12 Copper Filings that Broke During Precipitation (Author, 2022)

The lightweight nature of the filings resulted in an accumulation of particles 

in the bottom of the glass jar after precipitation procured. These particles 

had broken off and did not reabsorb as the nitric acid had been expent and 

neutralised.



42.

The Toxic Result3

While direct contact with jewellery manufacturers forms the first stage of metal re-

cycling. One of the most common architectural formations of this exchange is the 

use of pawn shops (Pawnbroking Industry Data & Statistics). The pawn shop aims 

at either buying old goods for a monetary value or making a profit for selling old 

goods on the owners’ behalf. The first-hand form of metal recycling occurs through 

the process of second-hand consumerism – in which jewellery can be resold to a 

new owner (Pawnbroking Industry Data & Statistics). The second form of metal 

recycling acts a form of mediation between jewellery manufacturers, wholesalers, 

and the consumer. The architectural instance allows for a series of exchange to 

occur preventing wastage and aiding a finite production system. 

A second architectural formation that allows the exchange and recycling process 

to occur is the metal refinery (Auerswald et al., 2005, p.1-6). While the function of 

metal refineries is closely integrated with first hand gold production; a secondary 

program is performed of recycling old equipment and articles, particularly pertain-

ing to the jewellery industry. The refinery will look for wastage, taking in items that 

may contain any form of metal from: old carpets in jewellery factories, burnt and 

discarded melting crucibles (graphite containers to melt metal), and sandpaper. 

The refinery in essence acts as a waste plant. The collected materials will be in-

cinerated accordingly, and the resulting metal found will be bought by the refinery, 

and process to form pure forms of metal that can be sold back to jewellers and 

manufactures (Auerswald et al., 2005, p.1-6). The overall process will continuously 

cycle between the industry with brief pauses from consumer purchase. This results 

in waste and reuse on an ongoing scale – ensuring the metals lifespan supersedes 

its initial function. 

Figure 3.13 Pawn shop cartography in relation to the Germiston region (Author, 2022)

The ratio of pawn shops to Jewelry stores is 18:7

Pawn Shops First Hand Jewelry Shops



43.

The Toxic Result3

While jewellery governs the bulk of gold production - metal use itself extremely vast 

– ranging from digital equipment, to construction, to even aeronautical components 

(Browd, 2016). The endless uses suggest a large supply of potential wastage, and 

thus a large possibility for recycling. Old IBR roof sheeting, and E metals such as 

phones and computer monitors all contain metallic content that is undesired at 

some point during its lifespan (Corder, 2019). The possibility of reuse allows this 

timespan to extend passed its initial life stamp and became a possibility for new 

resources from an existing supply without stripping the landscape. 

These fundamental principles of recycling the old and undesirable are imperative 

to the possibility of thwarting the environmental degradation as a result of min-

ing pollution. The possibility of value has been a driving force in gold production 

throughout time, this notion is embedded into the social and economic constructs 

that govern its demand (Browd, 2016). Thus, the possibility of the wastage value 

could aid the drive for environmental reformation and restoration – creating an op-

portunity from toxic leftovers. The need for architectural intervention to highlight the 

opportunities implanted in the waste is in diametric conversation with restoring a 

historically depleted landscape (Yusoff, 2017, p.48). 

Figure 3.14 Holding the Wounds of the Landscape (Author, 2022)

Sewn stitches supporting the boundaries of the torn paper to prevent further fraying. This acts 

in a two-fold manner but mending any further damage but also highlighting the torn elements.



44.

The Metallic
Inducement4

4.1 Primary architectural concept: exploration of 

repository to remediation and memorialization of 

various forms of mining toxicity 

The call for mine dump removal is an essential action. As previously discussed, 

these sites generate large amounts of pollution, and their inertness allows the tox-

icity to continuously grow. This can easily create a rationale need for their destruc-

tion; however, the process of removal also acts a form of erasure and deletion that 

takes away a part of mining history that is so imperative to the city and the lives 

it has impacted (Ball, 2017; Fitz et al., 2019, p.12; Sinkala, 2011). This emphasiz-

es the primary driving force behind the proposed architectural intervention as a 

sense of reflection. This forms the notion of holding the wound in which architectur-

al form can be generated and designed in order to physically demarcate spatially 

the wounds and toxicity caused by these mine dumps and the mining industry. 

