1 
 
 
RESEARCH REPORT 
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Education Degree AT THE 
University of the Witwatersrand 
 
TOPIC 
An exploration of successful leadership in challenging circumstances ? Case Studies of two 
Kathorus Secondary Schools 
 
STUDENT NAME 
KWENA GEDION POOPEDI 
 
STUDENT NUMBER 
415679 
 
SUPERVISOR 
ZAKHELE MBOKAZI 
February 2011 
2 
 
Abstract 
This study explored successful leadership practices in challenging circumstances within the 
context of two case study schools. It was a qualitative case study of two secondary schools 
that have consistently performed above national average over a period of five years for 
matric pass rate. These township schools are headed by a female and a male principal.  
The study provides greater insights into leadership practices in the schools. The study 
showed that shared leadership was not practiced in the case schools. Shared (distributive) 
leadership implied that principals in the case schools would be practicing collective forms of 
leadership. However, delegation, which was about authority and accountability residing 
with the principal, seemed more prevalent. The findings revealed that both principals saw 
themselves as delegating most of the tasks to their subordinates, even though these tasks 
belonged to the subordinates by virtue of their formal appointments. The case schools have 
two deputies who share administrative and curriculum responsibilities. The deputy 
principals are there to deputise and assist the principal - duties that are lawfully theirs. The 
same applies to the HoDs whose duties are to oversee curriculum delivery in the classroom. 
These are not a delegated function but an execution of their responsibilities. 
 In both case schools, evidence shows that the schools are successful because of the 
initiative of individual teachers who exert themselves in the classroom. 
 
 
 
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Keywords 
Successful school leadership 
Instructional leadership 
Transformational leadership 
Distributed leadership 
 
 
 
 
 
  
4 
 
Declaration 
 
 
I, Kwena Gideon Poopedi (Student number: 415679) Master of Education student at the 
University of Witwatersrand hereby declare that the following project is my own unaided 
work. It is partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Master of Education degree. It has not 
been submitted for any degree or examination of any other University.   
 
Signature: ______________________   Date: ___________________________ 
Kwena Gedion Poopedi 
February 2011 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Dedication 
This research report is dedicated to my parents. They have been a source of inspiration 
throughout my entire life.  
6 
 
Acknowledgements 
 
This research would not have been possible without the support and contribution of the 
following people: 
head2right My supervisor and mentor, Mr Zakhele Mbokazi, for the invaluable role he played 
throughout the process of planning and executing this research report. He has given 
generously for his time and expertise. I am deeply grateful to his constructive 
criticism, attention to details and his expectation of work of a high standard.  
head2right The principals, HoDs and teachers of the two schools in which the research was 
conducted. Their co-operation and willingness to participate in this research cannot 
go unnoticed. My sincere gratitude is extended to them as well. 
head2right My wife, Matome Daphney Poopedi and our children for their belief in me. The love 
and support my wife provided throughout my study was a true inspiration. 
head2right My parents, Abrina and Petrus Poopedi for relentlessly encouraging me not to give 
up my studies. I will be forever indebted to you. 
head2right My siblings, Ezekiel, Salome, Ananias, Petunia and Selina for believing in me.   
head2right Friends and colleagues for their support, encouragement and constructive criticism 
throughout the research.  
head2right A special thanks to my dear friend Thabo Kgwete, to whom I owe my life and more. 
He has made an important contribution to this research report. 
 
 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
1   CHAPTER 1 
1.1 Background        13 
1.2 Aim of the study         15 
1.3 Objectives of the study        16 
1.4 Problem statement       16 
1.5 Research questions       17 
1.6 Rationale          17 
1.7 Theoretical framework       20 
 
2 CHAPTER 2 Review of literature 
2.1 Introduction        23 
2.2 Leading in the poor communities      26 
2.3 Concepts of leadership       30 
2.3.1 Instructional leadership       30 
2.3.2 Distributed leadership       33 
2.3.3 Transformational leadership      38 
2.4 Setting the direction for the school     40 
2.5 Developing others        42 
2.6 Redesigning the organisation      44 
2.7 Principal who lead cultural change     47 
2.8 Conclusion        49 
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3 CHAPTER 3 Research Methodology 
3.1 Introduction        51 
3.2 Research approaches       51 
3.3 Sampling         53 
3.4 Research methods       54 
3.5 Instrument design        56 
3.5.1 Interview Schedule       56 
3.5.2 Observation Schedule       56 
3.6 Data Presentation Analysis       57 
3.7  Validity and reliability       57 
3.8 Ethical considerations       58 
3.9 Limitations of the study        58 
 
4 CHAPTER Four  Data Presentation, Interpretation and Analysis 
4.1 Introduction        60 
4.2 Profile of School A       60 
4.3 Profile of School B        61 
4.4 Presentation of data       61 
4.5 Profile of participants       63 
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4.6 Presentation and analysis of data of School A    65 
4.6.1 The role of principal giving the school direction   65 
4.6.2 The school culture       68 
4.6.3 Teaching and learning      70 
4.6.4 Leadership         73 
4.7 Presentation and analysis data of School B    77 
4.7.1 The role of principal in giving the school direction   78 
4.7.2 The school culture       79 
4.7.3 Teaching and learning      82 
4.7.4 Leadership        84 
 
 
5 CHAPTER 5 Summary, Conclusions and recommendations 
5.1 Introduction        88 
5.2 Summary         88 
5.3 Conclusions        91 
5.4 Recommendations       92 
Reference         94 
  
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Appendices 
 Appendix 1        99 
 Appendix 2        103 
 Appendix 3        106 
Appendix 4        108 
Appendix 5        111 
Appendix 3        113 
 
 
  
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LIST OF ACRONYMS 
 
AESOP ? An Exceptional Schooling Outcome Project 
HoD ? Head of Department 
ISSPP ? International Successful School Principalship Project 
MTL ? Managing Teaching and Learning 
SGB ? School Governing Body 
SMT ? School Management Team 
  
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List of Tables 
Table A: details pertaining to the background of the interviewees at school A 63 
Table B details pertaining to the background of the interviewees at school B 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
13 
 
CHAPTER 1 
INTRODUCTION 
The purpose of this chapter is to set the scene for the study of successful leadership in 
schools that produce quality education reflected in good results in the Senior Certificate 
Examination. . These schools are situated in low socio-economic settings.  
1.1 Background 
According to Harris (2009), many schools in contexts of acute levels of socio-economic 
deprivation also face external factors that adversely affect their ability to perform. 
Incidences of crime, drug abuse and violence tend to be significantly higher within areas of 
urban deprivation and social disadvantage. Harris (2009) further argues that the socio-
 economic challenges facing schools in the poorest communities are acute and the task of 
school improvement is a particular difficult one for those principals and teachers committed 
to working within these contexts. Within the South African context, a study conducted by 
Christie et al. (2007) observed that Senior Certificate results continue to reflect past 
distortions in the education system in terms of access and success. They contend that 
whereas the majority of white children have been able to stay at school until the age of 16, 
and their Senior Certificate pass rates have been over 90%, the same is not true for black 
children. Thrupp (1999) argues that schools that are often located in areas with high level of 
unemployment and crime, as well as poor housing and health conditions, are required to 
take on a huge caring role in addition to their academic one in order to achieve 
academically.  
14 
 
Bipath (2008) further maintains that many of the schools in high-poverty contexts are 
under-funded and inadequately staffed compared to schools in wealthier areas. However, 
the transformation agenda, pursued by the South African government since it came to 
power in 1994, has altered the funding model. Despite efforts to direct a substantially larger 
share of education funding to historically disadvantaged schools, historically advantaged 
schools continue to outperform these schools. These reforms were brought about through 
progressive legislation intended to redress the imbalances of the past. This legislation is 
largely encapsulated by the South African Schools Act (SASA) of 1996, which set out the 
framework for Norms and Standards for the governance of schools; and the 1998 National 
Norms and Standards for Schools Funding (amended in 2005) which set out the framework 
for funding provinces and schools.    
The focus of this study is on two secondary schools that have consistently performed above 
national average over a period of five years in terms of the matric pass rate. These are 
township schools, one headed by a female and another by a male principal. The schools are 
situated in Vosloorus Township in the Ekurhuleni metropolitan area. There has been 
extensive research in the area of school effectiveness. Cele (2005) contends that research 
that focus on understanding the concept of ?effective schools? in South Africa has attempted 
to assist the state to reward and punish schools based on their performance, but this has 
been contentious and subject to debate, placing pressure is on secondary schools and 
placing the emphasis exclusively on matriculation results. For instance, in 2010 the Gauteng 
Department of Education has budgeted millions of Rands for improvement of Grade 12 
results. The aim is to get rid of the so-called dysfunctional schools. These are schools which 
obtain below 50 percent pass rate at matric. 
15 
 
Successful and resilient schools in the townships and rural areas should be understood 
within the context of their historical background of decades of apartheid. Many years of 
racial segregation and discrimination, and the subsequent resistance led in large part by 
school children (and therefore making schools sites of struggle and inoperable) resulted in 
collapse of schools; these were mainly secondary schools in the townships. The increasing 
effectiveness of schools serving young black learners who reside in working-class suburbs, 
informal settlements and marginal rural areas must be understood as the outcome of the 
revolutionary changes in South African society (Fleisch and Christie, 2004, p. 96).  
The feeders of these secondary schools are the primary schools around the township. Many 
learners come from primary schools unprepared for secondary school and have very poor 
literacy and numeracy skills as is evident in the results of the PIRLS (Progress in Reading 
Literacy) study which placed South African learners at the bottom of 45 schools in literacy 
and numeracy tests done on grades 5 and 6 (Howie, et al, 2008). The teachers in these 
primary schools are Africans, the majority of whom were trained under the apartheid 
system of education. And yet there are secondary schools that manage to achieve above the 
norm with these considerable odds against them. 
1.2 Aims of the study  
The purpose of the study is to explore successful leadership practices in challenging 
circumstances within the context of two case study schools.  
 
 
 
16 
 
1.2.1 Objectives of the study 
The objectives of the study, therefore, are to: 
- Study the impact leadership has on successful schools and also to look into the factors 
that make these schools stand above the rest in the township;  
- Explore school culture and organisational structure; and  
- Explore leadership models applicable to schools in challenging circumstances. 
1.3. Problem Statement 
The study focuses on school principals in previously disadvantaged communities in South 
Africa. The study looks at secondary schools in the low socio-economic geographic area of 
Kathorus, and detailed descriptions of South African township communities and schools are 
provided. Straker (1992, 1996) and Wilson (1963), Straker (1996) paints a gloomy account of 
township life, ?characterised by overcrowding, drenched in a culture of violence and crime; 
? the communities and their schools suffer economic deprivation, general poverty and poor 
health? (p3).  Characteristic features of these township schools include irregular attendance 
by both staff and students; conflictual relationships within schools between principals, 
teachers and students; discontinuous learning and poor results. Violence, criminality, rape 
and substance abuse abound within and around schools. Yet, in the same difficult 
circumstances, a number of schools manage to survive, albeit precariously in some cases 
(Christie and Lingard, 2001). As observed by Taylor (2006), ?a tiny band of schools situated 
in the poorest communities provide some of the highest quality education; ?they are 
performing heroic deeds under difficult conditions, and serve as role models for the rest of 
17 
 
the system? (p.73). Two of these ?tiny bands of schools? are the focus for this study. These 
are high performing secondary schools situated in the township of Kathorus. 
1.4. Research questions 
The study explores the following key questions: 
1. What are the practices of a successful leader? 
2. How does successful school leadership impact on pupil outcomes? 
3. What is the role of the principal in developing/nurturing a successful school culture? 
1.5. Rationale  
The rationale for the study is informed by the researcher?s interest in how people overcome 
challenges. Therefore, the focus of the study is on successful schools that have consistently 
performed above the national average over the past five years. These schools are not 
chosen to represent the best or excellent in the system. They are schools that perform well 
under conditions that are typical of the mainstream of the South African education system. 
The successful schools, discussed in this study, have everything in common with any other 
township school that is affected by social challenges. Some of the children come from 
dysfunctional or child-headed households. Some come from neighbouring informal 
settlements using government subsidised scholar transport. Schools are seen as one way to 
ameliorate poverty and evidence of high-performance schools in high-poverty communities 
provide some measure of optimism (Mulford et al, (2007, p. 461). Schools carry the hopes of 
the down-trodden because through successful completion of schooling, there is a chance 
that the vicious cycle of poverty can be broken. Mulford et al (2007) argue that the most 
distinguishing feature of successful school is leadership.  
18 
 
In this regard the researcher looked into the role of school leadership on pupil outcomes. 
Day et al (2008, p. 9) contend that school leaders are able to retain a rigorous focus on 
raising pupil attainment whilst at the same time providing children with safe, healthy, and 
happy environments for a large part of their day.  Enhancing learning and teaching is a key 
priority for school leadership. The study also examines school culture. A case study 
conducted by Gurr et al (2006, p. 376) showed evidence indicating that successful school 
leaders promote a culture of collegiality, collaboration, support and trust; and this culture 
was firmly rooted in their democratic and social justice values and beliefs.  
Leaders do not act alone to attain the goals of the organisation. Gurr et al (2006, p. 376) 
found that successful leaders focus on distributed leadership, which was facilitated by 
providing support for distributed leadership processes and practices; promoting a culture of 
trust. This, in turn, encourages enthusiasm and a sense of agency amongst staff, students 
and parents.  
Principals play a major role in schools. Halawah (2006) argued that ?school principals play 
important role in establishing school discipline, both by effective administration and by 
personal example? (p. 334). This study will explore the following: the role of principals as 
part of the School Management Team (SMT) ; Heads of Departments (HoDs) as managers 
whose task is to oversee curriculum delivery on daily basis;  the monitoring of teachers;  and 
whether the analysis of the learner results takes place and has an effect on school 
performance ? both by learners and teachers. 
 
19 
 
In addressing the research topic, the researcher consulted literature on school effectiveness. 
Edmund?s (1979) lists five factors attributable to effective schools:  
(1) Strong administrative leadership;  
(2) School climate conducive to learning;  
(3) High expectations for children?s achievement;  
(4) Clear instructional objectives for student performance; and  
(5) Emphasis on basic skills instructions.  
The proponents of the school effectiveness do not all agree on common characteristics of 
effective schools. 
School improvement literature was also consulted owing to the daunting challenges and 
lack of improvement confronting many of our schools. Studies have shown that secondary 
schools can take a minimum five years to improve but many schools are unable to improve 
at all. Their performance remains the same in spite of resourceful and well-intentioned 
interventions from the department of education. Hopkins et al. (1994) have defined school 
improvement as an approach to educational change that has the twin purpose of enhancing 
student achievement and strengthening the school?s capacity for managing change. 
The study will further explore leadership theories, styles, models and practices. The focus 
will be on shared leadership or distributed leadership, instructional leadership, 
transformational leadership and change leadership. 
 
