Teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in uMkhanyakude mainstream schools: Pedagogical strategies that work By Chief Ntshangase 2398295 A thesis submitted in fulfillment of a requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In African Languages and Lingusitics Supervised by: Dr Lindiwe Tshuma March 2024 i DECLARATION I, Chief Ntshangase hereby solemnly declare that the thesis submitted to the University of the Witwatersrand for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy has not been previously submitted to any other university for assessment purpose, and that all sources contained therein has been duly acknowledged and indicated by means of complete references. Signed by _______________________ Day ______________in the month of______2024. ii DEDICATION I humbly dedicate this thesis to my late grandmother Lucy Rose Mthembu. Thank you for your prayers, blessings, endless love, and unwavering support you showed. Although you are late, but your teachings about life, God, and respect will forever run through my veins, you remain the greatest influence in my life. I also dedicate this work to my mother Mary Mthembu. Thank you for your prayers, your presence in my life as well as the support you demonstrated throughout my studies, I will continue making you proud. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, Dr Lindiwe Tshuma not only for her inspiring tutelage and guidance but also for being a present supervisor. Through her expertise, ideas and academic wisdom I have come to witness a great deal of growth in academia. Working with her has cultivated my academic growth both personally and professionally. Her reassurance and immense knowledge have been a true blessing in this journey. I would like to express my sincere feelings of gratitude to all the participants who participated in this study. Thank you for availing yourselves to be interviewed, observed also for sharing your in-depth experiences which made it possible for this study to be a success. My gracious thanks extend to the National Research Foundation for providing the financial support to carry out this research project. My deepest thankfulness goes to my fellow PhD candidates Bongiwe Mtambo and Luthando Thwala. Thank you for those wonderful discussions, advice and positive comments you provided in our weekly meetings. iv LIST OF CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS EMANATING FROM THIS STUDY Batho Abantu African Languages Association (BAALA) hosted by the North-West University, March 2023 International Conference on Language, Multilingualism and Decolonization practices in Higher Education hosted by University of the Free State, July 2023 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS EMANATING FROM THIS STUDY Ntshangase, C. (2023). Challenges faced by Intermediate Phase isiZulu teachers in teaching inclusive reading. Journal for Language Teaching, 57(2) 2023 https://doi.org/10.56285/jltVol57iss2a6127 Ntshangase, C. & Tshuma, L. (2023). Methodology lecturers’ pedagogical strategies used to prepare pre-service teachers Intermediate Phase isiZulu teachers for teaching inclusive reading. Per Linguam 2023 39(2):40-62 http://dx.doi.org/10.5785/39-2-1075 https://doi.org/10.56285/jltVol57iss2a6127 http://dx.doi.org/10.5785/39-2-1075 v LANGUAGE CERTIFICATE 3 March 2024 TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN This is to confirm that I assisted Chief Langelihle Ntshangase (Student number: 2398295) with the language editing of his thesis submitted to the Department: African Languages and Linguistics, School of Literature, Language and Media (Wits). The title of the thesis is Teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in uMkhanyakude mainstream schools: Pedagogical strategies that work. I went through the thesis making corrections and suggestions with respect to language usage to the best of my ability in the document, which needed detailed attention, and restricted my editing to addressing such issues. Given the nature of the process, it is not necessary for me to see the final version, but I always remained available for consultation as long as necessary. I may be contacted at the number/address below for further information or confidential confirmation. Dr Edwin Hees (Associate Professor Emeritus) University of Stellenbosch Private Bag X1 Matieland 7602 Cell: 076 977 7742 eph@sun.ac.za mailto:eph@sun.ac.za vi TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION........................................................................................................................... I DEDICATION............................................................................................................................. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... III LIST OF CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS EMANATING FROM THIS STUDY ..... IV LIST OF PUBLICATIONS EMANATING FROM THIS STUDY ...................................... IV LANGUAGE CERTIFICATE ................................................................................................... V LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. XV LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. XVI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... XVIII ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. XX CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Classification of learners with learning challenges in the United States .................. 3 1.2.2 Identification and screening of learners with learning challenges in Zambia .......... 4 1.2.3 Classification of learners with learning challenges in South Africa ........................ 4 1.2.4 Learners with learning challenges in the uMkhanyakude District ........................... 6 1.2.5 At-risk readers .......................................................................................................... 7 1.2.6 Educational policy governing the teaching of learners with learning challenges in South Africa .............................................................................................................. 8 1.3 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................... 9 1.3.1 Pre-service teacher training on inclusive reading for mainstream classrooms ............ 10 1.3.2 Reading comprehension among at-risk readers ...................................................... 10 1.3.3 The importance of developing reading skills in a home language at the Intermediate Phase level ......................................................................................... 11 1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................... 11 1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................... 12 1.5.1 Lexical quality hypothesis (Perfetti, 2007) ............................................................. 13 1.5.2 Phases of word learning theory (Ehri & McCormick, 2008) ................................. 13 1.5.3 The simple view of reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) .......................................... 