The exploration of memory forms in architectural terminology and methodologies 

links directly to the state of past through the process of the experiential. This is 

done through architectural typologies of memorials, museums, mausoleums, and 

galleries all creating archetypes of spaces for past reflection (Collins English Dic-

tionary, 2014). The concern is that this mine dump deletion is not simply a past 

memory but an erasure of impact (Fitz et al., 2019, p.12; Yusoff, 2018, p.15). The 

space must not just generate a historical guide to the past but rather an exposure 

of its all-encompassing by-products. This piloted a search of terminology that could 

facilitate a display of impact, leading towards the word ‘repository.’ 

The rudimentary definitions of the word repository place it as a form of storage to 

a variety of things placed in different formats: from containers to spaces. Howev-

er, a deeper investigation of the word revealed the definition as: “a place where 

something, especially a natural resource, is found in significant quantities” (Collins 



45.

The Metallic Inducement4

English Dictionary, 2014; Cambridge Dictionary; Oxford Languages). The notion of 

this type of space explores the natural landscape prior to gold mining as its origi-

nal repository – the first space of exhibition in its most abundant and most natural 

container.  

The book Reciprocal Landscapes by Jane Hutton (2020, p.44) raises the question: 

“what if we looked at materials not simply as single- purpose commodities, but in-

stead as continually changing matter that takes on different forms, and is shaped 

by - but also shapes – others?” 

The quote in the context of the text describes materials as a physical demarcation 

of space tied to a sense of historical landscape. Hutton further describes this notion 

as the possibility of connection between an existing material, its place of origin and 

its ultimate destination of human placement. This essentially creates an embedded 

link that can be completely unbeknown to the spatial user- as a “thin thread, two 

sites are pulled together and a tangle of relations appears” (Hutton, 2020, p.25). 

This suggests the potential role of architecture as a medium to link this sense of 

history through placemaking under the guise of a phenomenological approach. 

Similarly, the notion of documenting materiality- origins lies in the sentiment left by 

the sheer size of a mine dump. The mounds are comprised of the contents dug out 

from the inside of the mine shafts, showcasing the movement of materials from its 

original place of settlement to its topsoil transference. The material almost express-

es a metaphorical desolation in its forced removal; from a promising rich soil to one 

that becomes poisonous upon oxidisation (Fitz, et al., 2019; Hutton, 2020, p.25). 

Figure 4.1 The Reverse Condition (Author,  2022)

The ‘mirror’ landscape of what mining has inflicted. 

The stitched veld landscape as held together as a 

memory of what was



46.

The Metallic Inducement4

4.2. Architectural building typologies: exploration 

of potential for wastage reuse as architectural 

program for intervention

Through a further lens of the mined material – the gold products themselves exude 

the most extensive forms of change from its initial state, and the concept of plac-

ing the ore submerged gold particle against a finished jewellery article displayed 

in a glass case - creates an almost paradox of landscape belonging (Chamber of 

Mines, 2017). There is however the significance of potential that is entangled in this 

paradox – where the material can be something else in comparison to its origin. 

While this has resulted in an industry of toxic ruin it also applies to the wastage – 

suggesting that the history of ruination and abandonment can still shift to a future 

form of potential change (Hutton, 2020, p.26). The tie between material and land-

scape therefore plays a fundamental role in the implementation of an architectural 

intervention that can address parts of the ruination inflicted by the mining industry 

(Schrader, 2015). This is a physical notion of extraction, depletion, and contami-

nation, but also the fundamental design component of the intervention as a form 

of activity mapping of past, present and future in the sense of the repository (Ball, 

2017; Oxford Languages). 

The focus of the toxicity highlights the wastage crisis among a finite resource, as 

well as the need to remediate the acid mine drainage wastage through means 

of chemical treatment and metallic extraction (Bobbins, 2015; Lyaloo, 2020). This 

offers a threefold opportunity: where contamination can be treated, waste can be 

reduced, and the opportunity for job creation can be heightened. 

