By: Samson Matlokotsi Matlanyane Student no: 732715 EXHUMATION OF FORGOTTEN SOULS: Indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable design approach to Patlong Village Relocation and place of memory. 2 Supervisor: Dr Mpho Matsipa This document is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree: Master of Architecture (Professional) at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2023. Samson Matlokotsi Matlanyane Student no: 732715 School of Architecture & Planning University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, South Africa RESEARCH BY: RESEARCH TOPIC: EXHUMATION OF FORGOTTEN SOULS: Indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable design approach to Patlong Village Relocation and place of memory. 3 I Samson Matlokotsi Matlanyane (732715), am a student regis- tered for the course Master of Architecture (Professional) in the year 2021, I hereby declare the following: I am aware that plagiarism (the use of someone else’s work with- out permission and / or without acknowledging the original source) is wrong. I confirm that the work submitted for the above-men- tioned assessment is my own unaided work except where I have explicitly indicated otherwise. I have followed the required conven- tions in referencing thoughts, ideas, visual materials of others. For this purpose, I have referred to the Graduate school of Engineer- ing and the built Environment style guide. I understand that the University of the Witwatersrand may take disciplinary action against me if there is a belief that this is not my own unaided work or that I have failed to acknowledge the sources of the ideas or words in my writing. Samson Matlokotsi Matlanyane 732715 DECLARATION 4 Declaration.....................................................................................03 Acknowledgements .......................................................................06 Abstract...........................................................................................07 Prologue.........................................................................................08 Definitions......................................................................................10 Chapter 01 – Hydro-politics and Erasure....................................................15 • Introduction...................................................................................16 • Imperial Development concept for Africa......................................18 • Hydro-politics and erasure of culture and Heritage .....................21 Chapter 02 – Morthology of Senqu river Basin and Lesotho......................27 • Senqu river basin and catchments...............................................28 • Lesotho’s Geological zones and climate......................................32 • Basotho’s Historic backround.......................................................38 • Lesotho Highlands Water Project.................................................41 • Site - Patlong, Ha Sekake.............................................................55 Chapter 03 – Basotho cosmology...............................................................77 • Overview.......................................................................................78 • Liboko - A link between lineage and territory................................80 • Lithoko tsa marena - Praise poems..............................................84 • Ntsoana-tsatsi...............................................................................86 TABLE OF CONTENTS - [ PART 01 ] 5 Chapter 04 – Case Studies...........................................................................89 • Patlong Village - Basotho building Culture...................................90 • Gando teachers housing - Francis Kere......................................104 • Hikma Religious & sercular complex - Mariam Kamara.............108 Chapter 05 – Design development..............................................................113 • Design Charette............................................................................114 • Design Development.....................................................................116 • Technical systems.........................................................................118 Chapter 06 – Design...................................................................................121 • Design Narrative...........................................................................122 • Design Documentation..................................................................148 Chapter 07 – References............................................................................163 • List of References.........................................................................164 List of Interviews...........................................................................166 List of figures................................................................................168 • Ethics Clearance certificate ........................................................169 TABLE OF CONTENTS - [ PART 02 ] 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research document is a tribute to all who have been displaced, re- located and resettled in the name of developments and yet they never saw the much-promised better life. I then hope this Research Report be- comes a steppingstone and positive contribution towards advocacy for justice. I would also like to give a vote of thanks to community members at Patlong village for assisting me with this undertaking and hope this research report sheds light on our village and mark our presence in the continuum of time. To my Mother Mme ‘Mamatlokotsi, Rakhali Qaleho, Rakhali ‘MaSekake le Nkhono Mathato, thank you for being my anchors and pillars of strength. You have all raised and guided me thus far and for that I dearly thank you from the bottom of my heart. To my sisters and brothers from Matlan- yane, Gugushe and Posholi sides of my family, “kea leboha Bakubung, Matebele le Bakoena” for your constant support, motivation, and endless words of encouragement. To My kind, loving and caring wife, thank you for believing in my even when it all seemed impossible. Thank you Leloko for being my motivation. To my Supervisor, Dr Mpho Matsipa, thank you for tirelessly pushing me towards finding my own voice in which to articulate my own self and posi- tion on this Research Report and going forward. To Cohen Garson Archi- tects, Makeka Design Lab and Mokuoane Design and Cost Consultants, thank you for your contribution and guidance on my Architectural journey. To my friends and colleagues who we travelled this academic journey to- gether remotely during a pandemic, thank you very much, your love and support is highly appreciated. Leseli, Khanya. 7 ABSTRACT Since the 1940s, rapidly increasing demand for green energy globally along with water supply demands in growing urban areas have led to de- velopment of hydropower dams and reservoirs at an unprecedented scale across the globe. Although hydro facilities are a relatively clean energy, they have environmental and social impact at country, basin, and regional levels. At country level, construction of these mega hydro-projects comes at a great cost to directly affected communities as they cause involuntary dis- placement, lose of rangelands and means of sustaining livelihood in gener- al. Furthermore, existing social links are broken leaving indigenous knowl- edge systems at risk of erasure. Lastly, affected communities are usually undercompensated, relocated, and hosted in other villages or moved to new designated settlements where resources are already limited thus causing a further strain on such resources. Not only do said hydro-projects have negative impacts in their respective countries, unsustainable management of river flows and unequal use of the Basin’s water lead to conflicts between riparian states. Environmen- tally, damming of valleys negatively affect fauna and flora upstream by flooding and inadequate water downstream. The Lesotho Highlands wa- ter, a 4 phased bilateral agreement between Republic of South Africa and Kingdom of Lesotho is no exception to these negative impacts. This research Report investigated how indigenous knowledge of material and social culture can inform new relocation stratergies which will help anchor a newly developed village. Through recording of oral and literary history, mapping, and conducting semi-structured interviews at Patlong, an understanding of the community’s current livelihood was established. Based on the author’s findings, an Architectural intervention in a form of a settlement anchored by an agricultural skills development centre, a seed bank and a commercial retail node was proposed to ensure a sustainable relocation strategy. 8 PROLOGUE Growing up between the urban areas of Maseru and the very rural district of Qacha’s Nek in Lesotho, it came to my realisation very early in life the vast difference in livelihood in these two spaces. From living conditions, day to day activities, how people dressed, what people ate and how and what people celebrated. What really never made sense was how people living in such proximity to each other could lead such different lives. Growing up in a conservative Christian family and having attended an Adventist school for both primary and high school, exposed me to a par- ticular set of morals from an early stage. On the other hand, with Chris- tian up-bring come a judgemental point of view towards my fellow coun- trymen in the rural areas who still observed particular customs, who still went to initiation schools and did rituals for ancestors. Currently as I re- flect on the view I held back then, I realise how damaging an un-informed point of view is to one that holds it. In my high school days as we delved deeper into History, Religion and Geography, numerous questions emerged from within. Questions that made me grapple with origin of all that is, questions about existence, questions about humanity, questions about what constitutes right and wrong. Simultaneously conscious Hip-hop opened up a different world, in the most poetic deliveries, it exposed us to social injustice in what we thought were developed countries. Where extreme wealth and advanced society lived hand in hand with poverty and engineered social conditions 9 in the projects and still none of it made sense. It was only at university level that a bit of light began to shine. Not all ques- tions were answered but deeper conversations about place and existence began to point one in what I would believe to be an awaken direction this time around. As we began to discuss more about culture, sustainability, embodied knowledge, scarce recourses and many more, did I realise how abundant what I thought was rural livelihood really was and how close to nothing I also know about it. As Frank Herbert puts it “Beyond a critical point within a finite space, free- dom diminishes as numbers increase. This is true of humans in the finite space of planetary ecosystem as it is of gas molecules in a sealed flask. The human question is not how many can possibly survive within the system, but what kind of existence is possible for those who survive.” A statement that also applies for communities that are being relocated to make way for construction of Mega Hydro projects in Lesotho and globally. A question then arises of “How can indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable design approaches be employed to ensure sustainable relocation?” 