13 1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 13 1.6.1 READING PHASES ................................................................................................... 14 vii 1.6.2 Foundational skills in reading ................................................................................. 15 1.6.3 Preparation for teaching at-risk readers .................................................................. 15 1.6.4 Curriculum stipulations for the development of home-language reading in the Intermediate Phase .................................................................................................. 16 1.6.5 Pedagogical strategies to foster reading comprehension ........................................ 17 1.6.5.1 Text-based approach to language teaching .......................................................... 18 1.7 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................. 18 1.8 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .............................................................. 19 1.8.1 Aim of the study ..................................................................................................... 19 1.8.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................... 19 1.9 KEY RESEARCH QUESTION AND RESEARCH SUB-QUESTIONS .................. 19 1.9.1 Key research question ............................................................................................. 19 1.9.2 Research sub-questions ........................................................................................... 20 1.10 RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................. 20 1.10.1 Data-collection tools ............................................................................................... 22 1.10.2 Sampling method .................................................................................................... 24 1.10.3 Target population .................................................................................................... 25 1.10.4 Trustworthiness, credibility and dependability ...................................................... 25 1.10.5 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................. 26 1.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 26 1.12 STUDY LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS ................................................... 27 1.13 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ................................................................................ 28 1.14 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 29 1.15 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS.......................................................................... 30 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................ 32 2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 32 2.2 SIMPLE VIEW OF READING .................................................................................. 32 2.2.1 Empirical evidence of the simple view of reading ................................................. 34 2.3 LEXICAL QUALITY HYPOTHESIS ........................................................................ 36 2.3.1 Components of high quality lexical representations and reading comprehension . 37 2.3.2 High-quality lexical representations and word identity .......................................... 37 2.3.3 High-quality lexical representations and reading inferences .................................. 38 2.3.4 Empirical evidence of the lexical quality hypothesis ............................................. 39 2.4 EHRI AND MCCORMICK’S WORD LEARNING THEORY ................................. 40 viii 2.4.1 Empirical evidence of using the word learning theory ........................................... 42 2.5 RELEVANCE OF KEY CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS TO THE PRESENT STUDY ........................................................................................................................ 42 2.6 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER THREE: AT-RISK READERS ............................................................................ 48 3.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 48 3.2 LITERACY IN SOUTH AFRICA .............................................................................. 48 3.2.1 Literacy in the Intermediate Phase ......................................................................... 49 3.3 INTERNATIONAL ASSESSMENTS ON READING .............................................. 50 3.4 PERSPECTIVES ON AT-RISK READERS .............................................................. 51 3.4.1 At-risk readers: International context ..................................................................... 51 3.4.2 At-risk readers: Sub-Saharan context ..................................................................... 53 3.4.3 At-risk readers: South African context ................................................................... 54 3.4.4 At-risk readers: KwaZulu-Natal context ................................................................ 55 3.5 AT-RISK READERS IN MAINSTREAM SCHOOLS .............................................. 56 3.5.1 Identifying at-risk readers in the mainstream classrooms ...................................... 57 3.6 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN TEACHING AT-RISK READERS ...... 58 3.7 PLANNING A READING INTERVENTION TARGETING AT-RISK READERS 60 3.8 CHALLENGES FACED BY AT-RISK READERS IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 61 3.9 TEACHING INCLUSIVE READING IN MAINSTREAM SCHOOLS ................... 61 3.10 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER FOUR: STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING ISIZULU READING COMPREHENSION ................................................................................................................. 63 4.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 63 4.2 COMPONENTS OF READING COMPREHENSION .............................................. 63 4.2.1 Vocabulary and background knowledge ................................................................ 64 4.2.2 Fluency instruction ................................................................................................. 66 4.2.3 Phonemics awareness ............................................................................................. 69 4.2.4 Syllable awareness .................................................................................................. 70 4.2.5 Phonics .................................................................................................................... 70 4.2.6 Morphological awareness ....................................................................................... 72 4.2.7 Spelling and reading comprehension ...................................................................... 74 4.2.8 Motivating learners to read ..................................................................................... 