20 
 
1.5. Theoretical framework 
The theoretical framework for this study draws upon the model by Davidoff and Lazarus 
(1997) on ?an organising framework for understanding and developing schools?. They argue 
that a school is an organisation, made of aspects or elements, each of which needs to be 
functioning healthily for the whole to be healthy. Any unhealthy or malfunctioning element 
will have a negative ripple effect throughout the system.  
In this framework, the culture of the school is placed at the centre as it determines and 
reflects how the elements of the organisation develop. School culture is determined by 
many external as well as internal forces (Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997). They further argued 
that school cultures reflect the norms and values of any particular society. 
Elements identified in the framework are as follows: 
Identity: The identity of an organisation is determined by its unique culture. Strong 
successful leadership provide the school with a unique identity. This important aspect 
relates to the broad purpose of the school, reflected in its vision, particular mission, and 
broad aims and tasks (Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997). The National Standards for headteachers 
(DfES, 2004) identified core professional leadership and management practices in six key 
areas These include shaping the future, i.e. creating a shared vision and strategic plan for 
the school (in collaboration with governing body) that motivates staff and others in the 
community. Of critical importance to the study is the school vision that enables everyone to 
rally behind leadership in ensuring that the performance of the school is maintained over 
time. 
21 
 
Strategy: Within an organisation, strategic planning ? of setting goals, planning action steps 
to achieve the goals and ensuring that the process is evaluated in an ongoing way ? takes 
place within a framework of organisational culture(Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997).. This is an 
important area of leadership where decision-making takes placeThis study explores 
decision-making processes whereby role-players such as teachers, SMT, principal and the 
SGB interact in setting the goals to be achieved in subsequent year(s).  
Structure and procedures: Structural and procedural activities i.e. the rules, regulations and 
methods whereby these structures relate to one another (Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997), 
reflect the culture of an organisation. Execution of duties and leadership roles depend, to a 
large extent, on structures and procedures. Structures consist of lines of responsibility and 
authority of units and departments, how they relate to one another and how individual and 
team contributions are combined (Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997). They also consist of lines of 
communication and accountability. 
Technical support: This involves administration, financial and resource allocations and 
controls. 
Human resources: The human resource management in large part, creates organisational 
culture in that issues concerning the recruitment, retention and satisfaction of members of 
the staff (teachers, non-teaching staff and principal), as well as other role-players in the 
school are the focus 
The context: this includes consideration of the dynamics linked to the various aspects 
milieu: social, political, economic, technological, legislative, physical, cultural and 
institutional (Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997). 
22 
 
This chapter looked at the elements identified in the framework culture of the school. These 
elements are important because they are all interrelated and interdependent for the 
smooth operation of the organisation. These elements are explored further in the literature 
review and analysis of the data.  
The next chapter reviews literature on successful leadership practices within the local, 
national and international context.  
 
  
23 
 
 
CHAPTER 2 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON SUCCESSFUL SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN CHALLENGING 
CONTEXTS 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter reviews literature on successful school leadership practices. The chapter begins 
by exploring the contexts within which successful school leadership takes place. The 
International Successful School Principal Project (ISSPP) investigated school leadership 
extensively in eight countries: the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Canada, 
China, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The ISSPP aimed to identify successful leadership 
practices in schools of varying sizes, in different geographic locations and having pupils from 
different socio-economic backgrounds. ?ISSPP began with the notion that the quality of 
principal leadership makes a difference in student learning and school improvement; and 
the characteristics, processes and effects of successful school leadership can be identified 
and compared across national contexts? (Johnson et al. 2008, p. 407). The experiences of 
leadership in ISSPP are not necessarily replicable in the South African context owing to 
varied dynamics and material conditions. 
The criteria for judging successful school leadership is not similar all over the world. Moos et 
al. (2008) stated that ?in all countries in the ISSPP project ? except in China ?nation or state 
authorities have devolved authority to the local and school level. In most of schools in the 
case studies the distribution of leadership is discussed, but there seemed to be differences 
in how it is carried out in practice? (p. 342). With the introduction of the South African 
24 
 
Schools Act (SASA) of 1996, schools were given powers to administer property, and make 
recommendation to provinces on employment of teachers. Some schools applied for section 
21 of SASA of 1996 to be given powers to manage their own budgets. Such management is 
supposed to be overseen by the School Governing Bodies (SGB), whereby the principal acts 
as the administrator. This paradigm shift requires a leadership model similar to school 
leadership in first world countries where devolution of powers to schools has long been in 
practice. However, contextual factors need to be taken into consideration in South Africa 
due to the apartheid-induced inequalities. SGBs in historically disadvantaged communities 
face a mammoth task dealing with governance issues like budgeting, fundraising, policy 
formulation, staffing and other related matters because of inexperience and a lack of skills. 
As Hoadley et al (2009, p.374) aptly observed: ?these policies set out an ideal-type vision for 
a new system of equal quality for all, but did not speak to the conditions of the majority of 
schools, or adequately address the deep historical inequalities and uneven quality that 
existed within and across the country?s schools. The best functioning schools in the system 
were able to use the new management dispensation to raise fees, employ ?governing body? 
teachers, provide salary supplements, and offer a broad curriculum with specialists support. 
Not so the majority of schools in the system, often in communities too poor to pay fees, 
without capable governing bodies, without libraries, laboratories and computer networks to 
support the new curriculum and often with demotivated teachers?.  
Moos et al. (2008, p. 342) found that in most schools in the ISSPP, the principal set the 
direction of the school. They further argued that approaches seem to be similar, but in some 
schools the direction is formulated by the principal while in other schools the direction is a 
25 
 
product of dialogue and shared-sense making and knowledge-production. This vision should 
mirror the values and the beliefs espoused by the principal. 
Mulford et al. (2007, p. 229) argued about what should decide successful school leadership 
and who should provide the evidence. The questions they attempted to answer were: is 
there a school vision, and what is the quality of the vision? Is there a strategic plan to 
achieve the vision, a way of evaluating progress toward the vision? Mulford et al. (2007, p. 
243) stated that ?our finding supports the position from previous research that the 
principal?s influence on student learning is indirect, that is through school capacities such as 
trust and respect, empowerment (of student and teachers), a shared and monitored vision, 
and supported experimentation?. 
In a review provided by Leithwood et al. (2008, p. 27) concerning successful school 
leadership, they refer to ?strong claims? about school leadership. These claims are: 
1. School leadership is second only to classroom teaching as an influence on pupil 
learning. 
2. Almost all successful leaders draw on the same repertoire of basic leadership 
practices. 
3. The way in which leaders apply these basic leadership practices ? not the practices 
themselves ? demonstrate responsiveness to, rather than dictation by, the contexts 
in which they work. 
4. School leaders improve teaching and learning indirectly and most powerfully 
through their influence on staff motivation, commitment and working conditions. 
5. School leadership has a greater influence on schools and students when it is widely 
distributed. 
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6. Some patterns of distribution are more effective than others. 
7. A small handful of personal traits explain a high proportion of the variation in 
leadership effectiveness.   
Amongst the seven claims about successful school leadership, Leithwood et al. (2008) 
suggested that the ?first two have attracted largest amount of evidence? (p.27). These two 
claims pertain to school leadership and its influence on pupil learning and basic leadership 
practices. A study conducted by Day (2005, p. 576) showed that successful principals in 
challenging context ?accepted their responsibilities to do the best they could for every pupil 
in reaching their full potential in terms of the government testing and attainment agendas ? 
flawed though they found these to be ? whilst simultaneously being highly critical?. These 
principals had moral and ethical commitment to ensure that pupils are holistically 
developed.  
2.2 Leading in the poor communities 
The importance of leadership as a lever to secure improvement in difficult contexts should 
not be surprising (Harris, 2009). Leadership plays a critical role in securing successful school 
effectiveness and improvement. Harris (2009) further argued that it was well known that 
school leadership plays an unprecedented role in determining a school?s success and there 
is very strong belief in the ability of leaders to promote and generate school improvement.  
Hallinger and Heck (1998) contended that successful school leaders exercise an indirect but 
powerful influence on the effectiveness of the school and on the achievement of students 
attributing up to a quarter of the school level variance in pupil achievement as a result of 
such influence. The role of school leadership cannot be over restimated. 
27 
 
Harris, (2009) showed that of central importance to the leaders of schools in poor 
communities was the co-operation and alignment of others to their set of values and vision 
She contended that principals communicated their personal vision and belief systems by 
direction, words and deeds. She further argued that the vision and practices of the 
principals in schools in poor communities were organised around a number of core personal 
values concerning the modelling and promotion of respect (for individuals), fairness and 
equality, caring for the well being and whole development of student and staff, integrity and 
honesty. In other words, principals in poor communities have to be pragmatic and lead by 
example. His/her personal vision and belief will determine the direction of the school but 
will depend on how he/she communicates with his/her subordinates and broader school 
community.  
To lead a school in a poor community someone who is familiar with the environment and 
local politics is needed. A study carried out by Dinham (2005 p. 343) showed that ?principals 
of schools where outstanding sites were identified exhibited a keen awareness and 
understanding of the wider environment and positive attitude towards engaging with it?, 
stating further that ?even with mandated change, principals look for how they can adapt 
what they are already doing to meet new requirements. They consider ways in which their 
school might benefit from change?(343). The more familiar the principal is with the 
environment, the easier the principal will effect change and improvement in the school 
without first trying to acclimatise to a situation. 
Leithwood and Steinbach (2002) in Mulford et al. (2008 p. 462) argued that ?schools serving 
low socio-economic status (SES) families can find themselves in an ?iron circle? that begins 
with the family?s impoverished economic conditions that may involve unemployment, 
28 
 
cultural, racial and/or linguistic factors, immigration, high mobility, family break-ups, 
malnutrition and other health problems, substance abuse, low expectations including 
performance at school?. This study is about the Australian state of Tasmania, but the 
predominant conditions in South African townships are conditions such as unemployment, 
health problem such as HIV/AIDS, substance abuse, low expectations including performance 
in schools.  
Christie (1998 p. 283) refers to the ?breakdown of culture of learning and teaching? in South 
African schools. She stated that ?these schools, generally secondary schools located in the 
poor and disrupted communities spawned by apartheid, share a number of common 
features. These includes: disputed and disrupted authority relations between principals, 
teachers and students; sporadic and broken attendance by students and often teachers; 
general demotivation and low morale of students and teachers; poor school results; conflict 
and often violence in and around schools; vandalism, criminality, gangsterism, rape, and 
substance abuse; school facilities in a generally poor state of repair? (Christie, 1998, p.283).    
?As schools face increased public and political demands for improved performance, meeting 
these demands becomes particularly problematic for school in high-poverty communities? 
(Mulford et al. 2008, p. 463). Dedicated and hardworking teachers and principals are 
required to overcome these obstacles. The importance of school culture, such as clear 
expectations; supportive structures and services; and positive leadership cannot be 
overemphasised. Carter (2000) in Mulford et al. (2008) ?found five features to be common 
to 21 such schools: principals who were free to act, who used measurable goals and elicited 
parental support; master teachers who set the tone for improved teacher quality; rigorous 
and regular testing that enforced schools goals; achievement that acted as the framework 
29 
 
for self-control, self-reliance and self-esteem; and, time on task that resulted in students? 
demonstration of mastery? (p. 463). 
If the ?purposes and goals? of the school are not clear to all the stakeholders it will be 
difficult for the school to find direction for sustainable success. Leithwood and Jantzi (2000, 
p. 113) conducted a series of empirical studies that found that the influence of leadership 
on student engagement with school was ?mediated by both school and classroom level 
conditions?. ?Purposes and goals? was one of the school conditions included in their 
framework, and this included what members of the school understood to be both the 
explicit and implicit purposes and directions for the school. They asserted that it also 
encompassed the extent to which such purposes and directions were believed to be a 
compelling and challenging target for personal practices as well as the collective school 
improvement effort. ?Evidence from our reviews suggested that such purposes contribute 
to school effectiveness, to the extent that members are aware of them; and to the extent 
they are perceived to be clear, meaningful, useful, current, congruent with district 
directions; and to reflect important educational values? (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2008, p. 
115).  
It can be argued that successful school leadership practices take place within a particular 
context. ?Successful leaders are sensitive to context, but this does not mean they use 
qualitatively different practices in every context. It means, rather that, they apply 
contextually sensitive combination of the basic leadership practices? (Leithwood et al. 2008 
p. 31). Davidoff and Lazarus (1997 p. 34) emphasised that broader contextual element 
which includes consideration of the dynamics linked to the various aspects of the milieu, 
30 
 
including social, political, economic, technological, legislative, ecological, physical, cultural 
and institutional dynamics should not be ignored.  
The next section deals with instructional, distributed and transformational leadership. 
2.3 Concepts of leadership 
2.3.1. Instructional leadership 
The core purpose of principalship is to provide leadership and management in the school to 
enable the creation and support of conditions under which high quality teaching and 
learning takes place and which promote the highest possible of learner achievement in any 
context (The South African Standard for Principalship, 2005). This discussion document 
further states that the principal has a responsibility to create a safe, nurturing and 
supportive learning environment which enables effective teaching and learning to take 
place.  
Bush and Glover (2006, p. 27) states that ?Instructional leadership focuses on teaching and 
learning and on the behaviour of teachers in working with students. Leaders? influence is 
targeted at student learning via teachers. The emphasis is on the direction and impact of 
influence rather than the influence process itself?  
Bush and Glover (2009, p. 5) contended that ?the responsibility for managing teaching and 
learning is shared amongst principals, SMTs, middle managers and classroom educators. 
Educators manage curriculum implementation in their classrooms, HoDs have responsibility 
to ensure effective teaching and learning across their learning areas or phases, while 
principals and SMTs have a whole-school role?.  
31 
 