10 DEFINITIONS CULTURAL LANDSCAPE DEFINITIONS SESOTHO - ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS Basotho – “The Basotho” people living chiefly in Lesotho Basotho – “The Basotho” people living in the wider Southern Africa region who observe “Sesotho” as their tradition and culture. Sesotho – A Language spoken by Basotho Sesotho – “Anything, ideational, behavioral or material, that Basotho regard as purely of their own devising, unadulterated by external influence. Lit’somo – Oral stories told by grandparents to their grandchildren around fire in the evening. Liboko – Clan names, clan odes. Lithoko – Praise songs, praise poems, heroic poetry, poetic praise eulogies, were in- spired by politico-economic struggles like wars, cattle raids and movement in general of predecessors either in search of new territory or fleeing enemies. Letsema – A working party, usually to cultivate fields but also for any form of work that required several people in order to undertake. Matsema – (plural to Letsema) working parties. Lifela – Migrant workers chants Pitiki – Post birth Baby shower Lebollo – Initiation Stage Lenyalo – Marriage Thapeli – [Plea with Ancestors] Lefu – Death / burial Khutsana – Cleansing ceremonies Mokete oa Balimo – Ancestral Ceremony / Thanksgiving / Plea with Ancestors 11 RIVERS Rock Types Soil Types Noka – “A river” Lekoa – (Vaal River) Noka ea Limpopo – Limpopo River Namahali – (Elands River) Noka ea Tlou – (Riet River) Lethuela – (Tugela River) Mohokare – (Caledon River) Senqu – (Orange River) Tikoe – (Vet River) Noka ea Ntha – (Valch River) Lepalule – (Olifant’s River) Mohalakoena – Crocodile River Moralla - (Basalt rock) Moremaphofu - (Igneous rock) Lesehloa - (Sandstone) Selokoe - (Loam soil) Letsopa - (Clay soil) Lehlabathe - (Sand soil) Thumane - (Silty sand) 12 BASOTHO CALENDER 1. Phato – [August] 2. Loetse – [September] 3. Mphalane – [October] 4. Pulungoana – [November] 5. Tsitoe – [December] 6. Pherokhong – [January] 7. Hlakola – [February] 8. Hlakubele – [March] 9. Mesa – [April] 10. Motseanong – [May] 11. Phuptjane – [June] 12. Phupu – [July] 13 RESEARCH QUESTION How can indigenous knowledge (In the form of building tech- nologies, settlement planning and oral histories) inform design approaches that ensure sustainable development in Lesotho? Sub Questions Furthermore, how can design support the preservation of local cultures and livelihoods? What are appropriate procedures for village relocation, if there are any? How do we Basotho honour our parted ancestors? What role do land/nature and ancestors play in the relation- ship Basotho have with their sense of place and the water’s edge in terms of spirituality and their livelihoods? 14 15 CHAPTER 01 - Hydro politics and Erasure of Culture & Heritage • Introduction • Imperial Development Concept for Africa • Hydro-politics and Erasure of culture and heritage 16 INTRODUCTION Lesotho is a landlocked country surrounded by the Republic of South Africa. The country has a total land area of 30 355km2 and population of around 2million spread across its 10 districts. Lesotho as a nation state “was born of the astute strategies pf diplomatic manoeuvres of its found- ing father, Moshoeshoe I during a period of regional turmoil in the 1820s”. (Eldredge,2007). Patlong, Ha Sekake is a small village along the Senqu River in Qacha’s Nek District. The village dates back to the early 1880s as a strong hold of Morena Sekake during ntoa ea lithunya (The battle of guns) where the Cape government attempted to disarm Basotho so they can annex Le- sotho and in-cooperate the country into the Cape Colony. The village is located where one of the Lesotho Highlands water project (LHDA) dams, “Ntoahae” has been proposed for the near future. The Lesotho Highlands water project (LHDA) is a bilateral hydro project between the government of Lesotho and the Republic of South Africa aimed at transferring water from the upper Senqu river catchment in Le- sotho to headwaters of the Orange / Senqu river basin in the Vaal catch- ment through a network of tunnels and reservoirs. Negotiations were initi- ated in the 1950’s by the South African government and for decades the two countries could not reach an agreement. (LHDA, 2016) 17 In January 1985, Leabua’s government was toppled by a mil- itary coup led by his General Metsing Lekhanya following clo- sure of borders by the South African government. Apartheid government was accusing the Leabua’s government on the account that Lesotho had allowed its territory to be used as a launching pad by the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan African Congress (PAC) on South African. In October 1986 at the back drop of a state of Emergency in South Africa and few months after a military coup in Lesotho a treaty was signed by Lesotho’s military Authority and South Africa’s Apartheid government a day or two after the killing of Mozambican president Samora Machel. (Thabane, 2000) Even though LHWP has been viewed as an Africa success story from an engineering and economic point of view, relo- cated communities who had to sacrifice their livelihoods and leave their ancestral lands do not hold the same optimistic perspective as they have been left in despair. Some urban spaces to which they have been relocated to do not support a subsistent and cultural life they used to lead.(Hoover,2001) 18 According to Frederick cooper “colonial governments in the 1940s thought of development as an idea which would reinvigorate colonialism”.(Cooper, 2010) At this stage, colonial governments were torn between genuinely aid- ing development in colonial Africa through modernized farming, education improved urban infrastructure and maintaining their colonial domination and imperialism of knowledge. According to cooper, “colonial governments aimed at development being done to and for Africa, not with it” (Cooper, 2010) this was a result of a number of ideological differences between co- lonial officials and the British government as to what extend should African countries be developed (for the benefit of the colonizer) while maintaining domination over them. It is against this backdrop of these post war colonial governments along with such believes and perception that “Africans are inferior” that “The Brit- ish High commissioner to Lesotho Evelyn Baring, requested a survey of water potential in the territory” (LHDA, 2019). Though initially rejected by the South African Apartheid government, the 1960’s drought renewed their interest in Lesotho’s abundant water. It is no surprise the nature and details of the treaty between Lesotho and South Africa is bias as it restricts Ba- sotho from accessing dammed water and has a thin resettlement strategy that takes little of Basotho’s livelihood and dependance on natural environ- ment into consideration, as the treaty was drawn up during a time when apartheid was at its heigh and apartheid South African wanted to maintain dominance over its neighboring states. Describing domination, Elizabeth Eldredge indicated that “Domination is achieved through mobilization of various tools of power which range from military strength in manpower and technology to those subtle as …Ideol- ogy, knowledge and discourse. Eldredge continues to indicate that “force, ideology, knowledge and discourse are not just tools of domination but can also be means of resistance” (Eldredge,2007). She further elaborates on the importance of how ideology, when diffused through public discourse can achieve influence that can then counter domination or ideology aimed at maintaining the status quo. Imperial Development Concept for Africa ; 19 RESEARCH THEMES This research paper will investigate through the following research themes Indigenous knowledge systems, Place and displacement, Resettlements and memory; If Place is a totality of concrete things having material substance, all of which range from natural to manmade environments and different people assign different meanings to such places. And if foundations of society are laid out by collectively drawing up certain values over a long period of time, by which those in agreement identify and live by. Displacement of such communities not only dispossess people of their ancestral land but also break long established social links and collective memory. According to (Rakotsoane, 2005) Basotho’s veneration of our ancestors’ graveyards, dependence of the living upon our ancestors for material welfare add a spiritual layer to the value of the land upon which they have been laid to rest. Additionally traditional healers identification with aspects of nature such as deep pools of water along a river are some of many elements that give a place an additional layer of spiritual value. Ra- kotsoane further indicates that “Not only does land supply material needs for life, through which spiritual and mental contentment is achieved but also communication with ancestors is through contact with the soil they are buried in.” (Rakotsoane, 2005) Hence the Basotho’s strong believe that the earth is the most sacred thing above all that dwells in or on it. Place making through cultural landscape in Basotho communities. 20 21 The Lesotho highlands water project raises similar issues as other mega Hydro projects globally. In 1964 an estimated 50 000 Nubians who lived along the Nile river between Aswan and Sudanese border were relocated from their villages to make way for construction of the Aswan dam (Agha, 2019). But like all resettlement strategies, “the new settlements lacked funda- mental aspects, to a point that in recent years they started call- ing for “right to go back” to locations near their original habitat Agha indicates. Resettlements are always rushed and more often incomplete thus resulting in broken social structures, loss of resources like arable land, access to the water’s edge and many other natu- ral recourses they had. Whether it be in India, China Brazil or Lesotho, priority has always been finishing these mega pro- jects ahead of schedule and without exceeding original budget and less so implementing resettlement and compensation pro- grammes. Hydro-politics and Erasure of Culture and heritage; 22 23 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research was undertaken through Creative research method- ology whereby design was achieved through combination of inductive reasoning, interpretation and imagination linked to various themes, constrains (such as technological constrains, building site, client, and user groups) and precedents (Urban and Architectural). The creative research process in terms of discourse and de- sign alike, took on an iterative (inductive - deductive), non- linear, cumulative, cyclical, and open-ended exploration to achieve its creative outcomes. The research combined quali- tative and quantitative component which translated into a de- fensible architectural proposition. Site Visits to Patlong were conducted for mapping of the physi- cal context for geo-morphological and socio-economic analy- sis, semi-structured interviews and observations of the com- munity livelihood were also undertaken and recorded through photographs, audio recordings and sketching for later analy- sis. Literature reviews relevant to Basotho cosmology, erasure of heritage and culture by mega-hydro projects and how archi- tecture can be a tool of resistance in restoration of livelihood were conducted. Inference were then drawn for a defensible Architectural solution. 24 INTENDED PROGRAM An intended architectural intervention is a resettlement strategy anchored by a memorial landscape and an agricultural resource centre that will pre- serve local memory and tradition for future generations and support on-go- ing, sustainable development in the area. In addition, the proposed resettle- ment strategy will include a seed bank to ensure preservation of indigenous biodiversity for future generations, continued rehabilitation of degrading en- vironmental conditions or in case of any catastrophic event. The chosen site is located within the upper sub-catchment of the Senqu / Orange river in Lesotho, which is also the largest contributor to Senqu river basin. The basin is the 3rd largest in Southern Africa after the Congo and Zambezi river basins. It drains a catchment area of 896 368 km2 and ex- tends over Lesotho, South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. The basin’s wa- ter recourse is managed by the four countries through The Orange – Senqu river basin commission (ORASECOM) to ensure a cooperative approach to water resource management between the states. There are also bilateral agreements and projects like the Lesotho Highlands Water Project which will be rolled out in 4 phases and upon its completion will have 6 large dams in the Upper Senqu sub-catchment and transfer tunnels to upper waters of the Orange / Senqu river basin. As part of phase 4, construction of Ntoahae dam at the confluence of Senqu and Senqunyane rivers in Qacha’s Nek district means that Patlong village will be one of several communities to be relocated and leave their ancestral land below flooded reservoirs. Patlong dates back to the 1880s as a strong hold of Morena Sekake during ntoa ea lithunya (The battle of guns) where the Cape government attempted to disarm Basotho. 