75 4.2.9 Factors affecting reading development outside the classroom ............................... 76 ix 4.2.10 Assessing reading comprehension .......................................................................... 76 4.3 READING STRATEGIES .......................................................................................... 77 4.3.1 Understanding reading in isiZulu language ............................................................ 78 4.3.2 Overview of strategies promoting reading development ........................................ 79 4.3.3 Teacher challenges in engaging with comprehension instruction .......................... 82 4.3.3.1 Teacher beliefs about reading pedagogical strategies ......................................... 82 4.3.3.2 Teacher knowledge relevant to reading pedagogy ............................................... 82 4.4 EDUCATION POLICIES GOVERNING LEARNERS WITH LEARNING CHALLENGES ........................................................................................................... 83 4.4.1 Inclusion in the South African education system ................................................... 83 4.4.2 Reading Policy Guidelines of the KZN Department of Education ........................ 84 4.5 TEACHER EDUCATION PREPARATION PROGRAMMES ................................. 85 4.5.1 Teaching reading teachers ...................................................................................... 86 4.5.2 Effectiveness of methodology courses preparing pre-service teachers .................. 88 4.5.3 Preparation of pre-service teachers to cater for learners with extensive support needs ....................................................................................................................... 89 4.6 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 90 CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................. 91 5.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 91 5.2 PARADIGM ................................................................................................................ 91 5.2.1 Interpretivist paradigm ........................................................................................... 91 5.2.3 Ontology ................................................................................................................. 92 5.2.4 Axiology ................................................................................................................. 93 5.2.5 Epistemology .......................................................................................................... 93 5.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................ 93 5.3.1 Qualitative research ................................................................................................ 94 5.3.2 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 95 5.3.2.1 Case study ............................................................................................................. 95 5.4.2 Research site ........................................................................................................... 96 5.5 SAMPLING METHOD AND POPULATION ........................................................... 96 5.5.1 Purposive sampling ................................................................................................. 97 5.5.1.1 Purposive sampling IP isiZulu teachers ............................................................... 97 5.5.1.2 Purposive sampling isiZulu Methodology lecturers ............................................. 97 5.5.2 Sample size ............................................................................................................. 98 x 5.6 DEMOGRAPHIC PARTICIPANT INFORMATION ................................................ 98 5.6.1 Teacher demographic information of participants .................................................. 99 5.6.2 Lecturers’ demographic information ...................................................................... 99 5.7 DATA-COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS ................................................................ 100 5.7.1 Non-participant classroom observations .............................................................. 100 5.7.1.1 Non-participant classroom observations: Teachers ........................................... 100 5.7.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................. 101 5.7.2.1 Face-to-face semi-structured interviews: IP isiZulu teachers ............................ 101 5.7.2.2 Online semi-structured interviews: IP Methodology Lecturers.......................... 102 5.8 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE .......................................................................... 103 5.8.1 Thematic data analysis .......................................................................................... 103 5.9 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF DATA .......................................................... 105 5.9.1 Triangulation ........................................................................................................ 105 5.9.2 Credibility ............................................................................................................. 106 5.10 CONFIDENTIALITY AND ANONYMITY ............................................................ 106 5.11 ETHICAL APPROVAL AND ACCESS TO PARTICIPANTS .............................. 107 5.12 LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY .................................... 107 5.13 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 108 CHAPTER SIX: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA: NON-PARTICIPANT CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS ......................................................................................... 109 6.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 109 6.2 NON-PARTICIPANT CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS ...................................... 109 6.2.1 Classroom organization in the reading lesson ...................................................... 109 6.2.2 Teacher activities before reading .......................................................................... 110 6.2.2.1 Grouping learners for reading tasks................................................................... 110 6.2.2.2 Reading scaffolding ............................................................................................ 111 6.2.2.3 Learner preparation to read ............................................................................... 113 6.2.2.4 Emphasizing targeted reading skills before reading .......................................... 114 6.2.3 Learner reading activities ..................................................................................... 115 6.2.3.1 Reading instruction provided to learners ........................................................... 115 6.2.4 Code-focused reading strategies ........................................................................... 