Figure 4.2 Input Vs Output (Author, 2022)

Comparison between form - the solid metal can be extracted from 

the find grains of the mine dump. 



47.

The Metallic Inducement4

4.3. Site selection for repository and waste 

reuse intervention; through examination of 

environmental, historical, and social impact

The creation of a building that focuses on metal reuse and recovery from toxic 

water creates the opportunity for the industry to be softened through methods of 

reformation and upliftment. Instead of landscape appropriation and stripping, a per-

spective of possibility arises from the toxic sludge treatment and reuse to generate 

a reformed industry of growth and repurpose (Bobbins, 2015; Hutton, 2020).

The historic life of the metal particle experiences a series of different states- chem-

ically shifting from liquid, molten, gas and finally back to solid formation. This is 

indicative of the flexible properties the material possesses but also of the actual 

implemented processes of transition required to change state (Michaud, 2016). 

The changing of state and evolution from one to another creates the notion that this 

chemical change can extend to landscape (Barnard, 2018). This form of 

evolutionary transition applies to the appropriation of the mining landscapes that 

has resulted. These spaces similarly to the ore, have experienced a series of 

change that has taken the natural veld landscape, and superimposed an industrial 

framework that has made the land uninhabitable. The suggestion that is proposed 

relates to the concept of material and landscape reuse, in the fabric of an environ-

ment of history, recollection and memory (Atkinson et al., 1968, p.92). 

Legislatively in 2011 a plan was implemented under the authorisation of the South 

African government in order to treat the toxic water of the contaminated rivers and 

streams before they enter the major water resource regions such as the Vaal dam 

and Limpopo Basin (Digsby Wells Environmental, 2012). The plan involved the 

establishment of three acid mine drainage treatment plants that would intercept the 

water connection points, acting as a divergent system to clean the water before 

allowing the water to be pumped to its location for use. The three treatment plants 

were proposed to span across the reef line from east to west intercepting all major 

streams (Digsby Wells Environmental, 2012). The infrastructural systems to clean 

the water are extensive with operational costs of R 209,719,285 and capital costs 

of R 697,727,075 (Digsby Wells Environmental, 2012). 

Figure 4.3 Treatment Plant 

(Digsby Wells Enviornmen-

tal, 2012)

Proposal by the Trans-Cal-

edon Tunnel Authority for 

acidic water treatment.



48.

Reef Line

Mine Dumps

Water Bodies

Acid Mine Drainage 
Treatment Plants

This places a large focus on the site that is chosen for the building proposal, offer-

ing the adjacent industrial and abandoned land parcels to the sites as opportunities 

for the building intervention. The most prominent site of the three is the Central 

Basin Acid Mine Drainage Treatment Plant in Germiston as the site functions as 

the central plant in the most diverse location being industrial, residential, informal-

ly occupied, and small holding. The site further holds an immense mining history 

making it the most suitable for the application of a wound holding and detoxifying 

intervention.

Figure 4.4 AMD Treatment Plants (Author, 2022)

The position of the treatment plants across the east to west 

rand, in comparison to the mine dump and mine locations and 

their impact on the water streams and connections

The Metallic Inducement4



49.

Figure 4.5 Central Basin Proximity to Basins (Author, 2022)

The location of the selected site in relation to the other treatment plants. This places the selected site 

as located in the densified portion of Joahnnesburg.

The Metallic Inducement4



50.

The Metallic Inducement4

The site historically is a landscape that was shaped entirely by the mining industry 

from its first proclamation to its current uses (Digsby Wells Environmental, 2012). 

The site has always been defined by the industry and the resulting mushroom of 

city planning that encircles the city is a result of this nature. 

The site functioned as one of the shaft entrance locations for the gold mine known 

as the ‘East Rand Mine’ established in 1893 amid the expansion of gold diggings 

within the Germiston region (The Editors of Encyclopedia, 2012; Wood, 2016).  

Germiston’s foundation is further a direct result of gold mining. The city developed 

around the basis of deposits found along the reef line – creating a consequential 

result of the set-up of a mining town (Ball, 2017; Barnard, 2015). 