McEwan (2000) listed seven steps to effective instructional leadership. She describes the 
third step thus: ?to create a school culture and climate conducive to learning? and by this she 
means ?establishing high expectations for student achievement that are directly 
communicated to students, teachers, and parents; establishing clear rules and expectations 
for the use of time allocated to instruction; and, establishing implementing, and evaluating 
with teachers and students (as appropriate) procedures and codes for handling and 
correcting discipline problems?.    
Successful principals are expected to take instructional leadership practices into 
consideration. Leithwood and Jantzi (2000) defined instructional services as ?interventions 
by teachers with students aimed at stimulating their educational growth.  They cite as 
examples of such practices ?instructional planning, the consideration for learning principles, 
clarification of appropriate instructional goals, decisions about curricular content, selection 
of instructional strategies, and the uses of instructional time?(p116) . An instructional leader 
should be aware of these practices and constructively manage to and engage with them. 
Huber (2004, p. 673) stated that ?instructional leadership focuses mostly on those aspects 
of school leadership action that concern the learning progress of the pupils. This includes 
management-oriented as well as leadership-oriented activities like a suitable application of 
resources for teaching, agreeing upon goals, promoting cooperative relationship between 
staff, but, especially, the evaluation and counselling of teachers during lessons through 
classroom observation, structured feedback, and coaching?. Successful school leaders play 
pivotal role in supporting and mentoring their teachers to reach their pedagogical goals.  
The National Standards for Headteachers (DfES, 2004) in England identify core professional 
leadership and management practices in six key areas: (1) shaping the future; (2) leading 
32 
 
learning and teaching; (3) developing self and working with others; (4) managing the 
organisation; (5) securing accountability; and (6) strengthening the community. These core 
professional leadership and management practices are assumed to be applicable to all 
contexts. 
 ?Leading learning and teaching? (key area 2) is explained as raising the quality of teaching 
and learning, and pupils? achievement. ?This implies setting high expectations, monitoring 
and evaluating the effectiveness of learning outcomes. A successful learning culture will 
enable pupils to become effective, enthusiastic, independent and committed to lifelong 
learning?(Day et al. 2008, p. 7). Principals play a major role in ensuring that culture of 
teaching and learning is inculcated in the teachers and pupils.   
Principals should carry a significant load with regard to teaching, if he/she aims to make an 
impact on student outcomes. In this regard principal?s pedagogic expertise is of utmost 
importance. A study by Roberts and Roach (2006) in Hoadley (2009) on five effective schools 
found that principals in these schools maintained what they termed a ?connection to the 
classroom?. In these schools all principals carried a significant load with regard to teaching. 
These principals lead by example. 
What is disconcerting about the findings of the study carried out by Hoadley (2009, p. 381) 
in South Africa was that ?principals reported spending most of their time on administrative 
functions and disciplining learners. ?Instructional leadership? as read through ?overseeing 
teaching and learning? and ?supervising teachers?, was not a function that took up the 
majority of many principals? time. It was explicitly found that only 17% of principals 
identified overseeing curriculum and instruction as their main task?. 
33 
 
2.3.2. Distributed leadership 
Spillane (2005, p. 144) posited that distributed leadership is first and foremost about 
leadership practice rather than leaders or their roles, functions, routines and structures. He 
further stated that a distributed perspective frames leadership practice in a particular way; 
leadership practice is viewed as a product of the interaction of school leaders, followers and 
their situation. He argues that these interactions, rather than any particular action, are 
critical in understanding leadership practice.  
Spillane (2005, p. 145) further argues that ?equating leadership with the action of those in 
leadership position is inadequate for three reasons. Firstly, leadership practice typically 
involves multiple leaders, some without formal leadership positions. It is essential, 
therefore, to move beyond viewing leadership in terms of superhuman and/or individual 
actions. Secondly, leadership practice is not something done to followers. From a 
distributed perspective, followers are one of the three constituting elements of leadership 
practice. Thirdly, it is not the actions of individuals, but rather the interactions among them, 
that are critical in leadership practice?. Therefore, class teachers, by virtue of being 
positioned in the classrooms, teaching particular learning areas are leaders in their own 
right. Teachers? interactions with their fellow colleagues and those in managerial positions 
attest to the fact that teachers are not merely followers. Successful leaders? duties will 
include how to harness the actions of their teachers in trying to achieve the organisational 
goals. 
?Leaders act in situations that are defined by others? actions? (Spillane, 2005, p. 145). He 
argues that from the perspective of distributed leadership, it is in these interactions that 
34 
 
leadership practice is constructed. In this case everyone?s role is appreciated and supported. 
Inasmuch as followers need their leaders, leaders need their followers. 
Harris (2008, p. 173) cautions against the misinterpretation of distributed leadership by 
arguing that ?while it is certainly the case that all leadership is to some extent distributed, as 
leadership is essentially organisational influence and direction, it does not mean that 
everyone in the organisation simultaneously leads. Distributed leadership theory would 
recognise that many people will have the potential to exercise leadership in any 
organisation but the key to success will be the way that leadership is facilitated, 
orchestrated and supported?. She contends that it is a form of lateral leadership where the 
practice of leadership is shared amongst organisational members. Successful leader will play 
a facilitative role in ensuring that all the members contribute to the wellbeing of the 
organisation. 
Leadership does not particularly reside in any one position within an organisation. Harris 
(2008, p. 174) conceded that ?distributed leadership does not imply that the formal 
leadership structures within organisations are removed or redundant. Instead, it is assumed 
that there is a powerful relationship between vertical and lateral leadership processes. It 
also means that those in formal leadership roles are the gatekeepers to distributed 
leadership practice in their schools?. 
?Distributed cognition implies that learning takes place through interactions within and 
across various teams. Distributed leadership similarly implies that the practice of leadership 
is one that is shared and realised within extended groupings and networks, some of these 
groupings will be formal while others will be informal and in some cases, randomly formed. 
Within school this could manifest itself in the work of subject departments, cross-curricular 
35 
 
groupings, action learning sets and school improvement groups. In short, where teachers 
are working together to solve particular sets of pedagogical problems, they will occupy 
leadership ?space? within the school and will be engaging in leadership practice. The point is 
that distributed leadership is not restricted to any particular pattern and cannot be 
prescribed in advance but emerges within the organisation in order to solve problems or to 
take action? (Harris, 2008, p.175).  
In case studies of ISSPP conducted in Australia, Moos et al. (2008) pointed out that ?in 
general the principal?s distribution of leadership tasks seemed primarily aimed at ?staff 
commitment by supporting staff initiatives and a climate where it is alright to take risks? (p. 
344). This, they argue, can be achieved only if the school has a vision that is agreed by all. 
Distributed leadership recognises the potential of every staff member to excise leadership 
beyond their formal positions and assigned duties. 
Wong (2005, p. 560) discusses how ?in the Chinese school system a hierarchy of 
superintendents determines the direction of development, and the case schools were 
strong top-down communities. The principal?s tasks were handling the bureaucracy, carrying 
out decisions made by the federal senior management?. This is similar in many instances to 
the situation in the South African schooling system where policy decisions are top-down and 
it is the task of managers at lower levels to implement them. However, this does not 
preclude principals of schools to distribute leadership amongst the staff. 
In ISSPP project in Norway, Moos et al. (2008, p. 347) found that ?within schools it seemed 
that to a certain extent leadership was distributed to leadership teams and to teacher 
teams. The distribution of leadership tasks had been in such a way that the principal, it 
seemed, still retained the final powers of decision-making, but at a general level teachers 
36 
 
were involved in school development issues and they were expected to take significant 
responsibility and decisions in their everyday work?. In distribution of leadership, principal 
will always be a central figure. 
In the case study conducted by Presthus (2006, p. 94), the findings were that, ?the principal 
has together with the rest of the school created several arenas where the researcher has 
traced ?conservative action? in different forms and distributed leadership in different 
contexts. From the case study it seems that the principal is successful among others as a 
result of a combination of strategies related to ?distributed leadership? in the school?. 
In the study conducted by Harris and Chapman (2002, p. 11), it was established that ?the 
heads used a number of strategies for bringing out the best in staff. In addition to formal 
development opportunities, these strategies included: the power of involving others in 
decision-making; giving professional autonomy; leading by standing behind, alongside and in 
front?.  
In many organisations, there are leadership teams that share responsibility as a collective 
group and increasingly, in response to the sophistication of knowledge intensive work 
organisation, leadership is further distributed in teams (Barry, 1991 in Ross et al. 2005). 
Distributed leadership practices are like networks. Hargreaves and Fink (2008, p. 233) 
argued that networks increase professional interaction and learning across schools, and for 
those who participate in them, they generate excitement about teaching and learning.  
?At their best, professional networks enable and encourage schools to share and transfer 
existing knowledge that can help children learn better; they stimulate the professional 
fulfilment and motivation that comes from learning and interacting with colleagues; they 
37 
 
capitalise on positive diversity across teachers and schools who serve different kinds of 
students, or who vary in how they respond to them; and they provide teachers and others 
with opportunities for lateral leadership of people, programs and problem-solving beyond 
the immediate school setting? (Jackson, 2004 in Hargreaves and Fink, 2008, p. 233). Schools 
cannot operate like islands; their personnel need to share their experiences and expertise. 
Amongst the seven core key areas already mention by Leithwood et al. (2008, p. 27), they 
suggest that ?some patterns of distribution are more effective than others?. Leithwood et al. 
(2008, p. 35) found that the research on a sample of 110 schools demonstrated that there 
are relationships between the use of different patterns of leadership distribution and level 
of value-added student achievement: 
? Schools with the highest levels of student achievement attributed this to relatively 
high levels of influence from all sources of leadership. 
? Schools with the lowest levels of student achievement attributed this to low levels of 
influence from all source of leadership. 
? Schools with the highest levels, as compared with those in the lowest levels, of 
student achievement differed most in their ratings of the influence of school teams, 
parents and students. 
? Headteachers were rated as having the greatest (positive and negative) influence in 
all schools. 
Leithwood et al (2008, p.35) concede that while the evidence strengthens the case that 
some leadership distribution patterns are more helpful than others, it sheds little light on 
the range of patterns that actually exists in schools and, most importantly, the relative 
effects of these patterns on the quality of teaching, learning and pupil achievement. 
38 
 
2.3.3 Transformational leadership 
Leithwood and Jantzi (2000, p. 113) describe transformational as an approach to leadership 
that aims to foster capacity development and higher levels of personal commitment to 
organisational goals on the part of staff. Although, according to them, authority and 
influence associated with this form of leadership are not necessarily allocated to those 
occupying formal administrative positions, much of the literature focuses on the 
perspectives of structural transformation through systems and administration.  They dispel 
this notion by stating: ?Rather, power is attributed by organisational members to whoever is 
able to inspire their commitments to collective aspirations and the desire for personal and 
collective mastery over the capacities needed to accomplish such aspirations? (Leithwood 
and Jantzi, 2000, p. 113).  
?Transformational leadership practices positively affect teachers? commitment to the 
school?s goals and their participation in professional learning activities? (Kruger, 2009, 
p.115). Kruger (2009) goes further to state that to be effective, school leaders need to use a 
combination of transformational leadership behaviours, although the leader?s vision comes 
to the fore as the most important transformational leadership dimension in explaining 
teacher learning and school improvement. Kruger (2009) maintains that the effort is the 
creation of a professional learning community by the transformation from teachers to 
learners. The main focus of a transformational leader is to inspire teachers as professionals 
involved in learning, to become visionary lifelong learners. 
 
 
39 
 
??Transformational leaders do not simply administer structures and tasks, but concentrate 
on the persons carrying these out; that is on their relationship and on making deliberate 
efforts to win their cooperation and commitment (Huber, 2004, p. 672). Huber (ibid) asserts 
that transformational leaders try to actively influence the culture of the school so that it 
allows and stimulates more cooperation, coherence and more independent learning and 
working. Here ?leadership? is emphasised over ?management?. Huber (2004, p. 672) uses 
the term transactional leadership to explain the functions of a manager, stating that in this 
instance the school leader is the manager of the transactions, which are fundamental for an 
effective and also efficient work flow within the organisation. Huber (2004) indicates that 
the daily organisational proceedings and the administration of buildings, financial and 
personal resources, the time resources of staff, as well as communication processes within 
and outside school are all included in this definition of ?transactions? or ?interactions?. The 
two concepts, ?transformational? and ?transactional? should not be viewed as the opposite 
of the continuum, but rather as complimentary.  
?Transformational leadership is referred to as the multi-dimensional conception of 
leadership? (H??g et al., 2005, p. 597). They contend: ?this approach to leadership is 
defined as a method of managing activities based on the leader?s ability to change and 
internalise organisational direction and work methods. Transformational leaders do this by 
engendering confidence in co-workers and changing the culture of the organisation ? its 
values, norms and behaviour? (H??g et al., 2005, p. 597).  
 
 
40 
 
There is a need for leadership to be demonstrated at all levels in an organization and not 
just at the top. Early and Weindling (2004, p. 15) state that leadership is dispersed 
throughout the whole organization and it is not the leader but leadership that is the key 
factor. They went on to say that today?s leadership needs to be decentralized and 
distributed in every part of the organization so that those on the periphery who are first to 
sport challenges can act instantly on them. 
2.4 Setting the direction for the school 
Successful school leaders are visionaries who are able to set directions for their schools. 
Harris (2009), and Harris and Chapman (2002) emphasise that of central importance to 
leaders in all schools, but particularly in schools in poor communities, is the co-operation 
and alignment of others to a shared set of values and vision. Harris and Chapman (2002) 
argue that establishing a clear vision and communicating a sense of direction for the school 
is a critical task for leaders in schools under difficult circumstances. Harris (2009) goes 
further to argue that a lack of direction or common purpose can be a contributory factor to 
a downward spiral of performance amongst staff in schools in high poverty context. Kruger 
(2009, p. 113) also notes that the school leader is able to formulate, communicate and 
disseminate a vision in order to realise the desired learning outcomes at student level. 
Therefore, failure to provide direction by establishing clear vision will result in the 
stagnation of schools that are beset by high poverty levels, as well as in the continuation of 
poor performance. 
According to findings from ISSPP provided by Gurr et al. (2006, p. 377) on Tasmania 
(Australia), school success derives from the development of a shared or collective vision for 
the school. They found that in most schools the vision comprised four aspects: focus 
41 
 