25 RELEVANCE OF STUDY To contribute to a wider Architectural discourse by bring to light importance of place, memory, indigenous knowledge systems all of which have to be taken into consideration during a reset- tlement process. This is all to ensure that previous mistakes which seem to be an underlying factor in all relocations do not repeat themselves. 26 27 • Senqu and Vaal catchments • Lesotho’s ecological zones and climate • Lesotho’s Historical context • Lesotho Highlands Water Project • Patlong Contextual Analysis CHAPTER 2.1 – Morthology of Senqu river Basin and Lesotho 28 SENQU RIVER BASIN The Senqu river basin is a Southern Africa transboundary river system stretching over 4 riparian countries, namely Lesotho, South Af- rica, Southern Namibia and Southwest Bot- swana. The syatem drains a catchment area 896, 368km2 (ORASECOM, 2008). The Senqu river basin system begins with the Senqu river flowing from Drakensburg Moun- tains in Lesotho, joined by the Makhaleng, Fig 2.1.1 Left - Map of Africa indicating major African river basins with The Senqu River Basin highlighted orange. National boders indi- cated with dashed lines. Source (Author, 2021) Mohokare (Caledon), Vaal and Fish rivers as it flows West towards the Atlantic Ocean. The basin has an irrigation potential estimated at 390 000ha, 303 000ha of which is already in use mostly by the Republic of South Africa, a phenomena that poses a threat of availability and accessibility of water in the near future. To ensure sustainable utilisation of the system by all riparian states, the basin is managed by the Orange-Senqu River Commission, but be- cause water recourse management in the ba- sin like in other African countries is rooted in colonial era, access to this naturally occurring resource is skewed towards the advantage of South Africa’s industrialization and agriculture while marginalizing other riparian states. 29 Fig 2.1.2 Left - The Senqu River Basin. Source (Author, 2021) According to (Mahlakeng, 2017) limited access to fresh water caused by unequal and unsustainable use of the rivers causes a “supply induced scarcity” which implies a decline in quality and quantity of a naturally occurring resource. This is true for Senqu River Basin as communities upstream are being displaced by con- struction of dams, transfer tunnels and all related infrastructure. In addition, communities further loose access to rivers, fertile arable land along the riverbank and pastures. Communities down stream on the other hand experience an environmental degradation as wa- ter quantity and quality have drastically dropped in recent year. 30 Senqu – (Orange River) Lekoa – (Vaal River) Noka ea Tlou – (Riet River) Lethuela – (Tugela River) Mohokare – (Caledon River) Tikoe – (Vet River) Noka ea Ntha – (Valch River) Noka ea Limpopo – Limpopo River Namahali – (Elands River) Lepalule – (Olifant’s River) Mogalakwena – Crocodile River SENQU RIVER BASIN River Networks 31 Fig 2.1.3 The Senqu River Basin showing all its trib- uteries and Riparian states . Source (Author, 2021) 32 LESOTHO’S ECOLOGICAL ZONES AND GEOMORPHOLOGY Lesotho is a land locked country with South Africa being its only immediate neighbor. Due to much of Lesotho’s territory having been annexed by the British in 1868, the country lost most of its arable land to the Orange Freestate and thus currently has a land area of about 30 355km2 of which only 12% is arable. With the country’s topography ranging from lowlands at 1000m above sea level to high altitude plateau at altitudes exceeding 3000m above sea level, this variation in topography and geo- morphology has a significant influence on the country’s ecology which can be categorized into the following distinct ecological zones which are; • The Lowlands - 1000m to 1800m • The Foothills - 1800m to 2300m • The Senqu river valley - 1500m to 1800m • The highlands - 2300m to 3250m The country’s highlands and Senqu valley are predominantly ba- salt lavas of the Drakensberg formation which overlie the sand stones of the Clarens formation and were erupted during the pe- riod extending from late Triassic, through the Jurassic and into the early Cretaceous. 33 Fig 2.1.4 Lesotho’s ecological zones . Fig 2.1.5 below - Section through Lesotho’s ecologi- cal zones showing rivers, mountain ranges and rock formation in different zones. Source (Lesotho Atlas, 2001) 34 According to Lesotho Meteorological services, the country’s climate is primarily influenced by its location within the Karoo basin, its altitudes that range from 1400m to above 3480m above sea level. Winters are cold and dry with temperatures as low as -6.3 °C in the highlands and 5.1°C in the low lands while summers are hot and humid with mean annual temperatures of 15.2°C in the lowlands and 7°C in the highlands. Annual precipitation in the Senqu river valley is between 600mm and 800mm while the highlands experience highs of 1200mm. CLIMATE 35 Fig 2.1.6 Lesotho’s annual rain fall. Fig 2.1.7 Average heat temperature Source (Lesotho Atlas, 2001) 36 37 2.2 – BASOTHO HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 38 39 BASOTHO’S HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1600 AD Mapetla, Mapholane and Baphuthi arrive at the territory between Mohokare (Caledon river) and the Maloti mountain following their migration from the banks of Tugela river, Making them the 1st inhabitants of modern day Lesotho. Napo, Koena’s Grand- son, splits from Bafokeng and migrates east of Phokeng settling at Ntsoana-tsatsi, as oral tradition shows, this was one of the earlies clusters of Bakoena. 1450 AD 1650 AD Mopeli leaves “Thaba ea bana ba Mohale” (Magaliesburg), travelles down Lepalule (Olifant’s River) on the river right crossing at its confluence with Namahali (Elands) and finally settling between Namahali and Mogalak- wena river, modern day Polokwane. 1836 - 1870 AD 1836 - Trekboers who had gradually began settling in the territory between Senqu and Lekoa draw up a General assembly leading to an elementary Republican government 1841 - Morena Moshoeshoe seeks British protection due to mounting pressure from clashes with Trekboers who were encroaching further into Basotho Territory but was unsuccessful until 1868. 1843 – Napier treaty draws a boundary line between Basotho and newly arrived Trekboers 1720 AD Morena Mohlomi was born, he grew up to be a great philosopher and mentor to founding father of Basotho Nation, Morena Moshoeshoe. It is him Mohlomi who would allude that; “Ho molemo ho pola mabele ho ena le ho loetsa lerumo” “Its wiser to thrash sorghum than to sharpen your spare” He dismantled his military at a time when leaders of his status boasted their military prowess. Bafokeng who had long settled North of Mohokare (Caledon River), crossed the river led by Mokebe and settled with Mapholane at Menkhoaneng. 1700 AD Morena Moshoeshoe migrates to Thaba-bosiu, which becomes his strong hold from which Basotho nation was founded. 1824 AD 1986 – Following a military coup of January 1986, a military government led by General Lekhanya signed the LHWP Treaty on the 24th October 1986 with the South African Apartheid government. 1986 1815 - 1840 AD Lifaqane unrest due to the Cape colony’s frontier wars 1833 AD Arrival of French Protestant Missionaries in Lesotho, which also marked arrival of Western education in Lesotho. - Eugene Casalis - Thomas Abousset - Constant Gosselin Morena Moshoeshoe was born at Menkhoaneng. Following his initiation, he was send off to Morena Mohlomi to groom him on leadership skills. 1776 AD Phase 1 of LHDA project is coompleted 2003 1950s – British High commissioner to Lesotho Evelyn Baring request a survey of the water potential of the territory 1959 - Basotho become a British Colony 1966 – Lesotho gains independence form the British 1970 – Following Elections of January 1970, Lesotho’s then Prime minister Leabua Jonathan of Basotho National Party (BNP) nullified election after loosing Basotho Congress Party (BCP). The Prime Minister then declared a state of emer- gency and from then on the country was in turmoil until he was toppled by his General in 1986. January 1998 - Katse Dam overflows and delivery of water to South Africa begins. May 1998 - Following political unrest in Maseru, A joint South Africa and Botswana millitary invasion leads to killing of 17 Lesotho Defence Force soldiers who were deployed at Katse Dam. 20th Century 1998 Construction of Polihali Dam begins displacing 342 households. Aproximatetly 8000 people to be affected by construction of Polihali dam through displacements, loss of arable and pasture land, loss of heritage and cultural sites. Over 5000ha of arable and range land to be permanently lost to pooling of the vally. 2022 Thulane leaves Bahu- rutse and migrates South crossing Lekoa (Vaal River) before its confluence with Noka ea Ntha (Vals River) settling between the banks of Vals, Vet and Vaal, there establishing the Bataung clan. The Bakubung later split from Bataung. Both Bataung and Bakubung were renowned hunters and builders. 1640 AD 350AD - 600 AD Archaeological evidence indicates presence of iron and copper producing inhabitants in the Phokeng area, west if Magaliesburg indicates as oral tradition tells that, Bafokeng lineage in the area goes back to Iron age. 1848 – Orange River Sovereignty 1851 – Morena Moshoeshoe defeats Major General Cathcart at the battle of Viervoet 1852 – Following a dismal defeat by Moshoeshoe, Major Cathcart yet again returned just to be humbled yet again by Morena Moshoeshoe. 1854 – Bloemfontein conversion denies Basotho a right to buy arm and ammuni- tion Following battles of 1851 and 52. 1868 – Philip Wodehouse Annexes Basotho Territory between Mohokare, Senqu and Lekoa, Basotho’s most fertile and condusive land for farming. 1870 - Morena Moshoeshoe Dies 1880 - Battle of guns as the Cape Colony attempted to disarm Basotho 40 41 • Project over view • Phase 1A - Katse Dam • Phase 1B - Mohale Dam • Phase 2 - Polihali Dam • Phase 3 - Tsoelike Dam • Phase 4 - Ntoahae Dam 2.3 – LESOTHO HIGHLANDS WATER PROJECT 42 LESOTHO’S HIGH LANDS WATER PROJECT Fig 2.3.1- Table showing construc- tion projects under LHWP’s 4 phases Source (LHDA, 2021) LHDA Project was planned to undertake construction of 5 Dams, transfer tunnels and ancillary services in 4 phase over a period of 30yrs. Dams Reservoir dams Tail pond dams march 1998 Transfer tunnels Delivery tunnels Diversion tunnels LLLLHWP Construction Phases HWP Construction Phases HWP Construction Phases HWP Construction Phases and Featuresand Featuresand Featuresand Features Construction Construction Construction Construction PhasePhasePhasePhase ProjectProjectProjectProject DurationDurationDurationDuration Pool heightPool heightPool heightPool height Construction Construction Construction Construction sitesitesitesite Project costProject costProject costProject cost 1A 1. Katse Dam and 1987 - 1998 2053m ASL Confluence of Malibamat’so and Bokong R 11 billion 2. Katse - Mmuela 45km Transfer tunnel and Intake tower 3. Mmuela Hydro power plant 1B 1. Mohale Dam 1998 - 2002 2075m ASL R 6.4 billion 2. Mohale Katse Transfer tunnel (Allows water to flow in both direction allowing both dams to be at optimum level) Tunnel length 45km, 4.5m in dia 2 1. Polihali Dam Under Construction 2075m Confluence of Senqu and Khubelu 3 Tsoelike dam Confluence of Tsoelike and Senqu rivers 4 Ntoahae dam and pump station Along Senqu 43 Fig 2.3.2 - Map of Lesotho showing LHDA dams and transfer tunnels Source (Author, 2021) 44 KATSE DAM Located at the confluence of Maliba-mat’so and Bokong river, Katse dam is a double curvature concrete wall dam with 60m con- crete