Germiston itself epitomises the impact of the mining industry from the transition of 

farmland into industrial landscape and further one of the fundamental aspects of 

development being a transportation hub. Two of the largest infrastructural systems 

that governed the growth of the mining industry were set up in Germiston, being: 

Figure 4.7 AMD Treatment Plants (East Rand Pro-

prietary Mines Ltd, 1928)

[Right] Certificate of share rights in the EPMG min-

ing company for gold extraction.

the largest railway transport junction in the country, and Rand Refinery - as the 

largest refinery in South Africa - producing an approximation of one third of the 

gold mined globally from 1921 to 2012 – during the gold mining peak. The refinery 

was established in 1920 – and took on the processing of all raw gold that was ex-

cavated. The mined metals were chemically treated and cast into ingots for global 

disruption. 

Figure 4.6 AMD Treatment Plants (Gorter, 1963)

[Left] Lift shaft at the EPMG mine that was origi-

nally poitioned at the location of the current cen-

tral basin acid mine drainage treatment plant. The 

shaft has been removed in order to treat the cite 

for acid mine drainage levels and pipe connections 

were placed in that location to prevent any further 

build up. 



51.

The Metallic Inducement4

The significance of the placement transportation hubs and routes through Germis-

ton showcases its direct significance to the movement of gold (Woodgate, 2017). 

The need for transportation technology and infrastructure is vital to the capitalism 

of gold on a global scale, and thus its relationship to Rand Refinery is directly 

associated to the possibility for the transportation of approximately fifty thousand 

tons of gold per annum (Mackay, 2021). The relation of Germiston to the expanse 

of the reef line from east to west allows a central point of industry to be created 

adjacent to the growth of the Johannesburg CBD (Ball, 2017; Woodgate, 2017). 

This notion of Germiston’s role as a transportation hub grew – from railway lines to 

the installation of Rand Airport in 1931, acting as the major international transport 

route until 1948 where the developed infrastructure could not keep up with the de-

veloping aeronautical infrastructure and demand (Ball, 2017; SAA Museum). The 

gold findings within Germiston were abundant and large mines were established 

along the intersecting reef line, such as: ‘Simmer and Jack Gold Mine,’ ‘Rose Deep 

Gold Mine’ and ‘Knights Deep Gold Mine.’ While these mines offered gold promise 

their operations were more finite in nature; with two of the three mines lying aban-

doned today – Knights Deep Gold Mine as the last to function to date (South Afri-

can Mining and Engineering Journal, 1922). This by nature impacted the formation 

of Germiston dramatically – as a place of initial gold promise, to one of industrial 

placemaking to its current state of liminality as today it houses the mash up of in-

dustrial, retail, and residential programs (Burger et al ; Wood, 2017). 

The apprehension attached to the area is linked to the habitation that occurred be-

tween the industry – the architectural layout positions informal townships between 

the industry and formalized residential. This highlights a concern of the effect min-

ing pollution and industry has on the surrounding occupants. A further concern is 

the appropriation of landscape that this area has generated. While the Johannes-

burg CBD showcases a metamorphosis of industrial change – the area of Germis-

ton is still heavily defined by its mining heritage (Munro, 2017; South African Mining 

and Engineering Journal, 1922). 

Figure 4.8 Good Hope Informal Settlement (De Wee, 2017)

The ironic devastation between the proximity of the treatment plant and the informal set-

tlement raises the comparison between a site with abundant water supply, and the other 

without sanitation or water infrastructure. The proximity between these sites is less that 

500m. Pictured above is a resident of the settlement transporting water from the Elsburg-

spruit river to her house.



52.

The Metallic Inducement4

While the mine dumps monuments and mine shaft infrastructure in Germiston 

is less abundant today that its initiation – most commerce and trade is centered 

around the metallic industry (Burger, 2015; The Editors of Encyclopedia, 2012). 