(individual focus on each child); environment (safe, caring, positive relationships); 
expectations (school values regarding actions/behaviours of students, staff and parents); 
scope (lifelong learning and community social capital). These four aspects of school 
directions are interconnected. One aspect cannot be achieved at the expense of others; a 
holistic approach is required. 
Harris (2009) states that the emphasis on core values such as respect, fairness, equality, 
integrity and honesty is a way of defining the moral code of the school and setting in place 
minimum standards of conduct. She further emphasises that with a well defined vision and 
established values in place, the possibility of raising staff and pupils? expectations of 
performance is enhanced in all schools; particularly those in a high poverty context. 
AESOP (An Exceptional Schooling Outcomes Project), an Australian study investigating 
processes of outstanding educational outcomes in Years 7-10 in New South Wales 
government schools involving the University of New England, the University of Western 
Sydney and the New South Wales Department of Education and training (NSW DET) 
(Dinham, 2005) found that ?successful principals do not attempt to ?build Rome in a day?. 
These leaders possess a long-term agenda and vision and are prepared to work towards this. 
They set meaningful, achievable goals rather than short-term targets?(p. 338). These leaders 
are aware of the pitfalls of having short-term goals but losing sight of the longer-term vision 
that inform those goals.  
Successful principals should take into account the environment and the contextual factors of 
the school as well as the professional wellbeing of the teachers. Dinham (2005, p. 349) 
further notes that such leaders are aware of the importance and value of providing 
professional, pleasant facilities and of treating staff professionally; in doing this, they are 
42 
 
warranted in expecting a high standard of professionalism in return. He asserts that 
principals place a high priority on school cleanliness and a pleasant environment.  
Amongst the six key areas identified in the National Standards for Headteachers (DfES, 
2004), ?shaping the future? is explained as creating a shared vision and strategic plan for the 
school (in collaboration with governing body) that motivates staff and others in the 
community.   
2.5 Developing others 
Principals operate in an atmosphere that requires them to constantly develop their fellow 
teachers and students in order to successfully attain the organisational goals. Jacobson et al. 
(2005, p. 613) refer to ?the caring principle? on the part of the principal as the ability to 
develop and influence people. In their study, the selected successful principals were able to 
maintained the ?long view? when it came to creating positive school cultures and 
supporting teachers? professional and personal development by actively responding to the 
needs of staff members on a daily basis.  
Davidoff and Lazarus (1997) assert that human resource development includes the area of 
staff development which, in a school context, usually refers to teacher or professional 
development. ?This incorporates education and training opportunities through various 
forms of in-service programmes. Without ongoing programmes and processes to encourage 
and support staff development, schools become out of touch with educational trends and 
teachers lose the sense of renewal and inspiration which is such an essential part of a 
meaningful education? ( Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997, p. 30). For sustainable success and 
43 
 
improvement, school leadership needs take into account the developmental needs of all 
role-players.    
The study carried out by Day (2005, p. 577) in UK on successful principals in challenging 
contexts revealed that ?these heads focussed upon setting and sustaining directions, 
developing people through informal and formal support and modelling; and where 
appropriate, redesigning the organisational structures and nurturing culture so that staff 
could participate. Collaboration and a sense of individual and collective belonging to and 
ownership of the organisational vision and strategies were fostered?. Day (2005, p. 578) 
found that all those in the study focused on teamwork as a means of drawing upon and 
building a fund of social capital, in order to create a store of shared experiences and foster 
individual and collective capacity to respond to change and emphasise mutual responsibility.  
?School leaders with a moral purpose are concerned about closing the gap between high-
 performing and lower-performing students and raising the achievement of ? and closing the 
gap between ? high-performing and lower-performing students" ( Brown, 2007 in Kruger, 
2009, p. 116). And there will always be varying degree of performances on the part of 
teachers. School leaders with a moral purpose will have to assist poor performing teachers 
to meet the required standard for the school to be successful. This can be through 
modelling, coaching, in-service training and other educational innovations that will enhance 
performance of struggling teachers.  
Case study evidence cited by Gurr et al. (2006, p. 375) indicate that ?individual capacity 
building is a three stage process, through which leaders support/encourage others to 
undertake leadership roles, encourage staff to accept responsibility for their own 
professional learning and foster and support professional learning for groups?. They assert 
44 
 
that these actions result in staff feeling valued and cared for. They further emphasise that 
the context in which support and capacity building occurs is important, in that successful 
leaders match the level and type of support to staff needs and staffing profile. 
A main concern for the principal in challenging school contexts is often one of maintaining 
staff morale and motivation (Harris, 2009). She found that in the number of schools she 
studied staff morale had been low and individual self-esteem had been eroded by on-going 
criticism of the school. She observed how certain principals consistently and vigorously 
promoted staff development whether through in-service training, visits to other schools, 
and peer support scheme to counteract feelings of inferiority and helplessness. 
 2.6  Redesigning the organisation 
H??g et al. (2005, p. 596) undertook a study that focused on the relationship between 
structure, culture, leadership and authentic learning for adults and children in three 
successful schools in Sweden. Success in Sweden is defined by the school?s output. They 
further stated that in Sweden such output includes not only students? academic learning but 
also social goals associated with the civic mission of the school. 
H??g et al. (2005, p. 598) argue that ?a leader?s disposition to focus on cultural change, 
signifying a preoccupation with the personnel?s needs, values and views, may be combined 
with a leader?s disposition to focus on structural change, which signifies a preoccupation 
with goals, routines, finance and evaluations in his/her attempt to enhance authentic 
student learning?. 
H??g et al. (2005, p. 598) write about the importance of associating efforts to change the 
culture with the introduction of a new structure. ?In the Swedish context there is an ongoing 
45 
 
discussion about the conflicts between a prescribed structure by the governing bodies and 
the value-based opinion about schooling among teachers and others? (H??g, 2005, p. 599). 
They further argue that based on contemporary research in this area, they can establish that 
in today?s scenario schools need leadership with a balanced focus on both the structure of a 
school and its culture. 
Fidler (1997, p. 54) argues that to be effective, organization should be doing the right things 
or achieving outcomes which are consistent with its expectations. These ?right things? should 
be periodically reviewed and accountability should be allocated to ensure that decisions are 
carried out and that the quality of outcomes matches expectations. 
Fidler (1997) further states that there is no single organizational structure that is most 
effective for any given situation and that the two main competing requirements are 
coordination and control. 
 It stands to reason that there should be a periodic review of organisational structure and its 
activities and that a bias towards either of the competing requirements, coordination and 
control, would diminish the other. 
Davidoff and Lazarus (1997, p. 25) states that ?structures consist of lines of responsibility 
and authority, of units and departments and how they relate to one another, and how 
individual and team contributions are combined. They also consist of lines of 
communication and accountability. Procedures refer to the rules, regulations and methods 
whereby these structures relate to one another?. This brings me to the important aspect of 
structure and procedure which is decision making. Decision-making in all structures needs to 
be understood and developed. Stakeholders such as learners, teachers, parents, and 
46 
 
principal should be well represented in meetings where crucial decisions are made in order 
to give stakeholders some sense of ownership. 
Another important aspect of structure and procedure which needs to be understood and 
developed is accountability. ?This refers fundamentally to responsibility and reporting 
systems? (Davidoff and Lazarus, 1997, p. 25). Accountability is the key element in any 
organization. A common factor in dysfunctional schools is that no one is held accountable 
for the ineffectiveness and inefficiency. Non-performance of school leadership stems from 
the fact that no one is held accountable for their actions or inactions, whereas, however 
debatable in terms of accurate measurability,  in many western countries, school results are 
published through league tables and often determine the choices parents make  for their 
children. 
Building a collaborative school culture cannot be overemphasised because it involves all the 
role players. Leithwood and Reihl (2005) included the category of successful practices, the 
building of a collaborative school culture, creating structures to encourage participation in 
decision-making, and the building of productive relationships with parents and the wider 
community.   
2.7 Principals who lead cultural change 
Successful leadership cannot be measured by student outcomes alone. ?Leaders have a 
deeper and more lasting influence on organisations and provide more comprehensive 
leadership if their focus extends beyond maintaining high standards? (Fullan, 2002, p. 17). 
He identifies five essential components that characterise leaders in the knowledge society: 
47 
 
moral purpose, an understanding of the change process, the ability to improve 
relationships, knowledge creation and sharing, and creating coherence. 
Fullan (2002, p. 17) defines moral purpose as social responsibility to others and the 
environment. He asserts that a school leader with moral purpose seeks to make a difference 
in the lives of students. He goes further to argue that leaders are concerned about closing 
the gap between high-performing and lower- performing students. Leaders who lack moral 
purpose will find it difficult to operate in low socio-economic conditions. Students under 
these conditions come from challenging circumstance such as child-headed families, 
dysfunctional families, unemployed parents, etc. A successful leader is expected to take 
these conditions into consideration. 
In his study of transitional leadership, Jansen (2007, p. 96) makes use of the accounts of two 
leaders leading against the grain that are brought into conversation to reflect on race, 
leadership, and social justice in the context of South Africa?s transition from apartheid to a 
democratic state. He points out that these leaders hold a strong sense of social justice, and 
discusses the imperative to open up opportunity in the well-resourced, previously white 
institutions to all South Africans. He goes on to argue that, ?they do what they do not on the 
basis of some superficial attempt to boost student enrolments, therefore retain government 
subsidies; or to elevate black staff numbers and therefore meet legal requirements for 
?employment equity?. On the part of these leaders there are deep commitments to change, 
to correction and to community? (Jansen, 2007, p. 96). The moral purpose of these leaders 
is embedded in not only educational, but also social change.  
Jansen (2007, p. 96) further contends that, ?both leaders, despite the complexity and 
challenges of the task of building social justice and inclusiveness, remained strong in their 
48 
 
commitment to institutional change and transformation. Despite recording feelings of 
marginalisation and exclusion, they also tell of experiences of inclusion and acceptance. 
Their networks broadened their circles of colleagues and friends enriched, and their resolve 
to continue leading remained firm?. Both these leaders are visionaries who could see the 
bigger picture. Their actions are well calculated and the consequences of their actions are 
anticipated.  
Handy (1984, p. 2) described four cultures, which are: the club culture, the role culture, the 
task culture and the person culture. It is the duty of the headteacher/principal to help 
identify the culture of the school he/she feels comfortable with to take the school forward. 
Hargreaves (2002, p. 57) stated that ?school leaders tend, for understandable reasons, to 
want a culture that is clear, consistent and consensual. All the staff members are pulling in 
the same shared direction so that organizational goals are likely going to achieved. Changing 
culture needs a great deal of effort. And engaging in such an exercise need meticulous 
understanding and should guard against being too ambitious?. The leader has to decide 
which element of the culture most needs attention.      
 Culture of the institution plays a major role in effecting desired changes for school 
improvement. Southworth (2004, p. 85) in Bush and Glover (2009) stressed that ?the kind of 
culture we need in schools today? is characterised by collaboration and shared leadership as 
well as a strong focus on learning for adults as well as students. They emphasised that a 
successful learning culture features professional dialogue, with teachers and school leaders 
sharing their experiences, within and beyond their classrooms.  
Davidoff and Lazarus (1997) sum up the issue of the transformation of school culture by 
saying ?the culture of the school comprises the values, the underlying norms which are 
49 
 
given expression in daily practice, and the overall climate of the school. A way of describing 
the culture of a school is by looking at ?the way we do things around here?? (p. 20). The 
culture of every school is determined to a large extent by the interactions and inter-
 relationships among its role-players. 
2.9. Conclusion 
This chapter explored the literature review of successful school leadership. The following 
aspect of school leadership was explored: the context within which leadership takes place; 
the concepts of leadership; setting the direction for the school through vision; developing 
others; redesigning the organisational structures; and  principals who lead change. 
The literature review covered issues relating to successful school practices of the principal in 
challenging contexts by looking at the studies that were carried out through ISSPP which 
investigated the characteristics, processes and effects of successful school leadership across 
eight developed countries (with the possible exception of China). In a South African context 
the studies on successful school leadership is a relatively new phenomenon, but valuable 
experience can be learnt from other countries.  
Leadership concepts such as instructional, distributed and transformational leadership were 
explored in relation to successful school leadership. The review highlighted the positive 
effects of these various styles of leadership. The literature review also showed that a 
successful leader should be a visionary who will be able to set the direction of the school, 
develop staff, and have a strong sense of moral responsibility. Redesigning of the 
organisational structure should be such that there is participation of stakeholders in 
decision-making. 
50 
 
The next chapter will be looking at research methodology. The following will be explored: 
sampling, research methods, validity and reliability, ethical considerations and the 
limitations of the study. 
 
 
 
51 
 
CHAPTER 3 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
3.1 Introduction 
This chapter discusses the research approach that was employed to gain greater insight into 
successful leadership practices. The research used a case study to observe the leadership 
practices of two principals. The study also used semi-structured interviews as a research 
method. 
3.2 Research Approaches  
This research used a qualitative approach. Qualitative research is often used to understand 
social phenomena. McMillan and Schumacher (2010) contend that qualitative research is 
based more on constructivism, which assumes that multiple realities are socially 
constructed through individual and collective perceptions or views of the same situation. 
Cohen et al. (2000) contend that the case study researcher typically observes the 
characteristics of an individual unit ? a child, a clique, a class, a school or a community. This 
research is a case study of two successful township schools. The focus of the study is on 
leadership impact in successful schools affected by challenging circumstances. In the study, 
leadership practices as well as the culture of the school are explored 
Nieuwenhuis (2010) explains that case studies offer a multi-perspective analysis in which 
the researcher considers not just the voice and perspective of one or two participants in a 
situation, but also the views of other relevant groups of actors and the interaction between 
them. Niewenhuis (2010) contends that ?the case study opens the possibility of giving a 
voice to the powerless and voiceless, like children or marginalised groups. Thus it is essential 
52 
 
for the researcher to come to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the situation, and 
this aspect is a salient feature of many case studies? (p. 75). The participants in this study 
are the principal, the HoD and two teachers from each school; all of them are given an 
opportunity to articulate their perspective on school leadership. This case study enabled the 
researcher to interact with the participants and to gain deeper understanding of their daily 
engagement with leadership practices. 
According to Merriam (2001), the decision to do on qualitative research case studies is 
because researchers are interested in insight, discovery, and interpretation rather than 
hypothesis testing. This study aims to provide insight into leadership phenomena rather 
than to test any specific hypothesis.  
The investigation in this case study was carried out at two selected schools during school 
day where multiple sources of evidence are easily accessed. Yin (1981) in Anderson (1990) 
provide a technical definition of case study research, namely that ?a case study is an 
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context 
when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident and in 
which multiple sources of evidence are used? (p.221). McBurney (2001) points out that the 
principal characteristic of case studies is that they examine individual instances, or cases, of 
some phenomenon.  
The case study method like any other research method has strengths and weaknesses, 
advantages and disadvantages. Nisbet and Watt (1984) in Qi (2009) outline several 
strengths of the case study method. Amongst others, the results are more easily understood 
by a wide audience as they are frequently written in everyday, non-professional language. 
Also, results are immediately intelligible; they speak for themselves. Further, case studies 
53 
 
capture unique features that may otherwise be lost in large scale data; these unique 
features might hold the key to understanding the situation. 
Nisbet and Watt (1984) went on to outline the weaknesses of the case study as follows: 
? The result may not be generalisable except where other readers/researchers see 
their application. 
? They are not easily open to cross-checking; hence they may be selective, biased 
personal and subjective. 
? They are prone to problems of observer bias, despite attempts made to address 
reflexivity. 
Qi (2009) contends that many researchers also cast doubts on the validity and reliability of 
case study. Merriam (1998, p. 205) concurs that ?reliability is problematic in the social 
sciences because human behaviour is never static?. Another researcher may reach a 
different conclusion. The same applies to this study. The researcher cannot claim to have 
adequately addressed reliability and validity by employing triangulation through the 
interviews of the principals, HoDs and teachers.   
 