base and 9m wide crest. According to LHDA, Katse dam has displaced 71 households while 2700 ha of range land and 925 ha of arable land were lost to pooling of the dam. As a result, a total 20 000 people were af- fected by loss of pastures and arable land due to construction of the said dam. Following Lesotho’s second democratic elections that were held on 23rd May 1998, political unrest broke out in the capital Ma- seru. According to (Sekatle,1999) “the election outcome was a landslide victory for the ruling Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD). The LCD had won 79 of 80 constituencies…” Sekatle further indicates that, even though the elections had been declared free and fair by local and international observers, some political parties opposed the outcome and resorted to violence. Elections irregularities which were pointed out by Langa’s com- mission were some of the key issues that set a scene for mutiny by Lesotho Defense Force (LDF) which then forced then Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili to seek Southern Africa Development Cooperation (SADC) intervention Likoti indicates. PHASE 1 A 45 Image 2.3.4 - Above, Katse Dam at full capacity Source (LHDA, 2021) Fig 2.3.3- To the left, Katse Dam features Source (LHDA, 2021) KKKKatse Dam Featuresatse Dam Featuresatse Dam Featuresatse Dam Features Dam wall height 185m Crest length 710m Reservoir surface area 35.8km2 Reservoir volume 1950 million m3 Thickness 60m base & 9m crest Full supply level 2053m above sea level Construction site Confluence of Malibamat’so and Bokong rivers Spillway Length 150m Concrete volume 2.4 million m3 Spill way capacity 6252m3/s Commencement Date 1991 Completion date May 1997 Completed Water delivery began January 1998 Spillage Date Early 1998 Cost 11 billion Maloti Located at the confluence of Maliba-mat’so and Bokong river, Katse dam is a double curvature concrete wall dam with 60m concrete base and 9m wide crest. According to LHDA, Katse dam displaced 71 households and 2700 ha of range land, and 925 ha of arable land were lost to pooling of the dam. A total 20 000 people were affected by loss of pastures and arable land due to construction of the Katse dam. According to Kananelo Boloetse from public eye, 17 Lesotho defense force soldiers were killed during the 1998 invasion of Lesotho by the South African Defense Force. Boloetse further indicates that “According to reports, a platoon comprising 44 soldiers from the Bloemfontein-based parachute brigade besieged the barracks immediately while the rest of the SA intervention force headed into Maseru, on September 22, 1998.”(public eye, 2021 ) This invasion stands as a living testimony the extend to which the Republic of South Africa will go to see through the LHDA project regardless of its impoverishment, displacements, dispossessions and loss of life that will come with pooling of Lesotho’s highlands valleys. “PHASE 1 OF THE LHWP, WHICH WAS COMPLETED IN 2005, INCLUDING THE CONSTRUCTION OF KATSE DAM, WITH THE INTENTION OF AUGMENTING SOUTH AFRICA’S WATER SUPPLY VIA A TRANSFER TO THE VAAL RIVER CATCHMENT...” (ORASECOM, 2013) 46 Acting President Buthelezi outlined to SADF that South Africa’s mandate was to “secure the dam, restore order in the security establishment and clear protestors” (Likoti, 2007). Acting on the President’s orders SADF flew into Lesotho on the 22nd September 1998, first heading to Katse Dam which is 211km from Maseru then back to Maseru. According to Kananelo Boloetse from public eye, 17 Lesotho defence force soldiers who were on patrol at Katse Dam were killed by SANDF that day. Boloetse further indicates that “a platoon comprising of 44 soldiers from the Bloemfontein-based parachute brigade besieged the barracks immediately while the rest of the SA intervention force headed into Maseru.”(Public eye, 2021) Likoti further points out “that a joint South Africa and Botswa- na intervention in Lesotho was inconsistent with Article 4(a) of the SADC Treaty, which underwrites the principle of sovereign equality of all member states.” Likoti then comes to conclusion that the process South Africa and Botswana followed as inter- vening countries on behalf of SADC was motivated by national interests and not a joint peace keeping mission as motivated by Parliament as SA had declined taking part on a military in- tervention in the DRC a month earlier. This invasion stands as a living testimony the extend to which the Republic of South Africa will go to see through the LHDA project regardless of its impoverishment, displacements, dis- possessions and loss of life that come with pooling of Leso- tho’s highlands valleys. 47 48 MOHALE DAM Fig 2.3.5- Right, Ha Mohale village adjacent to the dam, the village has no running water and electrification as promised by LHDA Source (LHDA, 2021) Mohale dam is the second largest of the LHDA dams, construct- ed at the confluence of Senqunyane and Likalaneng rivers, the dam forms part of Phase 1B of the LHWP. (LHDA,2021).Accord- ing to LHDA, the dam wall is a 145m high concrete faced rock fill dam and the highest of its kind in Africa. According to (Thamae, 2020) “Mohale dam has inundated 1125 ha of grazing land, 875 ha of arable land…71 households lost more than 50% of their land” Thamae further indicated that a total of 7400 people were affected by Mohale dam with 325 house- holds resettled. PHASE 1 B 49 Fig 2.3.7- Above, Mohale Dam at full capacity Source (LHDA, 2021) Fig 2.3.6- To the left, Mohale Dam features Source (LHDA, 2021) MohaleMohaleMohaleMohale Dam FeaturesDam FeaturesDam FeaturesDam Features Dam wall height 145m Crest length 500m Reservoir surface area 21.2 km2 Reservoir volume 946.9 million m3 Thickness 60m base & 9m crest Full supply level 2075m above sea level Construction site Confluence of Malibamat’so and Bokong rivers Spillway Length 150m Concrete volume 2.4 million m3 Spill way capacity 6252m3/s Commencement Date 26 March 1998 Completion date 5 April 2002 Date of impoundment 1 November 2002 Spillage Date 14 February 2006r Cost 6.5 billion Maloti According to (Thamae, 2020) “Mohale dam has inundated 1125 ha of grazing land, 875 ha of arable land…71 households lost more than 50% of their land” Thamae further indicated that a total of 7400 people were affected by Mohale dam with 325 households resettled. Mmuela TailpondMmuela TailpondMmuela TailpondMmuela Tailpond Dam FeaturesDam FeaturesDam FeaturesDam Features Dam wall height 55m Crest length 200m Reservoir surface area 21.2 km2 Reservoir volume 6 million m3 Thickness at base 15m Full supply level / Pool Height 2075m above sea level Construction site Confluence of Malibamat’so and Bokong rivers Spillway Length Concrete volume 65000 m3 “MOHALE DAM WAS BUILT ...TO AUGMENT SOUTH AFRICA’S WATER SUPPLY AND GENERATE ELECTRICITY IN LESOTHO” (ORASECOM, 2013) 50 POLIHALI DAM According to LHDA Phase 2 of the project is underway with con- struction of the Polihali dam and its supporting infrastructure. Polihali is a concrete faced – rock filled dam at the confluence of Senqu and Khubelu in Mokhotlong district. (LHDA,2019). LHDA’s Phase 2 resettlement action plan indicates that the Poli- hali Dam will lead to permanent land acquisition of 1200 ha of arable land and over 3800 ha of range land and that the dam is going to affect over 2300 households with approximately 342 households having to be relocated. (LHDA, 2019) Affected communities will also be losing cultural heritage like archaeological sites, graves, caves / overhangs, initiation sites, natural pools / rapids to mention but a few. According to the pro- ject’s resettlement action plan, there are 5 villages which have been identified as host villages for the 342 house holds that will be displaced by pooling of the valley. Taking into considering how scares natural resources already are in terms of arable and range land in the highlands, displaced house holds are going to put pressure on already limited resourc- es in their new host villages, thus accelerating land degradation due to over grazing. Diminishing range land has previously led to deadly clashes in communities like those in the Mafeteng district and thus pose great danger to both resettled and hosting com- munities. PHASE 2 51 Fig 2.3.8 - Above, Proposed Polihali Dam Source (LHDA, 2021) 52 TSOELIKE DAM & NTOAHAE DAMS PHASE 3 & 4 According to Lesotho Highlands Water Project’s 1986 treaty be- tween the Lesotho and South Africa, Phase 3 of the project will comprise of the following; • A Storage dam on the Senqu River at Tsoelike • A Pump Station and conveyance tunnel connecting Tsoelike and Mashai Reservoirs • Extensions of electricity transmission line system • Project access roads and ancillary facilities. Phase 4 of the project will include construction of Ntoahae dam and pump station 40km down stream from Tsoelike dam along the Senqu river (water technology, 2023). Patlong village and a few other villages will be directly affected by the said construc- tion leading to involuntary relocation, lose of rangelands, herit- age and cultural sites to mention but a few. Furthermore, a number of villages across the river from Patlong depend on Ha Sekake for economic, educational and healthcare facilities and construction of the dam will have completely cut them off from accessing such. Fig 2.3.9 - Below, View towards PATLONG village and Senqu river Fig 2.3.10 - Below, Upstream view of Senqu river Source (Author, 2021) 53 CONCLUSION In conclusion, it is then evident that the sole purpose of Lesotho Highlands Water Project’s infrustructure within Lesotho is to aug- ment South Africa’s water supply while denying Basotho access to such infrustructure. On the other hand, all of South Africa’s dam infrustructure within the Orange - Senqu river basin has been established for domes- tic, industrial and irrigation purposes (ORASECOM, 2013). Transformation Resource centre (TRC) as an advocacy organi- sation that has been working with dam affected people in Leso- tho indicates that affectes such communities through the World Commission on Dams report made the following declaration; “To ensure that in the future communities are treated in a just, equitable and dignified manner, we make the following requests: • Affected communities must be allowed to participate as equal partners in the process. • Communities to be involved in decision-making process • Communities to be considered “shareholders” of dam projects resulting in benefits accruing directly to com- munities through mechanism such as trust funds. • Locally based structures to be strengthened by dam projects • Mechanisms should be developed to provide social rep- arations for those who are suffering the impacts of dams, and to restore damaged ecosystems” (TRC, 2006) 54 55 • Over view and brief history • Land use • Geo-morphology • Climate • Site 2.4 – PATLONG CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS 56 HA SEKAKE, QACHA’S NECK The following brief historical background on Patlong was given by Mrs Phatela while collecting oral stories about the origins of Pat- long. Mrs Phatela is a Sesotho and Geography teacher from Pat- long even though she now lives in Maseru: “Patlong village at Ha-Sekake, was established by Morena Sekake, the eldest of Motloheloa’s sons. The village is lo- cated where commonly referred to as Au plaas and his ter- ritory extended as far as the current Qacha’s Nek district centre, commonly refered to as “kampong”(An administra- tive camp). The said region is mainly occupied by Bakoena of Mampiti ea Sekake though some call themselves by Mosothoane, Sehapa and Thamae, Sekake was the eldest son of Mampi- ti and Motloheloa. It is said, Morena Sekake established himself in this territory before the battle of guns which took place in 1880s. The village had lookout posts on the outskirts of Patlong on much higher ground where his men would see enemies from afar so as to warn him. These are now ruins of Ha Ramatsiki, Ha Raphoto and Ha Masenyeka, (A,B and C respectively) on the map. Even though I am not sure how outposts across the river coordinated work with Patlong, I do know there are ruins of Ha ‘Masenyeka opposite Patlong, across the Senqu river, on the river right. 