Today Rand Refinery still functions as the largest refinery within South Africa. The 

programmatic change has shifted to the processing of waste reprocessing as pre-

viously discussed (Mackay, 2021). The rationale for this change is the shift in gold 

findings that has occurred. The notion over- mining and exhaust is an impression 

that is engraved within the region of Germiston – the shift in programmatic role of 

Rand Refinery to one of waste collect is indicative of this change and the need for 

mining redress (Mackay, 2021). From scrap yards to SA Metal Groups – majority of 

mining resources and trade still lives within the area of Germiston. The notion high-

lights Germiston’s tie to the metal industry, showcasing an embedment of mining 

history, and thus its significance as an architectural landscape in need of metallic 

rejuvenation and toxic reformation. 

Figure 4.9 Significant Mining Landmarks to the Site (Author, 2022)

Historical mining landmarks such as rand refinery , the old railway station, rand airport and Crown 

Knights Mine form the greater context of the site.

The comparison between the development of Johannesburg in relation to Ger-

miston further creates an interest into the urban landscape, as it draws a sense of 

stagnation due to mining that has comparatively evolved and adapted in Johan-

nesburg. This creates a fascination in to how the site could be remiagined post 

mineral extraction.



53.

The Metallic Inducement4

The Central Basin Acid Mine Drainage Treatment Plant is located in the Germiston 

South region of the overall area- under three kilometers south of the reef line. The 

mining function of the site was eradicated in 2008 (Digsby Wells Environmental, 

2012; Trans- Caledon Tunnel Authority, 2012). The concern arose around the lack 

of functioning of the mine, as it was then accumulating a high level of water con-

tent – with unprofitable gold findings. The resulting mining activities in Germiston 

has caused water pans – in which the water has begun to pool and collect within 

disrupted earth crevices and openings. The mine shafts became filled with water 

run off – diluting the toxic pyrite particles and producing acid mine drainage. The 

most pressing concern arises from this by the position of the ground water table 

levels and the level of contaminated water produced by the acid mine drainage. 

The instance of the environmental critical level (ECL) in the case of the site - sat 

at 1467m which is a critically concerning level – and a contaminant to the water 

basin (Digsby Wells Environmental, 2012; Trans- Caledon Tunnel Authority, 2012). 

This created the need for a treatment plant that could firstly deal with existing mine 

toxicity but also the area of the ‘central basin.’ The TCTA (Trans-Caledon Tunnel 

Authority) along with the Department of Mining and Water Treatment proposed a 

three-stage approach in which three treatment plants could be installed along the 

basin. The function of the plants is to act as a diversion system, in which the acidic 

water can be collected via the toxic sludge streams, treated, and then returned to 

natural, clean water supplies, and in turn back to the central basins systems (Digs-

by Wells Environmental, 2012; Trans- Caledon Tunnel Authority, 2012). 

Figure 4.10 Central Basin Treatment Plants (Digsby Wells Environmental, 2012)

Caricature drawing explaining the connectivity approaches implored by the treat-

ment plant.



54.

The Metallic Inducement4

Figure 4.11 Treatment Plant Site 

Photographs, (TCTA, 2008)

The site construction photos showcase the 

thick concrete construction used to contain 

the basins. The major materials used are 

reinforced concrete and steel structures. 

The steel is primarily used to create walk-

ways above the basins. 



55.

The Metallic Inducement4

The surrounding area of the chosen site is defined by an industrial park- where the 

expansive and demarcated boundaries of the site act as a central point to an en-

circling environment of industry. Through a contextual analysis and study into the 

demographics of the site; Germiston holistically can be seen to have undergone a 

transition of settlement with the notion of an evolved landscape that has changed 

from a veld farmland to one of “grasslands of colonially introduced species (Firth, 

2011)” 

Andropogon 
Gayanus

Galetta

Stipagrostis 
Uniplumis

Eragrostis 
Curvula

Blue Grama

Aristida
 Canescents

Figure 4.13 Flora Mapping (Author, 2022)

The various flora grown on the site is sparsely spread throughout the landscape

Figure 4.12 Flora Species on Site



56.

The Metallic Inducement4

The contextual region of Germiston overall is divided into various proportions of 

habitation – with 35% dedication to agriculture in its various forms, 15% in industrial 

and 50% in residential with the majority of residen