3.3 Sampling 
Sampling refers to the process used to select a portion of the population for study. Sampling 
decisions are therefore made for the explicit purpose of obtaining the richest possible 
source of information to answer the research questions (Nieuwenhuis, 2010). 
54 
 
Two township secondary schools were selected for the study. The schools were chosen on 
basis of having continually obtained above average matric pass rates. This was therefore, a 
purposive sample. In purposive sampling, researchers handpick the cases to be included in 
the sample on the basis of their judgement of their typicality (Cohen et al, 2000). Purposeful 
sampling is based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand, 
and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned 
(Merriam, 2001). In the case of the two township secondary schools, the principals have 
shown resilience against considerable odds. McMillan and Schumacher (2010) states that: 
?In purposeful sampling (sometime called purposive sampling), the researcher selects 
particular elements from the population that will be representative or informative about the 
topic of interest. On the basis of the researcher?s knowledge of the population, a judgement 
is made about which subjects should be selected to provide the best information to address 
the purpose of the study? (p. 138). This suggests that researcher?s knowledge of the 
population is important in selecting the sample for a particular purpose of the study.      
3.4 Research methods 
The research methods that were used in the study were observation and in-depth, face-to-
 face semi-structured interviews.  
3.4.1 The semi-structured interview and schedule 
Whereas an interview is defined as a specialised form of communication between people 
for a specific purpose associated with some agreed subject matter (Anderson, 1990). He 
went on to argue that ?the interview is a highly purposeful task which goes beyond mere 
conversation. There are many advantages to the interview as a method of data collection. 
55 
 
People are more easily engaged in an interview than in completing a questionnaire. 
Secondly, the interviewer can clarify questions and probe the answers of the respondent, 
providing more complete information than would be available in written form. Thirdly, 
interviewing enables the interviewer to pick up on non-verbal cues, including facial 
expressions, tones of voices and, in the case of interviews conducted on the respondent?s 
turf, cues from the surroundings and context? (Anderson, 1990, p. 222). 
Semi-structured interviews allowed the interviewer to be flexible during the interviews. The 
focus for the interview was on school leadership in general. In this instance, the principal 
and one member of the School Management Team (SMT) member was interviewed as well 
as a two teachers, one teacher was teaching in Grade 12. The SMT member was expected to 
give his/her perspective in terms of their style of leadership and management whereas two 
teachers were expected to give their views about their experiences concerning student 
outcomes and classroom teaching as well as the leadership practices of their principal.  
Appointments were made to ensure little disturbance. Aspects that were covered in the 
interview were as follows: 
? School culture. 
? School outcomes: teaching and learning outcome, student outcome and community 
social capital outcome. 
? Leadership styles. 
? Personal characteristics and qualities. 
? Values and beliefs.  
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These aspects are also in line with the research questions and the objectives of the study.  
The interview was expected to be followed by the observation to verify the findings. The 
interviews lasted for approximately 25 minutes; participants were free to use the language 
they were most comfortable with. All of them chose English as preferred medium during the 
interview. Permission to record the interview was granted by each participant. 
3.5 Instrument design 
Two instruments that were prepared for the study were the interview schedule and the 
observation schedule. An interview schedule was constructed to give guidance during the 
interviews.  
 The Observation Schedule  
An observation schedule focusing on daily running of the school was developed. I needed 
two days to observe the running of the school during school hours. My observation was 
carried out in such a way that it does not hinder the smooth operation of the school.  
Aspects covered in the observation schedule were: 
? How the day begins 
? Principal?s time-table 
? How meetings are being conducted: staff meetings, SMT meetings, other sub-
 committee meetings 
? Communication amongst staff members. 
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Unfortunately, the observation did not take place as planned because it was during 
examination time. Everyone was busy. Principals kept on postponing our meetings. On the 
day of the interviews both principals were in a hurry to submit examination scripts to the 
district office and to attend other meetings. 
3.5 Data Presentation Analysis 
Qualitative analysis is a relatively systematic process of coding, categorising, and 
interpreting data to provide explanation of a single phenomenon of interest (McMillan and 
Schumacher, 2010). Niewenhuis (2010) concurs that qualitative data analysis tends to be an 
ongoing and iterative (non-linear) process, implying that data collection, processing, analysis 
and reporting are intertwined, and not merely a number of successive steps. Categorising 
the data in themes is one way of organising it. For this research, themes which were directly 
linked to the research questions. 
Research analysis requires the researcher to make sense of the research findings and draw 
conclusion and make recommendations based on evidence from the research findings  
3.6 Validity and reliability 
Validity implies that the researcher?s conclusion is true or correct ? that it corresponds to 
the actual state of the world (McBurney, 2001). And reliability is essentially a synonym for 
consistency and replicability over groups of respondents (Cohen et al., 2003). The use of 
interviews and observation as research tool help to enhance the reliability and validity of 
the research by way of triangulation because it is believed that one single use of data 
collection method is not enough by itself. Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or 
more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behaviour (Cohen et 
58 
 
al., 2003). In this instance triangulation was not done convincingly because only interviews 
were carried out and interviews lasted for 25 to 30 minutes. As a result, the validity of the 
research findings was adversely affected. 
3.7 Ethical considerations 
The research proposal went through the Ethics Committee of the university, which after 
scrutiny together with the proposed questions was declared to have taken into account 
possible ethical consideration before permission could be sought from Gauteng Department 
of Education. Then meetings with the earmarked schools were arranged. Participants were 
informed of the nature of the project. Participation was voluntary and could be terminated 
at any point and anonymity was guaranteed. All participants were reassured that data 
collected was for purposes of the partial fulfilment of the Master of Education Degree. 
Participants? names, data collected and the schools? names will be kept anonymous and 
confidential. The time required from each participant to partake in the research was also 
indicated and all participants were assured that the questions asked were not meant to be 
any way judgemental and there were no wrong or right responses; they were only expected 
to give their honest opinions to the questions. 
3.8 Limitations of the study 
Case studies by their very nature have limitations because their outcomes cannot be 
generalised. Merriam (2001) contend that the limitations of the case studies involve the 
issues of reliability, validity, and generalisability. 
The scope of this study is limited mainly by time and accessibility. Schools were disrupted 
due to protracted strike action waged by the public servants during the third term. I had 
59 
 
proposed to conduct this study during the third term. This study was carried out in the 
fourth semester when schools were focused on the final exams; as a result co-operation 
from the principal and the staff was affected. The study was to cause minimal disturbance 
to the participants, and these participants are school managers and teachers. As expected it 
was difficult to have access to all of them due to their commitment to teaching and learning 
during that crucial time of the year. They all complained about the timing but they showed 
some willingness to co-operate. 
This chapter examined research methodology; how sampling was done, of which it was 
purposive sampling; research methods that were employed were interviewing and 
observation to triangulate the findings; data presentation analysis; ethical considerations 
and limitations of the study were outlined.  
In the next chapter, data will be presented, interpreted and analysed.  
 
  
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CHAPTER 4 
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS 
4.1. Introduction 
The research was conducted in two high schools; school A and school B in the Kathorus 
area. Kathorus is part of the Ekurhuleni metropolitan of Gauteng. Both these schools are 
situated in a relatively new area of the township, hence their status is that of quintile 5. 
Quintile 5 schools are categorised as schools that have fewer needs. The issue of the quintile 
rating of these schools is a bone of contention even at district level, because learners in 
these schools come from primary schools that are in quintiles 1, 2, or 3, and these are no-
 fee schools, but when they go to secondary schools they are expected to pay school fees 
because of where the school is situated. Nevertheless, these schools cater for learners who 
come from diverse backgrounds in the township. Some of the learners come from the 
informal settlement and are on scholar transport. The schools are situated among houses 
where home owners have bonds and paying for relatively upmarket homes, but on the 
outskirt of the School A are huge RDP (Reconstruction and Development Programme) 
housing settlements, where government subsidies provide inhabitants with free housing; 
learners from both these areas attend these schools. The feeders of these schools are 
township primary schools. 
4.2 Profile of school A  
School A is headed by a female principal. She has been the principal of the school for the 
past eleven years. The school has a total enrolment of 1969 learners with 60 educators and 
24 support staff. The principal is assisted by two deputy principals due to the size of the 
61 
 
school. One deputy principal is responsible for curriculum matters and the other for 
administration. The school was established in 1986.  
4.3 Profile of school B 
School B is headed by a male principal who has acted in the principalship post for the past 
three years since the previous principal took ill. The school has a total enrolment of 1589 
learners with 60 educators and 24 support staff. The school also has two deputy principals. 
One is responsible for curriculum matters and the other for administration. The school was 
established in 1990. 
Due to time constraints, the data in School A was collected within a day. The collection of 
research data was intended to last for at least two days. The first day was going to be for the 
interviews and second day for observation. Data collection took place during examination 
period where there was no formal teaching. Four participants were interviewed even if one 
was reluctant to participate. These interviews took place after they were postponed several 
times due to examinations. 
4.4 Presentation of the data 
Observation was not done as planned. The researcher had planned to observe the 
principal?s day schedule as well as how the school starts in the morning and ends in the 
afternoon and also how communication took place, e.g. how the principal issues 
instructions to the staff and how the meetings are conducted. The principal in School A 
indicated to the researcher that around that time of the year she was constantly busy with 
the examinations and meetings at the district.  
 
62 
 
In School B, the principal also kept postponing the interviews. He complained about the 
timing of the study. The data was collected over a period of two days. On the first day the 
researcher interviewed the principal for 30 minutes around midday. After the interview he 
came back to say teachers had already gone and the time was around one o?clock in the 
afternoon. The researcher was advised to come the following day. 
The following day the researcher managed to interview a HoD and two educators. The 
interviews lasted for about 25 minutes each. It was not an easy task to get hold of the 
interviewees/respondents because they also complained about timing. They were busy with 
marking. 
As for observation, it was almost impossible to observe and to arrive at a conclusion. When 
the researcher arrived at the site, the principal had already gone to submit papers at the 
district. Apparently, on that day only the morning papers were written. After writing 
teachers would retreat into their classrooms and staffroom to mark while some of the 
learners were loitering.  
 
63 
 
4.5 Profile of participants. 
Table A: details pertaining to the background of the interviewees 
 
 
 
 
SCHOOL A 
Participant Age Gender Qualifications Teaching subjects Teaching Experience 
Current School 
Experience 
Respondent A1 34 Female  Secondary Teachers Diploma Accounting /economics 11 ? 15 years 12 years 
Respondent A2 37 Male HED & Master of Public Admin Geography & English 11 ? 15 years  2 years 
HoD-A 38 Male B. A. Ed Maths & Geography 11 ? 15 years 13 years 
Principal-A 46 Female BEd Honours (Applied linguistics) Sesotho & History  More than 15 years  11 years 
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Table B: details pertaining to the background of the interviewees 
 
 
SCHOOL B 
Participant Age Gender Qualifications Teaching subjects Teaching Experience 
Current School 
Experience 
Respondent B1 35 Male   BEd Life Sciences 11 ? 15 years 13 years 
Respondent B2 38 Male B. A. HED English & S. Sciences 5 ? 10 years  8 years 
HoD-B 44 Female  Further Diploma in Education Life Orientation 15 ? 20 years 18 years 
Principal-B 48 Male  BEd Honours   More than 15 years  13 years 
65 
 
4.6 Presentation and analysis of data of School A 
Table A illustrates the biographical information of teachers, teachers? qualifications and 
theirs subject areas as well as teachers? length of experience in the teaching profession and 
in the school in which they are currently teaching (School A). All the respondents are 
qualified professional teachers, with principal having honours (Applied linguistics) and one 
teacher with Master of Public Administration as their highest qualifications. The teacher 
with Master of Public Administration said his research topic had to do with managing 
resources in the school. 
All respondents have more than ten years of teaching experience with the principal having 
the longest teaching experience at 24 years, 11 years of which was in the current 
principalship post at the school. Respondent A2 had a break after 10 years, having been a 
HoD for seven years in another school. He started at this school in 2008. He is now a Post 
Level One (PL1) teacher. He did not divulge the reasons for breaking the service.   
4.6.1 Role 0f principal in setting the direction of the school 
When the principal was asked about the vision and the mission of the school she appeared 
to have been caught off-guard. She had to literally refer to the vision and mission framed on 
the hall. However, the vision and mission of the school is hanging in all the offices as well as 
in the staffroom. 
The principal acknowledges that all the stakeholders were involved in developing vision and 
mission of the school. When the principal was asked about how the vision and mission was 
developed, she said: 
66 
 