57 Fig 2.4.1- Patlong village and its neigbouring cluster villages formed by those who migrated from above mentined lookout posts Source (Author, 2021) 58 59 View 01 View 02 View 03 View 04 HA SEKAKE, LAND USE Arable Land LEGEND Residential Area Ntoa-Hae pool level Proposed Resettlement area Local Streams / Rivers Senqu / Orange River Local Streams / Rivers A4 Road Maseru - Qacha’s Neck border Pedestrian foot paths Local Gravel Roads Local Gravel Air strip Fig 2.4.2- Ha Sekake landuse and anticipated Ntoahae pool level Source (LAA, 2021) 60 Fig 2.4.3 View 01 - Ramatsiki ruins Source (Author, 2021) Ramatsiki outpost village Ramatsiki outpost was well positioned towards the West of Patlong. The post overlooks the Senqu river towards the North West and has a panaromic view from South West to North East, a stratergic point from which enemies could be see from down stream the river, accross the riv- er and the mountain range to the South of Pat- long. A message would then be relayed to the village should there be enemies approaching. According to oral tradition and from interviews conducted at Patlong, the village was later re- located to Ha Ramapane and Matholeng while Lesotho was under British protection. (Phatela, 2021). Stones from they village has been used to re- construct relocatee’s houses. 61 Fig _ Fig 2.4.4 View 02 - Existing village and proposed relocation area Source (Author, 2021) Arable Land LEGEND Residential Area Ntoa-Hae pool level Proposed Resettlement area Mmasenyeka ruins 62 View 03 Fig 2.4.5 View 03 - View over Patlong village towards the right hand side, - Towards Ramatsiki ruins Raphoto ruins Source (Author, 2021) Visual connection from the ridge above Patlong village towards the following outlook posts: - Ramatsiki - Raphoto and - Ha Mma Senyeka (accross the river opposite Patlong) Patlong Village Ramatsiki outlook post ruins Raphoto Outlook post ruins: Located at one of the two routes towards the main village Pat- long. “They were Bafokeng who later resettled at Ha Ramapane”. (Phatela, 2021) 63 64 PATLONG GEO-MORPHOLOGY Geomorphology A semi-formal interview was conducted with the local farming Instructor mainly to establish from a locally based expert Patlong’s geological for- mation, soil types, soil condition in terms of its fertility, prevailing weather patterns and challenges faced by the community when it comes to farm- ing. Also the aim was to establish what workable and sustainable solu- tions farmers can employ for better and increased yields. Soil types and condition According to Ntate Molefi, The Ha Sekake and thus Patlong area is, predominantly, made up of Sandstone [Lesehloa] and clay soil. As the sandstone rock erodes, its fragments are washed down steep slopes that encircle the Ha Sekake area creating a predominantly sandy soil in the area. He then further indicated that, “Because sand soils are often dry, nutrient deficient and fast draining, they have little (or no) ability to trans- port water from deeper layers through capillary transport, making them a very poor soil type to produce crops on”. There are a few flat planes in the area, and it is on these flat planes that clay soil can be found. Not only is the clay soil rich in mineral content, but mechanical farming is also easier on these flat planes and soil erosion is not as severe as sloping areas. The biggest change with clay soil is that, during the rainy season, the soil becomes saturated with water and sticky, making it impossible to tilt. When it dries out it becomes stiff and difficult to work with. 65 Fig 2.4.6 Above - Section through proposed and ex- isting site showing existing physical condi- tions on site ( rocks and soil types) Source (Author, 2021) 66 BASOTHO, AN AGRICULTURAL BASED PEOPLE Ha li ne matlopotlopo re suoe marapo, re lohe liphali, litoropo re batla ho lema. Ha li khutlele temeng re batla ho leleka tlala. Hlabula le thoasitse mobu o nonne ke selokoe maholi a thabile, nonyana molepe o khaba o pota t’simo ka hoohle. Lithaha, litsoere li okamela mohlaka, Khupi e raha ke monono naheng. Ke khutla sekoele ke roba likotelo, mahaqasi a kola likokobele meeling ea masimo ho le monate lekhulo le nonne. Meloli ea likhoale e hlaba patsana matsopong Let’soanafike le eme qhoeng le ntse le khotsa naha botle. Seboko sa tonki se utloahale ka hara motse, lesiba le lle. T. Sello, 2021 Fig 2.4.7 Below - Image 01 - Mist over Senqu Valley following 1st rain falls Fig 2.4.8 Below - Image 02 - Farmers Weeding their fields following January rains Fig 2.4.9 Below - Image 03 - Sorting of harvested produce Source (Author, 2021) Image 01 - Mist over Senqu Valley Image 02 - Farmers Weeding their fields Image 03 - Sorting of harvested produce 67 A poem welcoming the beginning of Basotho cal- endar. It starts of by affirming the coming of rain, “plenty of it so we can start preparing for working the fields.” He then proceeds to wish for prosperity brought about by rain and our work as Basotho on our fields to ensure we alleviating poverty. The last 3 sentenc- es of the 1st stanza, the poet indicates how from those rains, our planted field, the environment will have replenished too. Birds of the sky will be tweet- ing. The second stanza, the poet continues on prosper- ity brough about by the 1st rain and continues on how birds, insects and crawling wild animals will be equally cheerful. This poem is an indication of how wholistic Basotho have always been in their thinking, we have never been a people that think of the world for our benefit only, but for the entire ecosystem. Fig 2.4.10 Below - Image 04 - Vegetables on Indi- vidual gardens Fig 2.4.11 Below - Image 05 - Weather conditions within the Senqu valley favours rare fruit like Pomegranate Fig 2.4.12 Below - Image 06 Agricultural produce left as seeds for planting following season. Fig 2.4.13 Below - Image 07, preserved Fruits to be consumed through out the year. Source (Author, 2021) Image 04 - Vegetables on Individual gardens Image 05 Image 06 Image 07 68 69 PATLONG CLIMATE AND BASOTHO CALENDER Climate According to Ntate Molefi, one of the fac- tors exacerbating environmental degrada- tion around Patlong is constantly blowing Westerly and Easterly winds. The area experiences predominant westerly winds which are evident daily from mid-day. “Around 4pm”, he mentions, “wind direc- tion changes from Westerly winds to much colder Easterly winds”. These constantly blowing winds cause the soil to lose a lot of moisture creating this arid condition we have in this area. Both the Maluti and the Drakensberg Mountain ranges cut off plenty of moisture that would have otherwise fallen as rain in the Ha Sekake region. It is also worth not- ing that, even though planting evergreen trees would help break strong predominant- ly blowing Easterly and Westerly winds, they use up a lot of ground water therefore in water scarce regions like ours, planting indigenous trees is the best solution. 1. Phato – [August] “Phato ea makoatle pulula marole” [The act of digging the earth in prepa- ration of sowing sweeds 2. Loetse – [September] “Mosebetsi oa ho fata u Loetse” [The act tilling the ground is nearing comple- tion] 3. Mphalane – [October] “Mphalane ea phala tsa leshoma” [During this period a wide spread “Leshoma” flower blossoms, boys would pick it while heading ani- mals and make whistles] 4. Pulungoana – [November] [Pulumo is a type of an antelope and “Pulungoana” its offspring, with open plain antelope mating in March and April they then give Birth in late November / Early December period. It is at this time that flocks of them would be seem with their off springs. “Lipulungoana”]. 5. Tsitoe – [December] [Tsitoe is a wild insect who’s wide spread sounds / noise is heard only dur- ing December period.] 6. Pherokhong – [January] [Preparation to make scare crows at the fields gets under way] 7. Hlakola – [February] [Sorghum grain head los- ing its covering, an indi- cation that the crops are about to ripen] 8. Hlakubele – [March] [Sorghum heads are now visible at this time] 9. Mesa – [April] “Nako ea ho besa”[Burning of a particu- lar plant to speed up the process of sorghum seeds hardening] 10. Motseanong – [May] “A t’sea linonyana” [Sor- ghum seeds have hard- ened and birds cannot pick on them any more] 11. Phuptjane – [June] [Plants begin to go dor- mant and rest through the winter season, an impor- tant time period for their survival or regrowth the following spring] 12. Phupu – [July] [Plants have shed their leaves and rest for the winter season] Fig 2.4.14 Left - Basotho calander which is based on agricultural activities. The new year is cel- ebrated in August when the environment warms up and tilling the soil begins. Source (Author, 2021) 70 Basotho have been able to build a Nation state during one of the darkest periods in the history of Southern Africa. It was primarily Morena Mohlomi’s realization of how much prosperity and growth comes out of a stable com- munity that lives in peace any harmony with its neighbouring communities. Morena Mohlomi was a leader, a teacher, philosopher and in his own way one of Basotho’s earliest leadership academy following Lebollo [Initiation school]. Realising how instrumental the institution of marriage was in tying families together, Morena Mohlomi advised his students to “Mohlomi oa ho hloma thebe metseng ea batho” - [Mohlomi, he who placed shields to people’s villages / communi- ties] – meaning, through his advocacy for peace, community build- ing became possible, peace becaame a building block for Basotho communities enabling them to stabilise and grow during adverse times of Lifaqane. All due to Mohlomi’s advocasy of ; “Thrashing of corn over sharpening of spears..” Seroki is speaking of Mohlomi in this manner as he (Mohlomi) was an advocate for peace and diplomacy. ESTABLISHMENT OF BASOTHO SETTLEMENTS Peace :- Our founding Philosophy 71 Not only did Morena Mohlomi disband his army, he also indicated to them that “Make food rather than war, be better husbands and be better fathers...” Du Preez futher indicates that Morena Mohlomi would ponder on questions like “where does the universe start, where does it end? A lot of Mohlo- mi’s sayings became a great part of Basotho’s everyday life and an under- lying structure / philosophy of our livelihood. - “Ho molemo ho loetsa mohoma hona le ho loetsa lerumo” - It is better to thrash the corn than to shape a spear. - A chief is a chief by the grace of his people, a call to demogracy…. Map Morena Mohlomi’s travels in Southern Africa Morena Moshoeshoe khaitseli ea Khotso – Used to say “peace was his sis- ter” a saying from Morena Mohlomi as the sister is the most fragile person in a society and should be taken care of. Du Preez indicated. 