In fact all the stakeholders were involved. We asked ideas from everyone and at the 
end the School Governing Body consolidated their input and came with one idea. 
When the principal was asked about her role in the development of vision and mission of 
the school, she responded: 
I actually had to be there as a resource person not necessarily putting words into 
people?s mouth. I was just there to help.  
However, the HoD-A and two teachers who were interviewed did not know the vision and 
mission of the school. All of them said the vision and mission of the school was developed 
long before they were appointed in the school. The HoD arrived at the school in 1997, but 
also expressed the same view. 
When one teacher (A1) was asked about the vision and mission of the school, he was 
dismissive: 
I don?t want to lie. I haven?t internalised that, not necessarily for me as an individual 
but the entire staff. It is written there but not given that prominence. 
Aside from the respondents not knowing the vision and mission of the school, they 
expressed the belief that the principal was giving the school direction by showing 
compassion and love of the learners and staff. They know what the principal expected of 
them. One teacher (A2) asserted: 
Although our principal is too strict, she has a human side. Her love for children is 
unquestionable and whenever a member of the staff is aggrieved, she is always there 
for everybody.  
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The HoD-A agreed: 
Our principal plays a very important role giving the school direction. She is always 
there for everybody. Even the children know that the principal has a special place in 
their heart. 
The study conducted by Day (2005) in the US concluded that, ?whilst socio, political, 
economic and professional contexts were important influences, successful heads were 
driven primarily by individual value systems. It seems that moral purposes, emotional and 
intellectual commitment, and ethical and social bonds are far more powerful levers of 
leadership than extrinsic agendas? (p. 575). The principal in this study did not suggest that  
the departmental policies or the District Office was putting pressure on the school to attain 
success. Other respondents seemed to hold their principal in high esteem by virtue of her 
manifest beliefs and the values she upholds. 
Day (2005) went further to assert that the work of successful heads, especially in challenging 
school and community contexts, involves acting with passion. It requires commitment, 
courage and determination and high levels of emotional energy. Ill-discipline is not tolerated 
in the school. Deputy Principals are tasked with the overall maintenance of order. 
When the principal was asked about role of the district in relation to the achievement of the 
school, she commented: 
The district does play a role by giving us the recognition we deserve, like we received 
the achievement award in 2006; depending on who is at helm at the district office, 
we normally feel that our efforts are appreciated. 
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According to Harris (2009) the principals should at all times communicate their personal 
vision and belief system by direction, words and deeds. He also states that it is clear that 
their vision and values emanate from a core belief in the ability of all children to learn and in 
the school?s potential to offset the effect of disadvantage on student performance.  In this 
instance, the principal can be said to be fully aware of the plight of the learners under her 
care. She had adopted a strict approach to ill-discipline from the side of learners, as well as 
educators.  
4.6.2 The culture of the school 
The culture of the school could not be explored adequately because no observation of 
normal school-day routines was possible. Minutes showed that meetings were being held 
regularly and were being chaired by principal or one of her deputies. I did not have the 
opportunity to attend one of the meetings. There are also departmental meetings. 
When the principal was asked to describe the culture of the school, her response was that 
they believed in excellence; and that working towards achievement of the vision was the 
reason for their existence. 
One teacher remarked: 
In terms of human relations it is fine. People relate well with each other. When one 
member of the staff has bereavement, people will be there to give moral support. In 
terms of actual job, staff members attend to their duties even if at times they need 
persuasion from the principal, HoD or the deputy principal. One other thing is that 
the school is using the culture of physical punishment or the use of stick. I am from an 
69 
 
environment were corporal punishment is totally not allowed. But here it is used as a 
form of instilling discipline. However, learners do regularly come to school. (A2) 
Another teacher (A1) concurred: 
Ever since I have been here, there has always been unity and cooperation amongst 
the staff. We do give one another the support that is needed. 
A HoD-A responded: 
Generally we get along very well even though some incidents will always be there 
that will be cause for a concern of which I will say those are isolated cases. 
When quizzed to be specific about those isolated cases he declined to elaborate. He 
however, highlighted that there is unity amongst the staff. 
When the principal was asked about her contribution towards the wellbeing of the school 
over the past three to five years, she was enthusiastic:  
I believe in the development of people. I support all the departmental initiatives that 
help in the development of the staff as well as initiatives from non-governmental 
organisations. 
The principal described teachers? co-operation as excellent. But with regard to the parents, 
she lamented that they are not supportive enough, ascribing this to the level of illiteracy of 
parents. The two teachers agreed with the principal?s view that parents were not co-
 operative enough. This is some cause for concern. ?In every organisation there are particular 
aspects or elements which make up that organisation, and each of these needs to be 
70 
 
functioning healthily for the whole to be healthy. Any unhealthy or malfunctioning element 
will have a negative ripple effect throughout the system? (Davidoff and Lazarus, p.17). 
4.6.3 Teaching and learning 
The role of leadership in contributing to teaching and learning  
According to Bush et al (in press: p 7) ?principals? responsibilities should include setting the 
framework for effective teaching and learning, developing policies to address this issue, and 
ensuring that curriculum delivery is being implemented successfully. Their role is to take a 
school-wide view. Principals have a direct responsibility for the quality of learning and 
teaching and for pupils? achievement?. This implies setting high expectations and monitoring 
and evaluating the effectiveness of learning outcomes. 
Insofar as the role of leadership in contributing to student learning, the Principal-A said:  
We came with programmes that enhance learning. We introduced compulsory study 
for Grade 10 to Grade 12 that takes place in the morning and in the afternoon as 
extra-lessons. 
The HoD-A responded:  
I make sure that learners? curricular needs are attended to by ensuring that teachers 
attend to their classes regularly.  
Respondents A1 and A2 agreed that curricular needs of learners are catered for. They hinted 
that there is no shortage of learning support materials and the environment is conducive to 
learning and teaching.  
 
71 
 
Monitoring and evaluation of teaching and learning 
When the principal was asked about monitoring and evaluation of learning and teaching, 
she outlined the processes of carrying out monitoring and evaluation: 
A teacher would be given powers to act as floor manager to restore order in a 
particular floor and have powers to ensure that classes are attended to. HoDs 
monitor and evaluate teaching and learning. Monthly reports are compiled and 
submitted to the principal by the HoDs. These reports entail what transpired in the 
classroom during the course of the month. The reports will also elaborate the good 
practices noted by the HoD. 
The two teachers concurred that learning and teaching is monitored by the HoDs. They did 
not mention the principal in relation to monitoring and evaluation of teaching and learning. 
The two teachers seemed oblivious to the monthly report being submitted to the principal 
by the HoD.  
The HoD-A highlighted part of his responsibility: 
We have Grade co-ordinators helping the HoDs with their duties. We also monitor 
classwork and homework on a monthly basis and send the report to the deputy 
principal. 
According to Marks and Printy (2009:371) ?shared leadership instructional leadership 
involves the active collaboration of principal and teachers on curriculum, instruction, and 
assessment. Within this model, the principal seeks out the ideas, insights, and expertise of 
teachers in these areas and works with teachers for school improvement. The principal and 
teachers share responsibility for staff development, curriculum development, and 
72 
 
supervision of instructional tasks?. The principal is not teaching in any learning area but she 
ensures that the environment is conducive for learning and that teaching takes place. When 
the principal was asked about which learning area(s) seemed to obtain the best pass rates 
on a yearly basis, she outlined:  
Commerce, Social Sciences, Mathematics and Physical Sciences are the subjects that 
score higher on a yearly basis. We normally encourage teachers to attend cluster 
meetings and each department should also holds meeting to share good practices. 
We bought laptops with internet for each department to access information.     
This indicates that the principal is instrumental in ensuring that shared instructional 
practices do take place in that teachers share valuable information to enrich their teaching. 
And the use of grade co-ordinators who help the HoDs attest to the practices espoused in 
the distributed leadership perspective. 
Performance of teachers should be monitored and evaluated as per agreed standards. The 
principal noted that the only tool to evaluate teacher performance is the departmental 
policy called Integrated Quality Management Systems (IQMS). But as for teachers, whose 
performance is satisfactory, she stated: 
The HoDs are the ones working closely with teachers and they are expected to 
identify teachers in need of development. We normally consult facilitators from the 
district to come and offer assistance in terms of teacher development. 
The HoD concurred with the principal that workshops organised by district were helping the 
development of teachers because they addressed their curricular needs and are conducted 
by people with requisite expertise. 
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Respondent A1 differed with his seniors: 
Some of the workshops organised by the District office are helpful and some are not 
so helpful. Some of the subject facilitators are not well versed with what is going on 
the classrooms. We need subject facilitators who are well-informed about the 
challenges we face on daily basis in our classrooms. We are still required to do a lot 
of paper work and at the same time we are required to cover the syllabus in time for 
revision to take place, which is highly impossible.   
Respondent A2 was uncritical of the workshops: 
Workshops help to clarify some of the concepts we struggle with in the classrooms. 
We interact with teachers from other schools and exchange ideas during the 
workshops. I think they should organise more workshops. 
4.6.4 Leadership 
The influence of leadership. 
Cuban (1988) cited in Bush (2008) provided the following definition, ?by leadership, I mean 
influencing others? actions in achieving desirable ends. Leaders are people who shape the 
goals, motivations, and actions of others. Frequently they initiate change to reach existing 
and new goals. Leadership takes much ingenuity, energy and skill? (p. 273). 
When the principal was asked about her influence on her colleagues and how she was 
influenced by them she stated: 
We do have an open-door policy. We welcome different ideas from the staff and 
evaluate them and come up with the most suitable idea. We use a consultative 
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method. We ensure that the values and ethos of the school are adhered to. Although 
I may have the authoritative voice I still listen to colleagues. Everybody?s input 
counts. 
This assertion does not make clear what the initiatives are that are undertaken by the 
principal except for having an open door-policy. However, the influence of the principal is 
palpable, in the sense that everyone acknowledges the principal as the central figure in the 
school. 
Delegation of task/duties to other staff members 
According to Hargreaves and Fink (2008) communities of practice do not require heroic or 
hierarchical leaders, but leaders who can help design a culture in which leadership is 
distributed in an emergent and benevolent way ? so the community engages in robust 
dialogue, in an evidence-informed and experience-grounded manner, about the best means 
to promote the goals of deep and broad student learning for all. The principal in the study 
indicated that duties/tasks were delegated all the time. In her own words: 
I delegate duties all the time in a way of empowering the staff. I know that one day I 
am not going to be there. When that happens everyone will know what is expected of 
them. I have two deputies; one is responsible for curriculum and the other for 
administration and policy. I normally act as the overseer. 
The HoD agreed with the statement above that most of the managerial duties are shared 
amongst the SMT members and the two deputy principal share their duties efficiently.  
 
75 
 
The style of leadership of the principal 
According to Angus (1987), leadership is interactive in multiple directions such that in 
schools, for instance, the principal is largely shaped by the teachers, the reputation and the 
history of the school and the expectations that have become institutionalised over time 
within the school and its community. The two teachers shared the same views that the 
principal is a bit autocratic and at times not flexible. One teacher stated: 
She is bit autocratic and not so flexible but has human side. 
The HoD differed with them, saying that she is democratic:  
The principal is quite aware of her responsibilities to school community and she 
cannot afford to let the school down by trying to appease everyone. She is strict and 
democratic. 
However, the two teachers expressed what the principal value most, which is the love for 
learners. They say the principal has adopted no-nonsense attitude towards teachers who 
portray some irresponsible behaviour. 
Decision-making 
Case study evidence of the work carried out by Gurr et al. (2005) indicated that successful 
school leaders promoted a culture of collegiality, collaboration, support and trust, and that 
this culture was firmly rooted in their democratic and social justice values and beliefs. The 
two teachers in this study lamented that when it came to decision-making, ordinary 
teachers played a minimum role. Most of the decisions seemed to be taken by the SMT and 
then cascaded down to the teachers. One teacher (A2) put it thus: 
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The decisions are taken by the SMT headed by the three senior managers (principal 
and two deputy principals). There is no consultation with the entire staff, we are just 
being told to implement their decisions. 
This evidence shows lack of collegiality and trust on the part of management of the school. 
Teachers are not integral when it comes to decision making but are mere implementers of 
decisions. The two teachers lamented that they are not part of decision-making. They feel 
that decisions are taken on a top-down basis and they are not afforded the opportunity to 
make input. The HoD differed with the two teachers, insisting that decisions are reached 
through consensus. 
Davidoff and Lazarus (1997) states that decision-making structures and procedures refer to 
specific structures, rules and methods developed in the school that provide the framework 
for making decisions around the various tasks of the school. In school A, the framework for 
decision-making is not clarified to teachers and the process is restricted to SMT members. 
Defining the personal characteristics/qualities of the principal  
In the study carried out by Jacobson et al. (2005) an example of how the caring principle 
enabled a principal was demonstrated by a principal who consciously modelled behaviours 
that teachers could emulate, specifically asking them to view students through the eyes of 
parents who wanted nothing more than for their children than to attend a safe, productive 
school where they would have a chance at a real education. These qualities were also 
evident with the principal in this study, one teacher (A2) stressed: 
Our principal is a God-fearing person who is very strict with curriculum. She will 
always remind us that these children have parents too whose hopes are placed very 
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high on their scholarly achievement. She does not compromise when it comes to 
contact-time. 
The other teacher (A1) concurred: 
She is simply open with the truth. She cannot hide her feelings insofar as school work 
is concerned.   
Two teachers differed once again with the HoD. The HoD described the principal as a very 
understanding person who only looks at the positive sides. Two teachers agreed that the 
principal is not always flexible especially during meetings.  
One teacher (B) attributed the strength of the principal to her vast experience as a principal. 
The principal has been heading the school for the past eleven years. The other teacher (A) 
attributed the strength of the principal to the good relationship she had with the School 
Governing Body.   
4.7 Presentation and analysis of data of School B  
Table B illustrates the biographical information of teachers, shows teachers? qualifications 
and their learning areas as well as teachers? length of experience in the teaching profession 
and in the school in which they are currently working (School B). There are a total number of 
4 participants; two teachers, one HoD and a principal. All participants have teaching 
qualifications, with the principal having a National Diploma in Electrical and National 
Diploma in Mechanical engineering and having taught at a Technical College (now referred 
to as Further Education and Training Colleges) for nine years before being appointed deputy 
principal in the late 1996 at the school. Amongst the participants, the principal is the one 
with the longest teaching experience, having taught for 23 years and all the other 
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participants having worked in the school for at least five years. The principal has been in the 
position for the past three years. 
4.7.1  The role of principal in setting the direction of the school 
According to Jacobson et al. (2005) a leader must be able to articulate a common vision, to 
set a clear direction, create high performance expectations and then communicate the 
vision and expectations effectively. The principal role is to embody the vision of the school. 
In this instance neither the vision of the leader nor the school?s vision are clear to the 
participants. No one was able to articulate the vision of the school/principal. However, they 
concede that the expectation of the principal is that everyone should do his/her work for 
the school to succeed. 
The principal in School B articulated a vision and mission of the school which was not exactly 
what was stipulated on the office wall and other documents of the school. He claimed that 
all stakeholders were involved in drafting the vision and mission of the school.   
Respondents B1, B2, and the HoD-B speculated that the vision and mission of the school 
was developed by the SGB. They were not part of the people who developed and revised 
the vision and mission. The HoD as member of the School Management Team stated 
categorically that, ?I was not consulted? meaning there is no buy-in of the vision and 
mission from the entire staff. The HoD further stated in her own words: 
We do have the vision and mission in our school but it is only on paper. I think it 
needs to be reviewed because it has been there for a very long time. We are 
instructed by the principal as to what we should do. Our principal is authoritarian. 
 