72 There are several natural elements Basotho took into considerations when establishing and setting up a new settlement. In an interview with Ntate Mosoeu, an initiation school instructor and a farmer, He indicated that; “Metse e mengata ea khaale e teng ha joale ea Basotho e thehiloe nakong ea lintoa tsa Lifaqane, mme engoe ea nthla tsa bohlokoa ene ele ho ipatela lira, le ho li bona li sa tla le hole. Ea bobeli ene ele ho sheba sebaka sa masimo le lekhulo, le hore metsi ha a hole le moo motse u ka bang hona teng.” “Existing older Basotho villages were established during lifaqane period, one of the main aspects was to find a place of refuge from attacking enemies, and to see them from afar. Secondly, it was po tential for arable land and pastures, and availability of water.” Key factors for establishment of Basotho village are; 1. Land features that offered natural fortification to establish the Village • Patlong • Thaba-Bosiu • Sehlabeng sa Thuathe e.t.c 2. Arable land 3. Pastures / Range land 4. Springs for drinking water 5. Location of Initiation schools ESTABLISHMENT OF BASOTHO SETTLEMENTS Physical elements 73 Flat planes would be earmarked for agricultural purposes, with less slopy areas of the foothills used for establishing villages. Remaining land that is not suitable for both establishing a villages and cultivation is then used as animal pastures. There are strong similarities between early Bantu cattle farming villages like those at Ntsoana-Tsatsi and Koeneng Villages dating back to early 1200AD and current Basotho Villages indicating direct that our current Ba- sotho villages directly developed from these early settlement. Another layer of material culture that has been passed on from generation to generation. Fig 2.4.15 Left - Section through Patlong and Senqu river Source (Author, 2021) 74 PATLONG - GREEN STRUCTURE Mohlomo [Thatching grass] :- This is one of the most valuable natural resource that is rapidly diminishing due to environmental degradation. Thatching grass not only is it used for roofing but straw mats [Moseme le Sethebe], food silos [Lisiu], food bowls [Liroto]. Loli :- Another form of grass useful for house hold utensils like Lithebe (food and place mats), meseme [Floor mats], Liroto [food silos]. Lehlaka [Plural Reeds] :- For construction they are placed on top of purlins to provide support for thatching grass, also to act as a water proofing membrane in cases where there is inadequate thatching grass. When a family or home stead has a newly born baby, a river reed would get fixed to a roof of a hut where the baby is in as an indication of no entry for men. - “Kere Motho u tsoa lehlakeng, Ntsoana-tsani” Pitso Ramakhula Lekhala le leputsoa [Agave] :- Agave is mainly used as a fence around homesteads and communal gardens. The root part of the plant is mainly used for making ottomans and drums, crafted ornaments and firewood to list a few. The bold nature of the stem and leaf base create a protective barrier against intrusion and prevent animals from roaming into home steads. Its succulent leaves are used for medicinal purposes and to sanitize water. Flower Stalk – As an Agave plant ages it develops a flower stalk over a period of 10 to 30years of vegetation growth. This stalk is used for roof- ing rafters, fencing poles, chicken and animal sheds. Molutu :- A hardwood tree used to make yokes, rafters, kraal gates, walking and fighting sticks. 75 Tsinabelo – A shrub used for fire wood, weav- ing of buttons during the roofing process. Due to its structure it can also be used for sweeping while still green and freshly picked. Torofeie [Prickly pear] - Has eatable fruits and is used as forage for goats. Kharetsana [Spiral aloe] – Used for medicinal purpose and soft landscaping on homesteads Mokhoamphiri - Fire wood and fencing / vegeta- ble garden enclosure Lengana [Artemisia Afra] - A flue medicine …. Selepe - A purple wild flower whose roots are used as protection against evil or dark spirits and night. Khutsana – Is a plant mainly used during cleansing ceremony, the plant is mixed with a variety of ingredients depending on one’s clan and family customs and belief. Lesika - Medicinal plant whose extract is used for treating flu Cheeche - A shrub used mainly for firewood Lehlajoe – A shrub used mainly for firewood, vegetable garden fence, its softer branches are also used as an out-door sweeping broom. 76 “Molimo o mocha rapela oa khale, Re rapelle ho o moholo Jere, Molimo ak’u utloe rea rapela, Molimo o liatla li maroba, Liatla li robokiloe ke ho re shoela, Liatla li tsoeu tsa Rammoloki, Liatla li t’soeu ke ho bopa masea, Hahla-macholo, hlahla metsi oa etsa keleli, Hoba keleli e nchafatsa lichaba, Lichaba li tsoang ho oena ‘Mopong Lichaba litlang ho khutlela meahong Leseli THAPELO EA BASOTHO 77 CHAPTER 03 - BASOTHO COSMOLOGY: place making through cultural landscape • Overview • Liboko - [Clan odes] A link between lineage and territory • Lithoko tsa Marena - [Praise poems] • Lithothokiso - [Poems] 78 BASOTHO COSMOLOGY Cosmology - According to Oxford English Dictionary, cosmology: b. Philosophy. That branch of metaphysics which deals with the idea of the world as a totality of all phenomena in space and time. Nicholas Campion indicates that “Anthropological cosmologies are based on the proposition that ideas about the cosmos are integral part of hu- man cultural and social systems.” He further indicates how Gumerman and Warburton argued that to truly comprehend a culture we must have a sense of its cosmology, a people’s idea and concept of themselves in relation to the heavens and greater totality as ideas can be inspired by cultural influences too. On culture, Campion indicates that it is “a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which man communicate, per- petuate and develop their knowledge of and attitudes towards life”. There for bring about the importance of preservation of culture as it is an em- bodiment of knowledge. Oral tradition through a few selected genres 79 Oral Tradition According to (T’siu, 2008) oral tradition can be defined as “a testimony trans- mitted verbally from one generation to another. Its special feature is the fact that it is verbal in the manner it is transmitted.” He goes on to indicate that oral tradition as a depository of knowledge relies on numerous contributors, some of whom experienced the account, others witnessed and refined the narration while others were mediums through which the tradition passed through as it went from generation to generation. African oral tradition, Caplan argues, has been for centuries pilloried by West- ern historians as it is highly figurative and thus laborious to analyse. This is also true for Sesotho, hence a common saying “Sesotho ha se tolokoe” which meant “Sesotho as a tradition is not to be explained” An expression that would normally be used by an elder to a younger person who might be ask- ing “Why?”. The reason for the response “Sesotho ha se tolokoe” is because there are structures and social processes that one goes through which gov- ern and reveal when the time is right these culturally encoded compositions. Traditional ceremonies and rights of passages then become fundamental thresholds through which layers of closely guarded history and experiences get unveiled. 80 LIBOKO - A link between lineage and Territory Liboko (Clan names or odes) As Basotho, we associate and identify ourselves using Liboko (clan names), these are orally narrated family odes which praise and venerate our ances- tors’ clans while tracing our ancestral lineages through generations. Not only are they oral carriers of culture, history and heritage, but they are also names of communities that formed as different chiefs broke away from their communities in search of new territories as communities grew and resourc- es diminished. Clan names were derived mainly derived from a venerated animal or take after a founding leader’s name. • Bakoena – Derived from Koena, son of Malope • Bataung – Derived from the lion as their totem (singular.: Tau) • Bakubung – Derived from “Kubu” (Hippopotamus) etc. Liboko like family trees, can trace two people from different families back to a common origin. 81 Mofokeng oa maotoana finyela, Ke Mofokeng oa maotoana finyela, Motho oa Manti, oa Mope, motho oa morara lia Phole. Morara likhomo oa rara le batho, oa qetella ka ho rara lithebe. Mofokeng oa maoto a makolo ka linaleli, Joang ba t’sane molelengoane, khomo li hlajoa ha mafube a hlaha. Phoka ha tsatsi le hlaha e ea nyamela. Mofokeng oa Manti oa Mope. Ke Mofokeng oa Manti oa Mope. Motho oa koana Mamafahla Motho oa pitsa-litelle tsa Mofoqoi Pitsa litelle ka peea maumo. Lilauli bo Makara le leshano La na la re khomo e tla tsoala petsana, Khathe e tla tsoala namane, ea e tsoala e hlabana Lona ba ha Makara le bangata, Le kalo ka linaleli, Empa linaleli holimo ha lieo, le kalo ka joang batsane molelengoane. Ramphoko o shoele ke pelo kholo O shoele ke pelo ea likhomo le batho. BAFOKENG 82 BATAUNG and BAKUBUNG BAKUBUNG Mokubung oa Ha Soai le Soinyane Ke Mokubung oa mahoete oa komane Oa Soai le Soainyane, Kubu ea boliba bo botala Habo okameloe utla uela Kubu Kubu tsosa marota re bone. (Author’s clan ode) Through Liboko, Basotho even today are still able to trace their ancestral lineage as far back as Ntsoana- Tsatsi. Fig 3.1.1 Above - Bataung and Bakubung Lineage from Bahurutse Source (Ellenberger, 1956) 83 As per oral tradition, Thulane left Bahurutse around 1650 and migrated South crossing Lekoa (Vaal River) before its confluence with Noka ea Ntha (Vals river) settling between the banks of Vals, Vet and Vaal, there establishing the Bataung clan. (Ellenberger, 1956) The Bakubung later split from Bataung. Both Bataung and Bakubung were renowned hunters and builders. Architecture - Cobbled houses Fig 3.1.2 Above - Thulare’s Migration from Bahu- rutse towards the Vaal triagle where he es- tablished the Bataung clan Source (Author, 2021) 84 Lithoko (Praise songs / poetic praise eulogies) With family odes having laid a foundation of ancestral lin- eage knowledge, Lithoko (Praise songs) expand to capture even more detailed accounts of how a community would have been formed, past and present achievements of an individual, a family or community. Lithoko intertwine family odes with community feats like battles, cattle raids and any other major events that shaped or led to establishment of a clan. They have been instrumental in capturing, marking and eternalising exis- tential moments within the continuum of space and time. In other instances, they would paint an oral picture of the landscape upon which a set of events took place or cap- ture the seasons too. Initiation schools were and still are instrumental in teach- ing initiates how to eloquently construct this lived mem- ory and art form that Lithoko (sig.: Ho Ithoka) really are. Both clan names and praise songs have been a vehicle through which embodied knowledge of Sesotho has been passed from generation to generation. 85 Lithoko tsa Morena Moletsane) Tebe-tebe, reketla Ramoeletsi Makhom’a malota a oele, Ho oele linku, ho oele Lipoli Ho oele le likonyana tsa Lefurutsi Moletsane, maa hae, oa omana O omantsoe ke basali ba hae, Ho thoe ho tsekoa likhomo tsa poela Ho tsoa hloeloa ke Lobona le Pshabane Se oa Khorong ha ‘Manthatisi se apere masala, Molamu, oona, o t’soere t’sukulu Mapaholle oa Ramoipone, O parollotse Likhomo li patiloe Le lelekisa-t’soana, lelekisa khomo Mohats’a sebina Nka, U hamele seethe sethole, U hamele ngoanana Malimong Ke Morena, mor’a Malie ‘mesetsoa name Marumo h’a besetsoe ke motho Ke lepotla-potla la Rakhosi, Let’soara, Thipa maseha oa Rakhosi, Let’soara EEna Morena o mohloile, E ne ere h’a tla bona o mo hloile A bona h’a laeloa Barolong, T’siame, pholo li khaotse liketane, Khomo li khaotse mehala, Tsiame Morena Moletsane ke sebaka se kotsi se tetebelang, Se reketlang, moo ho tetebelang Barolong, moo ho khet’semelang bahlabani ba baholo le bana ba ntseng ba ithuta ntoa. Interpretation Left - Thoko tsa Morena Moletsane, a de- cendant of Thulare. The praise poem paints a picture of a battle landscape between Bataung and Barolong Source (Mangoaela, 1980 ) Fig 3.1.3 Above - Basotho warriors 86 NTSOANA - TSATSI LEHLAKENG According to oral tradition, Basotho originate from Ntsoana-Tsatsi, Lehlak- eng (Place of reeds) modern day Tafelkop. Knowledge of Ntsoana-Tsatsi as a place of origin has been passed on from generation to generation through lit’somo, Liboko, Lipina tsa mohobelo and Lithoko, to mention a few of numerous oral genres which are intertwined with Basotho livelihood and have been carried along with our existence. Basotho like other indiginous people have suffered expropriation and continuous displacement from their land in the land in the past 400years . From Boer Trekker military depredations as they migrated North from the Cape colony and began to settle the territory occupied by Batlokoa, Ba- phuthi, Bataung, Barolong and Bakoena all of whom are descendants of Bafokeng . Displacing them from their land that came to be known as the Orange Freestate and parts of the Transvaal. Following establishment of Lesotho as nation state, it soon became a British protectorate and yet Basotho were further betrayed by the very same “Protectors” (B. Coplan) , up until today whereby Basotho are still being displaced by mega-hydro project in the name of development. This unfortunate chain of events have rendered a once self-sufficient subsist- ent farming people into an impoverished people who depend on supplying labour to the Republic of South Africa. Not only are these displacements impoverishing Basotho, they also completely erase any memory held by the environment Basotho had established themselves in. 87 Fig 3.1.3 Above - Settlement cluster at Kweneng an ancient Tswana settlement recently discov- er through LiDar scan. Source (Sadr, 2021) 88 89 • Basotho Building Culture - Patlong Village • Gando teachers housing - Bukina Faso • Hikma Religious & sercular complex - Mariam Kamara CHAPTER 04 – CASE STUDIES 90 BASOTHO BUILDING CULTURE Patlong Setllement Pattern Patlong was established on the Northern slope overlooking the Senqu River. The settlement is lo- cated between farming field to the south on a flat plane and the river further down towards the north and two streams towards the East and the west of the settlement. The Settlement organically grew radially from Morena Sekake’s Home Stead but following the lie of the land along flatter areas of the slope, thus eventually creating a linear settlement. The Village fabric follows the lie of the land creat- ing a linear progression of homesteads along a contour. stacked on terraced land up the slope 91 Patlong Setllement Pattern Fig 4.1.1 Right- Patlong Village, Ha Sekake Qacha’s Nek Distric Source (Author, 2021) 92 BASOTHO BUILDING CULTURE Patlong Village Anchor spaces According to (Schama,1995) “landscape can be viewed as a possibility of layered common places rich with complexities of tradition…” further- more Schama indicates that “landscapes should not just be viewed as visual or textual symbols but as sources of social and personal identities. Lukaszyk on Symbolic space indicates that it can be defined as “a con- tinuum of actualized and possible interactions between complex forms of information, (myths, poems, paintings, etc), a process induced by cultural stress.” According to T. Greider “Landscapes are the symbolic environments cre- ated by human acts of conferring meaning to nature and the environ- ment, of giving the environment definition and form from a particular an- gle” (Greider, 1994). • Lapeng - [Family Homestead] • Lebala [Household forecourt] and family’s’ semi-private space that also connects to the village’s wider network of Interstitial spaces used for circulation and daily meeting points and cultural activities, during harvest used for thrashing corn. • Sakeng [Kraals] Private male domain - • Khotla (communal Male domain and seat of local chief) – From re- solving civil matters, identifying the vulnerable in society and assisting them with Likhomo tsa mafisa and “temo ea liahlolo” to battle strate- gies and defending the community, Khotla • Mabitleng [communal burial site] – another layer of family lineage and family seniority is maintained through the order in which male family members 93 Fig 4.1.2 Above - Patlong Village, Anchor spaces 1. Communal burial sites 2. Communal and Individual kraals 3. Khotla 4. Individual homestead Source (Author, 2021) PATLONG VILLAGE ANCHOR SPACES 94 Fig 4.1.3 Above - Patlong Village, Linear progression of movement through the Village’s soft boundaries Source (Author, 2021) LINEAR PROGRESSION THROUGH THE VILLAGE 95 Fig 4.1.4 Above - Patlong Village, Thresholds within a Basotho family home- stead Source (Author, 2021) THRESHOLDS WITHIN A FAMILY HOMESTEAD 96 Evolution of Basotho Building Culture Settlements at Kweneng have the following Attrib- utes evident in current Basotho Home steads • Linear arrangement of homestead clusters • Kraals and granaries cetral to every cluster • Soft boundaries between house holds as forecourts flow into each other • Dry stacked boundary wall also acting as a utility area sheltered from winds A dry stacked Cobbled stone House cluster which was mostly found in Bataung and Bat’soeneng settlements. (Walton,1951) Image 4.1.6 Right - Cobbled Bataung and Bat’soeneng house. Source (Thaba-Bosiu Cultural Village) Fig 4.1.5 Right - Re-creation of a settle- ment cluster at Kweneng an an- cient Tswana settlement recently discover through LiDar scan. Source (Author, 2021) Re-creat- ed from work done by Prof Karim Sadr 97 Settlements cluster at Ntlo kholo - Cluster A An Early Bafokeng shelter under a cave enclosed with • Font wall - Stone rubble set in clay • Plastered with mud mixed with cow dung • Clay plastered ledges internally • Small window at (V) • Cave over hang as roof Settlements cluster at Ntlo kholo - Cluster B • Progression from round to rectalinear rooms • Plastered ledges mostly against the cave wall • Clay shelves which are still present in Basotho building culture todate. Kome Caves, though it is evident they are a develop- ment of Ntlokholo caves, they do shed light on how caves at Ntlo-Kholo might have looked like. Fig 4.1.7 Left -Cluster Settlement at Ntlo Khoolo Source (Walton,1957) Fig 4.1.8 Left - Kome Cave Settlement Source (Walton,1957) 98 99 BASOTHO BUILDING CULTURE Mohlongoa-fat’se Mokhoro - [Rondavel] A PrivatePublic B C Mohlongoa-fat’se Section • A - Covered Pation Thresh hold • B - Ifo [Hearth] • C - Mot’seo - [Raised Ledge.] Thatched Roof Loli [Thatching grass] - A locally occuring grass type, because it’s laid at a thickness of 450 to 500mm and that thatch has a low thermal con- ductivity, thermally comfortable temperatures are achieved through out the year. Molutu [A hard wood used for Trusses] Poplar where molutu is not available Walls Locally available sandstone laid with mud mo- tar made from loamy soil. Stone’s low thermal conductivity and the thick- ness it gets laid at, comfortable internal thermal conditions are achieved through out the year Window and door reveals are decorated with murals Materiality • Laced timber structure covered with rubble in mud • Walls covered with thatch externally • Internal walls plastered with mud with cow dung • Thatched roof Materiality • Locally available timber trusses • 450 thick Basalt or Sandstone walls (Depending on context) • Mud mixed with cow dung platered interiors Fig 4.1.9 Left - Mohlongoa-fat’se Fig 4.1.10 Above - Mohlongoa-fat’se section Source (Author,2021) Fig 4.1.11 Left - Mokhoro (Rondavel) trusses and purlins Fig 4.1.12 Left -Mokhoro purlins fixing with thatch above Fig 4.1.13 Left - Mokhoro under construction with sand- stone Fig 4.1.14 Left - Mokhoro elevation with litema (Murals) Source (Author,2021) 100 Ho Lila [External & Internal Plastering process] Soil Type Selokoe - Loam Soil and used. In other instances a “Khatampi” a ditch with required soil qualities can be kilometres away. 1 Loam soil Mixed with Cow Dung A muddy mix is then mixed with fresh cow dung to a required consistancy. Grass soil particles together 2 Ho Lila - Plastering Process 3 Door Reveals and surrounds External Hearths Fig 4.1.15 Left - Process of applying plaster on walls, windows and door reveals. Source (Author,2021) 101 102 BASOTHO BUILDING CULTURE - INFERENCE DRAWN It is evident that evolution of Basotho’s building culture has been refined over centuries from Ntsoana-tsatsi’s organic cluster pattern with apparent forecourts, soft boundaries between homesteads, dry stack construc- tion through to settlements at Ntlo-kholo which also grew organically along an existing cave condition to contemporary Basotho villages and homesteads with similar attributes. This necessitates for preservation of this knowledge through re-interpretation of vernacular architecture going forward. Furthermore, Basotho’s building exhibit a strong sus- tainable nature in its totality. Not only are our buildings sustainable from a thermal performance point of view but from a wide range that includes and not limited to the following aspects which will be adopted during designing of Patlong’s ASC:- • A design that follows the lie of the land thus mini- mizing disturbance of existing topography. • Orientation towards the North for maximum har- vesting of the sun’s energy • Locally sourced building materials thus reducing proposed building’s carbon foot print. 103 • Adoption Lebala [homestead forecourt] as the main or- ganizing element around / along which building units will be organized. Basotho’s homestead forecourt is more than just an arrival space, but a multilayered space where a wide range of cultural and traditional ac- tivities take place, making it the most important space on a homestead. • Pooling of local labour through matsema (working par- ties) during collection of local building materials Lastly, adoption of Basotho’s vernacular Architecture dur- ing design and construction of Patlong’s Agricultural skills center guarantees availability of locally available building and crafting skills and further ensures knowledge of Ba- sotho’s building culture is continued to future generations. 104 GANDO PRIMARY SCHOOL - CASE STUDY Project: Gando Primary school Teachers’ Housing Location: Gando, Boulgou, Bukina Faso Project Year: 2010 Architect: Farncis Kere Brief According to KereArchitecture, Gando teachers’ housing in Bukina Faso is a contemporary interpretation of Bukina Faso homestead. Similar to tradi- tional homesteads, Gando teachers housing is also arranged in a curvilin- ear layout. Furthermore, the project was realised through the use of locally available building materials and skills and yet achieved a contemporary and highly efficient solution (Kerearchitecture,2021). The project’s main structural elements are 3 parallel 400mm thick walls constructed of stabilised earth bricks above which a Concrete ring beam supporting a vaulted stabilised brick structure rests. Due to abundant clay Bukina Faso, it became a predominant building mate- rial. Floors were created by tamping of clay to create smooth homogenous surfaces. Fig 4.2.1 Right - Gando Primary School Teachers housing Source (Kerearchitecture,2021) 105 Climate control Due to its geographical position, Bukina Faso has a dry tropical climate with a short rainy sea- son and a long dry season. Gando and Tenkodogo experience between 110 and 220mm of Rainfall during their rainy season which is from June to October. During the hot and dry season, maximum temperatures go as high as 40°C. A barrel vault roof constructed of stabilised earth blocks acts as the main roofing element. A second layer of corrugated sheets above the vaulted earth blocks’ structure allows for natural ventilation of the roof void, thus preventing heat build up inside the house. Additionally, corru- gated sheets allow for clean rainwater harvesting. A system of open channels reticulates harvested rain water to an underground water tank for use during the dry season (Kerearchitecture,2021). Fig 4.2.2 Bottom Left - Local community involved during construction Fig 4.2.3 Above - Gando Teachers housing Floor plan Fig 4.2.4 Above - Section through Teachers housing Source (Kerearchitecture,2021) 106 GANDO PRIMARY SCHOOL - INFERENCE DRAWN The following inference was drawn from Gondo primary school project that will be applicable to Patlong Agricultural Skills centre • Contemporary interpretation of traditional homesteads • The Use of locally available natural resources for construction • Adoption of thick walls both as structural elements and thermal per- fomance. • Involvement of local community in re-construction of their new vil- lage 107 108 HIKMA RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR COMPLEX - CASE STUDY Project: Hikma Religious and Secular Complex Location: Dandaji, Niger Project Year: 2018 Architect: Atelier masomi, Studio chahar Brief - Program, Form and Circulation - Tectonics and Materiality - Climate control - Project Analysis Mariam Kamara indicates that African Architecture needs to develop its own voice and have confidence in its solutions. She further outlines that as African Architects, we need to pay more attention to our context in terms of culture, avail- ability of resources and the local materiality and building cul- ture. Kamara’s work thus becomes an ideal precedence of an Architecture rooted in its context. (Atelier Masomi, 2021) Not only does her firm look towards existing traditional Archi- tecture, its form, materiality and climatic response, they also consult with local builders to come up with details builders without formal training but have building experience would understand and learn from. They also formulate solutions Fig 4.3.1 Above - Hikma Secular complex library, Niger Source (Kerearchitecture,2021) 109 that will leave local builders with advanced skills rooted in locally avail- able materials. The result is an Architecture that is of its place not only from envi-ronmental, cultural and socio-economic point but formally too. On her work on the Hikma Religious and Secular complex, Kamara avails to local builders a vaulting technology that would have rather been difficult to study and perfect. But due to possibilities offered by computer-modelling techniques, an optimum design was achieved, and simple drawings availed to local builders. (Atelier Masomi, 2021) Fig 4.3.2 Top Left - Hikma Mosque along side Hikma Secular complex, Niger Fig 4.3.3 Above - Dome structures on Hikma secular complex Source (Atelier Masomi, 2021) Fig 4.3.1 Above - Hikma Secular complex library, Niger Source (Kerearchitecture,2021) 110 HIKMA RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR COMPLEX - INFERENCE DRAWN The following inference was drawn from Hikma Religious and Secular complex which is also applicable to Patlong Agricultural Skills centre • Involvement of local crafts men and women in development of tech- nical solutions when putting the building together. • One of the areas Atelier Masomi focuses on is skills transfer and that too shal be adopted for Patlong ASC. • Atelier Masomi further re-introduces as part of their design values embeded in communities they are designing for to ensure they are sustained. 