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One teacher (B) added: 
I don?t want to lie. I don?t think even the principal knows the vision and mission of the 
school. No one has ever made reference to the vision and mission of the school. 
These assertions mean that the school operates without clear vision except to say that the 
principal makes a point that everyone is to do his/her work. Leadership is an act of influence 
but here the principal is using coercion to achieve the educational goals. Teachers are not 
motivated to perform on their own. 
Given the fact that the principal is acting in the post; he (principal) might have adopted this 
strict attitude, because he feels that he is not accorded the respect he expects from his 
subordinates.  
4.7.2 The culture of the school. 
Handy (1984) states that each school is different from every other school- and schools, as a 
group, are different from other kinds of organisations. There is something natural and right 
about that, for organisations are living things, each with its own history and traditions and 
environment and its own ability to shape its destiny (Handy, 1984:1). School B also has its 
own history and traditions that makes it unique. The principal described the culture of the 
school as trying to develop disciplined learners. He also emphasised the importance of 
having disciplined staff as a major factor for the success of the school. The other participants 
concurred with the principal that teachers were well behaved and disciplined; they knew 
what was expected of them. 
 
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All the participants agreed that learner and teacher absenteeism was not a problem. 
Respondent B2 pointed out: 
The culture of the school is hugely the legacy of the former principal. I would honestly 
attribute the success of the school to him. He laid the foundation for this school to 
operate smoothly. Everyone in the school admired him for his courage in dealing with 
issues pertaining to the running of the school. 
This was supported by the HoD-B several times during the interview. The HoD-B complained 
that since the departure of the former principal things were slowly falling apart. The HoD-B 
attributed the success of the school to all the stakeholders:  
All stakeholders do positively contribute to the success of the school. Teachers 
voluntarily go to the classes. Everybody is playing his/her part.  
The principal agreed: 
I attribute the success of the school to everybody i.e. the learner, educators, SGB, 
SMT and parents at large. 
The culture of the school as stated by the HoD-B was that teachers were less motivated than 
before, they just came to school to teach and go back home. That passion for excellent 
teaching had faded since the appointment of the new principal, she lamented: 
Here we have an abnormal culture, there is no order but we do have some staff 
meetings. People don?t even know the organogram of the school, there is confusion 
about protocol. However, we don?t have problem with learner absenteeism and 
teachers attend to their class regularly. 
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In terms of school culture, Hargreaves (997) made a distinction between instrument-social 
control of the school domain and the expressive-social cohesion domain of school life. 
Instrument-social control is explained as being directed towards students? cognitive 
achievement; such tasks require social control over teachers and students so that they work 
together in orderly ways, concentrate on teaching and learning and avoid the ubiquitous 
possibilities of distraction and delay.  And according to expressive-social cohesion domain of 
school life, schools have an expressive task of maintaining social relationships so that they 
are satisfying, supportive and sociable. 
School B in this study can be regarded as having instrumental domain. In the first typology 
of school culture, Hargreaves (1997) depicted a school which is high in the instrumental 
domain, with pressure on students to achieve learning goals, but with weak social cohesion. 
School life is orderly, scheduled, disciplined ? i.e. a formal school culture. Under the current 
leadership, there seems to be weak social cohesion but the researcher is cautious not to 
draw such a conclusion because observation as it was planned could not be carried out.  The 
culture of School B cannot be described as formal school culture because the HoD-B and 
other respondents (B1, B2) agreed that there is no order at the school and things are done 
haphazardly. All the principal is looking for is that teaching and learning should take place. 
The principal is desperate to express his authority. They hinted that there is no clear 
schedule for holding meetings, i.e. both SMT and staff meetings. 
 
 
 
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4.7.3. Teaching and learning 
The role of leadership in contributing to teaching and learning. 
McEwan (2000) pointed out one important indicator as establishing high expectations for 
student achievement that are directly communicated to students, teachers, and parents. 
These are the stakeholders that need to be consulted when crucial decisions are made. The 
idea of setting high expectations for student achievement should not be an end in itself but 
should be accompanied by an action plan involving all stakeholders. Actions should be 
monitored as to whether the objectives and goals of the school are met. The principal in 
School B mentioned the importance of curriculum delivery and following departmental 
pacesetters/benchmarks. This principal indicated that he was not teaching any learning area 
because of administrative work. All he said was: 
I made sure that curricular needs of the learners are taken into considerations by 
teachers. This is done by ensuring that teachers are in the classroom on time. 
Instructional leadership should also help to set high expectations for the staff. McEwan 
(2000) indicated that instructional leaders should assist teachers in setting and reaching 
personal and professional goals related to the improvement of school, instruction and 
monitors the successful completion of these goals. This is an important aspect of staff 
development and the focus should be on improvement of classroom performance. The 
principal in School B managed to get sponsorship for teachers to further their studies in 
gateway subjects like Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Economic and Management 
Sciences. 
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As middle managers, the Heads of Department (HoDs) have an important part to play in 
managing teaching and learning. Their role is focused on sub-units, based on learning areas 
or phases. Busher and Harris (1999) contend that in hierarchical terms, the head of 
department is a middle manager. He or she is not part of the senior management team, but 
responsible for the operational work of others, namely classroom teachers. Furthermore, 
Bush et al (in press) argues that HoDs should spend more time analysing learners? results; 
jointly develop departmental improvement plans with their educators; monitor educator 
classroom records on a regular basis; establish direct observation of educator teaching; and 
set improvement targets with educators. The HoD-B in the study stated: 
The main focus of the SMT is to motivate learners. My role as departmental head is 
to engage my subordinates in our meetings about meeting our set objectives and to 
monitor their performances on a daily basis. I make sure that IQMS is conducted and 
work schedules are covered. Quarterly schedules are analysed in our departmental 
meetings.  
Respondents B1 and B2 agreed with the HoD that regular departmental meetings are held 
to engage with issues pertaining to the curriculum. However, classroom observation is done 
once per year in accordance with the IQMS. All respondents expressed their dissatisfaction 
about the efficacy of IQMS. 
Monitoring learning and teaching 
Bush and Glover (2009) emphasise that the responsibility for managing teaching and 
learning (MTL) should be shared amongst principals, SMTs, middle managers and classroom 
teachers. They ague that the responsibilities of principals should include setting the 
84 
 
framework for effective teaching and learning, developing policies, and ensuring that 
curriculum delivery is being implemented successfully. SMTs should share the overall 
responsibility for MTL with the principals. They cite Rhodes and Brundrett (in press) 
stressing that middle leaders are important in any strategy to develop learning-centred 
leadership in schools. 
The HoD-B in School B pointed out that she monitors lesson plans; checks files, work 
schedules and does moderation of exams. She makes sure that teaching and learning takes 
place in her department. The principal relies on the monthly reports submitted by the HoDs. 
However, the principal is not teaching any learning area. It is evident that in this instance, 
there is shared responsibility for MTL with the principal. 
Learning areas that were scoring high marks in Grade 12 on a yearly basis are said to be 
Languages, Business Economics, Economics, and Life Orientation. Whereas, Mathematics, 
Physics and Accounting were scoring low marks. The reason for poor result in those learning 
area as advanced by the HoD was:  
It is due to lack of proper human resources. We lost many teachers due to 
promotions and some just left teaching for greener pastures. Those that we have 
cannot deliver in those important subjects.  
4.7.4 Leadership 
 The influence of leadership 
Foster (1986) in Presthus (2006) posits that leadership should be understood as an actions 
bound by space and time, and these actions are intended to enable others and allows them, 
in turn, to become enablers. She argues that leadership is seen as a relational concept. She 
85 
 
further argues that in order to understand the leadership enacted by a school principal it is 
then needed to explore how he or she relates to other people within and outside the 
organisation, enables others, and is influenced by others. The principal in School B 
expressed satisfaction that his staff members were co-operative and happy with his 
leadership, and that he listened to their concerns and advice all the time. 
However, the HoD-B differed with the principal and claimed that under his leadership there 
were divisions in the SMT. The two teachers also were not happy about the influence of the 
principal because they felt their efforts were not being recognised. Teachers felt that they 
were not treated as professionals but as mere workers who were there to carry out their 
duties without questions. Therefore, there is some despondency on the part of the staff. 
Leadership style of the principal 
The HoD described the principal as a dictator who does not consult. HoDs are part of SMT 
and therefore should be part of decision-making. The HoD-B in this school complained that 
?sometimes we are just being told?. That is indicative of autocratic behaviour. 
One teacher (B1) remarked: 
He (principal) likes to bulldoze things. He can hardly sit down with the teachers and 
found out about their expectation. As such he does not even know the needs of the 
teachers. He does not want to open-up to his subordinates.  
Respondent B2 agreed: 
We just do what we are being told to do. I think, maybe every principal has a unique 
way of running his/her school.  
86 
 
Decision making  
The HoD-B expressed frustration that decision-making is the sole preserve of School 
Governing Body (SGB) and senior managers (principal and two deputies). She complained 
that minor issues are discussed by the entire SMT but when it comes to important issues 
pertaining to improvement of school and implementation of other important policies they 
are just implementers. 
 
One of the teachers lamented: 
Of late, the principal is the one taking decisions. During meetings other SMT 
members seem not to be happy with current developments. It seems as if there are 
squabbles. As post level one teachers, we expect direction from SMT members but 
instead we are just given instructions by the principal. We are not given that platform 
to express our views (B2). 
The personal characteristics/qualities of the principal 
Transforming culture- changing what people in the organisation value and how they work 
together to accomplish it ? is to create deep, lasting change. This is not an easy task; it 
requires a leader who will diagnose factors that impede cultural change and will be decisive 
in dealing with the impediments. Transforming school culture needs visionary leaders who 
have emotional intelligence. Fullan (2002) stated that emotionally intelligent leaders are 
able to build relationships because they are aware of their own emotional makeup and are 
sensitive and inspirational to others. He argued that for cultural change to take place, a 
principal?s role is to motivate and energise disaffected teachers and forge relationships 
87 
 
among otherwise disconnected teachers. This can have a profound effect on the overall 
climate of the organisation. The HoD-B in School B explained:  
Our principal applies policy as it is. He is the kind of person who does not easily 
change his decision. Once he makes a decision, he can?t change. Even apologising is 
difficult for him to do. Those who happen to know him now can?t even approach him. 
They are literally afraid of him. 
This assertion implies that the principal has failed to build good relationships between him 
and other managers in the school. In this way the principal is not aware of his emotional 
makeup and is not sensitive to other members of his staff. The members of the staff are not 
inspired to perform optimally because of the overall climate of the organisation. 
One of the teachers corroborated what was alluded to by the HoD: 
Our principal likes to dictate. He likes to say he is the accounting officer. Everything 
goes through him and this is a big institution, some of the things must be delegated. 
He does not trust his staff (B1).  
This lack of trust shows that the teachers will not be fully developed to take responsibility of 
their action without being closely monitored by the principal. 
 
 
  
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CHAPTER 5 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.1 INTRODUCTION  
This chapter will provide conclusions and recommendations on the research. These 
conclusions and the recommendation will contribute to future studies in the field of 
successful school leadership in contexts of poverty. The shortcomings of the research are 
highlighted in the recommendations.  
5.2 SUMMARY  
The exploration of successful school leadership in challenging circumstances suggests that 
the findings from ISSPP cannot be translated to all contexts. Yet, according to Johnson et al. 
(2008) the ISSPP began with the notion that the quality of principal leadership makes a 
difference in student learning and school improvement and that the characteristics, 
processes and effects of successful school leadership can be identified and compared across 
national contexts. 
The exploration of successful school leadership in this study showed that the vision of the 
principal plays a crucial role in giving the school direction. In School A, the teachers know 
what the principal is expecting from them. The principal is acting as a towering figure and 
has earned respect from her colleagues over the eleven years as principal of the school. This 
is contrasted to the situation in School B where the success of the school is attributed to the 
legacy of the former principal. The principal in School B simply ensures that teaching takes 
place. Leadership is about influence, like in the case of the former principal of School B. His 
leadership is still being experienced even whilst he is gone. Both schools have vision and 
89 
 
mission statements which were not internalised by the staff members. School Governing 
Bodies are required to adopt vision and mission statements for their schools. In the schools 
in this study this was done to fulfil a departmental requirement. All the respondents in both 
schools were not part of the development of vision and mission of their schools. Therefore, 
there was never a buy-in of vision and mission from these important stakeholders.  
In both schools principals were not teaching any learning area, therefore they were not 
leading by example. In the study conducted by Harris and Chapman (2002), it was found 
that principals set high expectations for students, emphasised consistency in teaching 
practices, provided clear rules about behaviour and stressed discipline. Principals in the 
study are not aware of any practices taking place in their schools? classrooms. That function 
is delegated to the HoDs. Principal in School B has a National Diploma in Mechanical and 
Electrical Engineering. He could play a major role in assisting teaching Mathematics and 
Physical Sciences. These are the subjects that pose a challenge nationally. There is an acute 
shortage of Mathematics and Physical Sciences teachers; the government of South Africa 
has even resorted to the help of the foreigners from neighbouring countries like Zimbabwe. 
In both schools, instructional leadership on part of the principal is not evident. 
This study has generated greater insight into shared or distributed leadership. Both 
principals claim to have delegated most of the task to their subordinates, but upon enquiry 
those tasks are rightly supposed to be done by their subordinates. They have two deputies 
sharing tasks like administration and curriculum matters. The deputy principals are there to 
assist the principal; those are duties that are rightfully theirs. The same applies to the HoDs 
whose duties are to oversee curriculum delivery in the classroom. This is not a delegated 
function but they are doing what they are hired to do. One respondent in School B 
90 
 
complained that the principal has things that he supposed to delegate to one of his deputies 
like checking cleanliness of classrooms. The principal in this case checks the cleanliness of 
classrooms himself. In the study conducted by Gurr et al. (2006), it was found that 
principals? focus was on distributed leadership, which was facilitated by providing support 
for distributed leadership processes and practices, promoting a culture of trust which 
encouraged enthusiasm and a sense of agency amongst staff, students and parents and by 
careful planning to ensure distributed leadership practices were integral to teaching and 
learning and other key areas of school operation. The feeling from the respondents in 
School B is the principal does not engender the culture of trust in the school because he 
does things that he could delegate. 
In terms of transformation of the school culture, neither principals were innovative. They 
were dependent on the support and direction offered by the Department of Education. This 
is nothing surprising. The only practice, and this is common to most schools, is that both 
school offer extra lessons in the afternoons to cover the syllabi and do revision. Parents, as 
important stakeholders do not feature as significant components of the school. 
In both instances, teachers are frustrated about not being consulted in decision-making. 
Decisions are made by the senior managers. HoD in School B pointed out that not everybody 
in the SMT is involved in decision-making; only the principal and two deputies take 
decisions. 
The culture that has been inculcated in both the schools is to of produce good matric results 
as the primary goal. Learner and teacher absenteeism is not experienced in both schools. 
The class registers and attendance register show regular attendance of both learners and 
teachers respectively. Both HoDs expressed satisfaction about their teachers in their 
91 
 
respective departments and claimed that they attended to their classes in accordance with 
the time-table. HoDs were satisfied with their learners? and teachers? co-operation. It is only 
in the case of parents that concern was expressed because only a few ever attended parents 
meetings. 
These schools have tasted success. The teachers are to a large extent motivated by their 
good results. Over a period of five years these schools have performed above the national 
average in senior certificate exams. It is a case of ?success breeds success?.  
5.3 CONCLUSIONS 
The study showed that a key characteristic among the heads was that all revealed a passion 
for education, for pupils and for the communities in which they worked and that this was 
recognised and appreciated, because they had translated their passion into practice. It was 
evident in that pupil?s achievement had increased over a sustained period of time. 
From the study, the researcher can draw the conclusion that distributed leadership is not 
clearly evident, especially in School B were the participants felt that the principal was doing 
everything on his own without assigning some of the duties to his subordinates. Even in 
School A where the principal claims to delegate duties all the time, there was evidence that 
her subordinates were doing exactly what is required of them in terms of their respective 
posts. 
Principals in both schools were not teaching any learning area and they saw nothing wrong 
with that. They both decried the fact that administrative duties were overwhelming. They 
are required to hold meetings with other stakeholders such as parents who visit the schools 
to inquire about their children and to regularly liaise with the district office. The district 
92 
 
office is aware of the problem of excessive administration but is not doing anything to put 
measures in place to address this situation. Principals should understand that teaching and 
learning is the core business of the school, and they have to play leading role in managing 
teaching and learning in their schools. 
5.4 Recommendations  
The research exposed the need for further research on successful school leadership in 
challenging circumstance. There is therefore a need for research in similar contexts in rural 
areas and other informal settlement that will further corroborate or challenge these 
findings. This study was small and because of its sample size generalisations on the finding 
could not be made. However, the aim of the study was not make generalisations but gain 
greater insight and understanding into the phenomenon of successful school leadership. 
The most determining factor of successful schools in South Africa is the Grade 12 results. 
Therefore, this study looked only at secondary schools, but successful school leadership 
applies across all levels of schooling. Other factors that need to be taken into considerations 
are school structure, building school capacity, providing individual support and building 
individual capacity, and focus on teaching and learning outcomes.  
This study sought participation of the principals, HoDs and teachers. Studies like this could 
involve other important stakeholders such as learners, and parents. Members of the SGB, 
deputy principals and district officials might provide a clearer picture of successful school 
leadership if interviewed in focus groups. The input from these important stakeholders 
might be useful in future research. 
93 
 
Further studies in successful school leadership would contribute immensely to the South 
African education system and policy making. South Africa, as an unequal society needs to be 
studied to find an understanding of all aspects of schooling, but particularly of leadership, 
because most historically disadvantaged schools still experience difficulty in management 
and leadership. The government of the day has provided considerable resources to realise 
successful schooling but a great deal still needs to be done. 
  
94 
 
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Thrupp, M. (1999). Schools making a Difference Let?s be realistic (Buckingham: Open 
University Press). 
Robinson, V. M. J. (2008). Forging the links between distributed leadership and educational 
outcomes. Journal of Educational Administration, 46(2), 241-256. 
Taylor, N. (2006). School reform and skills development. In S Brown (ed.) Money and 
morality: 2006 transformation audit. Cape Town: Institute for Justice and 
Reconciliation. 
Qi, S. (2009). Case Study in Contemporary Educational Research: Conceptualisation and 
Critique. Cross-Cultural Communication, 5(4), 21-31. 
Wong, K. C. (2005). Conditions and practices of successful principalship in Shanghai. Journal 
of Educational Administration, 43(6), 552-562. 
  
99 
 
APPENDIX 1 
DRAFT OF THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 
I will explain the purpose of the interview to get the participants? consent and 
understanding. The purpose is not to test their knowledge but an exploration of successful 
leadership in their school. Participants will be asked to have their interview tape-recorded. 
This interview schedule will be used to interview all the participants, except that there will 
be specific questions for other participants. 
1. SCHOOL CULTURE 
1.1 What is the vision and mission of your school? 
1.2 How was the vision and mission developed? 
1.3 What was your role in the development of vision and mission of your 
school? 
1.4 How would you describe the attitude of the entire staff towards the 
vision and mission of the school? 
1.5 How would you describe the culture of your school? 
1.6 Who do you attribute the success of your school to? 
1.7 As an individual what was your contribution towards the wellbeing of the 
school over the passed three to five years 
 
 
100 
 
APPENDIX 1 (CONTINUED) 
2. SCHOOL OUTCOMES 
2.1 How much time is spent on learning and teaching- contact time 
(percentage)? 
2.2 Do you offer any extra classes? 
2.3 What is the role of leadership in contributing to the improvement of 
student learning?  
2.4 How would you describe learner attendance at your school 
2.5 How do you deal with learner absenteeism? 
2.6 Do you experience late coming from your teachers? (directed to the 
principal) 
IF YES 
? What are the common reasons for late coming? 
? How do you deal with late-coming? 
IF NO 
? What mechanism have you put in place to curb late 
coming? 
2.7 Which learning area(s) seems to be getting high pass rate on yearly basis 
and what do you think is the reason? 
101 
 
APPENDIX 1 (CONTINUED) 
2.8 Which learning area(s) are getting low pass rate and what do you think is 
the reason? 
2.9 How do you monitor learning and teaching in the classroom? 
2.10 How do you evaluate performance of your staff? 
2.11 For those teachers whose performance is not satisfactory, how do you 
develop them? 
2.12 How would you describe your learners? co-operation? 
2.13 How would you describe teachers? co-operation? 
2.14 How would you describe parents? co-operation? 
3. LEADERSHIP 
3.1 How do you influence or be influence by your colleagues? 
3.2 What is the role of the principal in giving the school direction? ( directed 
to the Grade 12 teacher and an HoD) 
3.3 How would you describe the style of leadership of your principal? 
(directed to the Grade 12 teacher and an HoD) 
 
  
102 
 
APPENDIX 1 (CONTINUED) 
3.4 Who are involved in decision-making and what are their roles? (directed 
to Grade 12 teacher and an HoD) 
3.5 Explain the personal characteristics/qualities of your principal? (directed 
to the Grade 12 teacher and HoD) 
3.6 What are the weaknesses and strengths of your principal? (directed to 
the Grade 12 teacher and HoD) 
3.7 What has been the role of your principal in developing the staff? (directed 
to the Grade 12 teacher and HoD) 
3.8 How do you recruit new teachers to your school? 
3.9 How do you manage learner admission per grade?    
103 
 
APPENDIX 2 
DRAFT OF THE OBSERVATION SCHEDULE 
1. How the school begins the day? 
1 2 3 4 
No order, first period 
wasted by learner 
trying to settle in their 
classes. 
Minimal amount of 
time is wasted. 
School starts 
promptly without 
disturbance. 
Other  
 
Comment (especially when religious observance is done before teaching and learning starts) 
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 
2. How the school ends the day? 
1 2 3 4 
Learner/teachers 
leave before school 
out. 
Anyone leaves 
during the last 
period. 
Learners leave at the 
end of the last 
period. 
Teachers remain 
after school 
conducting extra 
lessons. 
 
104 
 
(Observation schedule continued) 
Comment: 
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????.
 .................................................................................................................................................... 
3. Principal?s/HoD?s/teacher?s time-table 
1 2 3 4 
Time-table not 
followed. 
Other periods are 
missed. 
Time-table is strictly 
being followed. 
 
 
Comment (on what takes place during exchanging of period and principal daily activities) 
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????.. 
4. Decision-making 
1 2 3 4 
Decision-making 
done by the principal 
alone. 
Principal consult only 
the SMT. 
Principal consults the 
entire staff. 
Principal consults all 
the stakeholders. 
105 
 
 
Comment (on crucial decisions taken during my observation): 
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 
5. Communication 
1 2 3 4 
Initiator is always the 
principal. 
Everyone is allowed 
to initiate discussion.  
There is a particular 
way of 
communicating with 
other members of 
the staff. 
Stakeholders are 
always considered.  
  
Comment line of communication: 
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 
 
 
 
106 
 
(Observation schedule continued) 
6. Learner enrolment  
1 2 3 4 
The school is 
experiencing 
overcrowding in the 
classrooms. 
Overcrowding is 
experience in the 
lower grades only. 
The school has 
admitted learners 
according to its 
capacity 
Teacher learner ratio 
is in accordance with 
departmental 
policies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
107 
 
Appendix 3:  Invitation of Schools to participate 
Dear Sir/Madam 
I am Kwena Gedion Poopedi, a second year student at the University of Witwatersrand 
studying towards Master of Education Degree.I am humbly requesting permission to 
conduct research in your school.  
My research topic: An exploration of successful leadership in challenging circumstances- 
Case studies of two Kathorus Secondary Schools. 
Your school has been selected on the basis that it has consistently performed above the 
average matric pass rate over the passed five years. The research is going to be conducted 
during the third quarter of 2010.  
Should your school participate, the study will require that I conduct one-on-one interview 
with you as the head of the school, each interview lasting for at least an hour. As the head 
of the school, I will also request that you grant access to one Head of Department (HoD) and 
one Grade 12 teacher in order to conduct one-on-one interview with them. These 
interviews will focus on the leadership the HoD and the teacher experience. 
The study requires that I spend two days involved in interviews and observations at the 
school. I will be visiting your school to describe the study in detail and answer any questions 
that you or your staff may have. 
Please indicate your willingness to participate in this study by filling in the slip below. 
Kind regards 
K. G. Poopedi 
108 
 
 
School Consent Slip 
  I,---------------------------------------, as (position)--------------------------------------------on behalf of--
 -------------------------------------------School, understand the nature, requirements and benefits 
of participating in the study, consent to participate in the study. 
Signature ------------------------------ 
Date ------------------------------     
  
 
 
 
 
109 
 
Appendix 4:  Invitation of the Head of Department to participate 
Dear Sir/Madam 
I am Kwena Gedion Poopedi, a second year student at the University of Witwatersrand 
studying towards Master of Education Degree.I am humbly requesting permission to 
conduct research in your school.  
My research topic: An exploration of successful leadership in challenging circumstances- 
Case studies of two Kathorus Secondary Schools. 
Your school has been selected on the basis that it has consistently performed above the 
average matric pass rate over the passed five years. The research is going to be conducted 
during the third quarter of 2010.  
Should your school participate, the study will require that I conduct one-on-one interview 
with you as the Head of Department in the school, each interview lasting for at least an 
hour.  These interviews will focus on the leadership you have experience in the school as the 
Head of Department. 
The study requires that I spend two days involved in interviews and observations at the 
school. 
I will be visiting your school to describe the study in detail and answer any questions that 
you or your staff may have. 
Please indicate your willingness to participate in this study by filling in the slip below. 
Kind regards 
K. G. Poopedi 
110 
 
School Consent Slip 
  I,---------------------------------------, as (position)--------------------------------------------on behalf of--
 -------------------------------------------School, understand the nature, requirements and benefits 
of participating in the study, consent to participate in the study. 
Signature ------------------------------ 
Date ------------------------------          
 
 
 
111 
 
Appendix 5:  Invitation of Grade 12 teacher to participate 
Dear Sir/Madam 
I am Kwena Gedion Poopedi, a second year student at the University of Witwatersrand 
studying towards Master of Education Degree.I am humbly requesting permission to 
conduct research in your school.  
My research topic: An exploration of successful leadership in challenging circumstances- 
Case studies of two Kathorus Secondary Schools. 
Your school has been selected on the basis that it has consistently performed above the 
average matric pass rate over the passed five years. The research is going to be conducted 
during the third quarter of 2010.  
Should your school participate, the study will require that I conduct one-on-one interview 
with you as Grade 12 teacher in the school, each interview lasting for at least an hour.  
These interviews will focus on the leadership you have experience in the school as grade 12 
teacher. 
The study requires that I spend two days involved in interviews and observations at the 
school. 
I will be visiting your school to describe the study in detail and answer any questions that 
you or your staff may have. 
Please indicate your willingness to participate in this study by filling in the slip below. 
Kind regards 
K. G. Poopedi 
112 
 
School Consent Slip 
  I,---------------------------------------, as (position)--------------------------------------------on behalf of--
 -------------------------------------------School, understand the nature, requirements and benefits 
of participating in the study, consent to participate in the study. 
Signature ------------------------------ 
Date ------------------------------    
 
 
 
 
  
113 
 
APPENDIX 6: SUBJECT INFORMATION SHEET 
 
Exploring successful leadership in schools 
I am involved in the study that explores school leadership development and the role that 
principals play in the success of their schools. Much has been written about successful 
principalship internationally. However, the school leadership within the South African 
context is significant in that principals in previously disadvantaged township secondary 
schools have rarely been studied. Little is known about existing patterns of school 
leadership practices in South African schools operating in disadvantaged communities. 
The aim of the study is to explore practices and behaviours of successful school leadership. 
School principals face complex demands from their communities and the Education 
Department whereby principal are regarded as agents of transformation ? transforming the 
roles, operations and achievements of their schools, transforming local communities and 
transforming the nation. These demands have particular dimensions in South African 
schools, arising in part from the different social, economic and political characters of 
schools, and in part from the history of Apartheid. A shift in thinking is needed in 
understanding school leadership practices in South Africa, as a logical and essential part of 
transformation envisioned in new educational policies. Two Kathorus township secondary 
schools have been selected as case study school for the research. The schools were chosen 
on the basis of performing well in their Senior Certificate pass rates over the pass five years. 
Principals, Heads of department and Grade 12 teachers of the case study schools will be 
selected as participants. They will be informed that participation in the study will be under 
114 
 
conditions of anonymity and that the names of the schools will not be divulged to any other 
parties, and they are free to withdraw at any time. 
One-on-one interviews will be conducted with the participants of the selected schools, each 
lasting for at least an hour. These interviews will focus on the leadership the Head of 
Department and Grade 12 teacher have experienced in their schools. Principals as 
participants will be chosen on the following basis: 
1. School principals from ?successful? Kathorus secondary schools. 
2. The selected school principals should have spent different amounts of time in their 
positions (ranging from relatively new to well-established principals with many years 
of experience). 
The result of the study will be presented to the University of the Witwatersrand for 
examination, together with the report, and it will also be made available to the Gauteng 
Department of Education. 
If you have any questions please feel free to contact: 
Mr Kwena G. Poopedi 
Cell: 0722325381 
gideonpoo@webmail.co.za