111 112 Fig _ Left -Proposed Patlong village resettlement Source (Author, 2021) 113 • Design Cherette • Design development • Technical systems CHAPTER 05 – DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 114 DESIGN CHERETTE GRAIN SILO Traditional Grain Silo’s have a symbolic meaning of prosperity and thus were part of every Basotho homestead. FRAMED STRUCTURE These were mainly hung from a simple triport structure made of locally available hardwood. 115 SERUMULA / BEACON OF LIGHT With the most basic of materials, a becon of light sysm- bolising reconstruction is achieved. Proposed Agricultural skills centre should not be realised as a place of relocation but rather a symbolic new begin- ning strongly rooted in Basotho’s own heritage. The said agricultural skills centre as an anchor should bring about light through traditional and new knowledge. 116 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT LEGEND - 03LEGEND - 02 01 - Submerged Existing burial site becomes the main organis- ing element linked to symbolic resting place by memorial deck 02 - Submerged Ruins 03 - Memorial deck 04 - Growth direction of the ASC 05 - Relocated village pattern revised to soft boundaris foreach homestead defined by individual kraals, vegetable plots and cluster of houses 06 - Future village growth 07 - Allowed Growth direction of the village’s commercial aspect 08 - Ntoahae Dam LEGEND - 01 01 - Granary 02 - Community workshop spaces 03 - Communal kraals 04 - Outdoor Khotla and symbolic resting place 05 - Memorial deck 06 - Agricultural skills centre 07 - Typical Homestead plot type 08 - Townhouse type plot types 09 - Ntoahae Dam 10 - Existing burial site 01 - Memorial bridge 02 - Agricultural Skills centre (ASC) main building 03 - Workshops / Seminar spaces 04 - Equipment Storage and Mechani- cal workshop 05 - Granary 06 - Symbolic final resting place of all individuals who’s graves had to be relocated 07 -Vegetable gardens 08 - Ntoahae Dam Viewing points along a memorial walk Active building edges facing North creating sheltered forecourts Soft boudary edges allow for free pedestrian movement Continuous thatch blanket over main Agricultural skills centre both for thermal perfomance cultural preservation Thatch bale facade on the East elevation of ASC main building South facing clerestories for workshops to allow soft light Activities to be allowed to flow outside below pegola Terraced landscape to follow the existing topography 3. Design opened up to follow existing topography as initially intended 4. Circulation as main organising element with strong indoor / outdoor relationship 2. Initial clusted developed further into buildings organised around a coutyard 1. Cluster of buildings bound by a covered walkway following topography Strong axis established between symbolic resting place, memorial bridge and current burial site Viewing points along a memorial walk 01 07 08 01 02 06 04 05 08 09 10 07 06 02 03 01 08 04 05 07 03 05 04 03 03 02 06 117 LEGEND - 03LEGEND - 02 01 - Submerged Existing burial site becomes the main organis- ing element linked to symbolic resting place by memorial deck 02 - Submerged Ruins 03 - Memorial deck 04 - Growth direction of the ASC 05 - Relocated village pattern revised to soft boundaris foreach homestead defined by individual kraals, vegetable plots and cluster of houses 06 - Future village growth 07 - Allowed Growth direction of the village’s commercial aspect 08 - Ntoahae Dam LEGEND - 01 01 - Granary 02 - Community workshop spaces 03 - Communal kraals 04 - Outdoor Khotla and symbolic resting place 05 - Memorial deck 06 - Agricultural skills centre 07 - Typical Homestead plot type 08 - Townhouse type plot types 09 - Ntoahae Dam 10 - Existing burial site 01 - Memorial bridge 02 - Agricultural Skills centre (ASC) main building 03 - Workshops / Seminar spaces 04 - Equipment Storage and Mechani- cal workshop 05 - Granary 06 - Symbolic final resting place of all individuals who’s graves had to be relocated 07 -Vegetable gardens 08 - Ntoahae Dam Viewing points along a memorial walk Active building edges facing North creating sheltered forecourts Soft boudary edges allow for free pedestrian movement Continuous thatch blanket over main Agricultural skills centre both for thermal perfomance cultural preservation Thatch bale facade on the East elevation of ASC main building South facing clerestories for workshops to allow soft light Activities to be allowed to flow outside below pegola Terraced landscape to follow the existing topography 3. Design opened up to follow existing topography as initially intended 4. Circulation as main organising element with strong indoor / outdoor relationship 2. Initial clusted developed further into buildings organised around a coutyard 1. Cluster of buildings bound by a covered walkway following topography Strong axis established between symbolic resting place, memorial bridge and current burial site Viewing points along a memorial walk 01 07 08 01 02 06 04 05 08 09 10 07 06 02 03 01 08 04 05 07 03 05 04 03 03 02 06 118 SPATIAL ANALYSIS CIRCULATION STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS SUSTAINABILITY Ground floor level is predominantly multipurpose meeting and seminar spaces with provision to allow activities to over- flow into foyer space. Foyer space will also function as a permanet exhibition space for Basotho’s culture and heritage. The building’s circulation happens on the East side of the building along the Foyer space. Movement is also allowed for between the foyer and outside space to allow for break-aways and activity overflow to forecourt space. First floor foyer space functions as a break away space, emergency evacuation for upper level. First floor’s main activity is the library and gallery to Khotla space. Foyer space space functions mainly as a break-away space for both the library and gallery, Foyer’s double volume creates a visual connection between first and ground floors. Roof top area has been realised as mainly accessible multipurpose external space. Continuous thatch blanket over main building protects the building from harsh Westerly Winds and acts as a thermal blanket against cold winter conditions. Thatch bale facade on the East elevation reduces heat loss in the foyer space. Additionally, the facade has been designed with openings to allow sufficient natural light on the upper level of the foyer space. East facing Clerestory opening above the library brings in soft thus minimising dependency on artificial light. Additionally, an East facing shopfront facade in the library draws in additional natural light from double volume foyer. GROUND FLOOR SPATIAL ANALYSIS FIRST FLOOR SPATIAL ANALYSIS ROOF LEVEL SPATIAL ANALYSIS GROUND FLOOR CIRCULATION FIRST FLOOR CIRCULATION Laminated timber trusses act as the building’s main structural componets that transfer windloads, Dead loads from thatch into the ground. Exposed Structure LAMINATED TIMBER TRUSSES Exposed 450 dia. Reinforced concrete coloumns carry the building’s loads on the East side of the building while most of the loads on the West rest on thick masonry wall. REINFORCED CONCERETE COLUMNS ROOF LEVEL CIRCULATION Assembly Space and exhibition space Food Facility Bathroom Facilities Circulation Library O�ce LEGEND 850 & 450 THICK STONE WALL CONTINUOUS THATCH BLANKET CONTINUOUS THATCH BLANKET CONTINUOUS THATCH BLANKETThick STONE walls support laminated trusses directly above the Khotla space. A ring beam above the wall transfes loads from laminated trusses through masonry wall down to foundations. TECHNICAL SYSTEMS 119 SPATIAL ANALYSIS CIRCULATION STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS SUSTAINABILITY Ground floor level is predominantly multipurpose meeting and seminar spaces with provision to allow activities to over- flow into foyer space. Foyer space will also function as a permanet exhibition space for Basotho’s culture and heritage. The building’s circulation happens on the East side of the building along the Foyer space. Movement is also allowed for between the foyer and outside space to allow for break-aways and activity overflow to forecourt space. First floor foyer space functions as a break away space, emergency evacuation for upper level. First floor’s main activity is the library and gallery to Khotla space. Foyer space space functions mainly as a break-away space for both the library and gallery, Foyer’s double volume creates a visual connection between first and ground floors. Roof top area has been realised as mainly accessible multipurpose external space. Continuous thatch blanket over main building protects the building from harsh Westerly Winds and acts as a thermal blanket against cold winter conditions. Thatch bale facade on the East elevation reduces heat loss in the foyer space. Additionally, the facade has been designed with openings to allow sufficient natural light on the upper level of the foyer space. East facing Clerestory opening above the library brings in soft thus minimising dependency on artificial light. Additionally, an East facing shopfront facade in the library draws in additional natural light from double volume foyer. GROUND FLOOR SPATIAL ANALYSIS FIRST FLOOR SPATIAL ANALYSIS ROOF LEVEL SPATIAL ANALYSIS GROUND FLOOR CIRCULATION FIRST FLOOR CIRCULATION Laminated timber trusses act as the building’s main structural componets that transfer windloads, Dead loads from thatch into the ground. Exposed Structure LAMINATED TIMBER TRUSSES Exposed 450 dia. Reinforced concrete coloumns carry the building’s loads on the East side of the building while most of the loads on the West rest on thick masonry wall. REINFORCED CONCERETE COLUMNS ROOF LEVEL CIRCULATION Assembly Space and exhibition space Food Facility Bathroom Facilities Circulation Library O�ce LEGEND 850 & 450 THICK STONE WALL CONTINUOUS THATCH BLANKET CONTINUOUS THATCH BLANKET CONTINUOUS THATCH BLANKETThick STONE walls support laminated trusses directly above the Khotla space. A ring beam above the wall transfes loads from laminated trusses through masonry wall down to foundations. 120 121 CHAPTER 06 - DESIGN • Design • Design documentation 122 In order to relocate 40 households at Patlong who will be af- fected by the pooling of the Ntoahae dam. A sustainable re- construction strategy is proposed, a strategy that will see the community take part in planning, re-construction and reloca- tion of their new village so as to ensure continued knowledge of Basotho building culture. Contrary to previous relocation strategies by LHDA and simi- lar authorities, where communities being relocated have bee