117 6.2.4.1 Learner and teacher spelling development activities ......................................... 117 6.2.4.2 Learner and teacher vocabulary development activities .................................... 119 6.2.4.3 Learner and teacher letter sound development activities ................................... 121 6.2.4.4 Multisensory (audio-visual) activity ................................................................... 124 6.2.4.5 Availability of reading materials in a reading classroom .................................. 126 xi 6.2.5 Teacher activities after reading ............................................................................. 127 6.2.5.1 Text summary ...................................................................................................... 127 6.2.5.2 Questions about the text ...................................................................................... 128 6.2.5.3 Word definition ................................................................................................... 130 6.2.5.4 Writing about the text read ................................................................................. 132 6.2.6 Teaching and learning resources .......................................................................... 133 6.3 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 137 CHAPTER SEVEN: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA: SEMI- STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS WITH TEACHERS .......................................................... 138 7.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 138 7.2 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS WITH TEACHERS ................................... 138 7.2.1 Teacher preparation for inclusive reading ............................................................ 139 7.2.1.1 Pre-service teacher education courses on inclusive reading ............................. 140 7.2.1.2 Attending short courses on inclusive reading ..................................................... 141 7.2.2 Classroom organization for at-risk readers ........................................................... 142 7.2.2.1 Identifying at-risk readers in a class .................................................................. 142 7.2.2.2 Teacher suggestions for sitting arrangements that work best for at-risk readers ......................................................................................................................................... 143 7.2.2.3 Benefits of organizing the at-risk readers ........................................................... 144 7.2.3 Specific lesson components targeting at-risk readers ........................................... 145 7.2.3.1 Grouping learners to read .................................................................................. 147 7.2.4 Pedagogical strategies for teaching inclusive reading comprehension to at-risk readers ................................................................................................................... 149 7.2.4.1 Pedagogical strategies for teaching isiZulu reading comprehension ................ 149 7.2.4.2 Challenges encountered while teaching reading ................................................ 151 7.2.4.3 Challenges encountered while practising fluency .............................................. 152 7.2.4.4 Challenges encountered while identifying words ............................................... 153 7.2.4.5 Challenges encountered while teaching phonemics ........................................... 155 7.2.4.6 Pedagogical strategies suggested as being effective .......................................... 156 7.2.5 Availability of learning and teaching source materials (LTSM) for teaching isiZulu reading comprehension to at-risk readers ............................................................. 157 7.2.6 Policy regarding at-risk readers in mainstream schools ....................................... 159 7.2.6.1 Improvement in the curriculum and policies for pedagogy strategies ............... 160 7.3 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 162 CHAPTER EIGHT: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA: SEMI- STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS WITH LECTURERS ....................................................... 164 8.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 164 8.2 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS WITH LECTURERS ................................. 164 xii 8.2.1 Lecturer guidance on inclusive reading for at-risk readers .................................. 165 8.2.1.1 Lecturers’ understanding of inclusive reading ................................................... 165 8.2.1.2 Methodology module focusing on inclusive reading .......................................... 166 8.2.1.3 Guiding pre-service teachers to identify at-risk readers .................................... 168 8.2.1.4 Preparing pre-service teachers to accommodate at-risk readers ....................... 169 8.2.2 Pedagogical strategies for teaching inclusive reading comprehension to at-risk readers ................................................................................................................... 171 8.2.2.1 Recommended reading strategies to use ............................................................. 171 8.2.2.2 Preparing pre-service teachers to teach oral reading fluency ........................... 173 8.2.2.3 Preparing pre-service teachers to teach vocabulary .......................................... 174 8.2.2.4 Preparing pre-service teachers to teach inferences ........................................... 176 8.2.2.5 Preparing pre-service teachers to teach phonemes ............................................ 177 8.2.2.6 Challenges pre-service teachers encounter when teaching inclusive reading ... 178 8.2.2.7 Improving the reading pedagogical strategies ................................................... 180 8.2.2.8 Promoting inclusive reading in the mainstream schools .................................... 182 8.2.3 Teaching and learning resources suited for teaching inclusive reading ............... 184 8.2.4 Policy regarding at-risk readers in mainstream schools ....................................... 186 8.2.4.1 Changes in the current South African Education policies on inclusive reading 187 8.3 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 189 CHAPTER NINE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................................... 190 9.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 190 9.2 THEMES EMANATING FROM THE STUDY ...................................................... 190 9.2.1 Approaches to reading .......................................................................................... 190 9.2.2 Importance of pedagogy and curriculum content in stimulating positive teachers’ beliefs and behaviour in the reading classroom. ................................................... 191 9.2.3 Comprehension courses for language teachers ..................................................... 192 9.2.4 Assessment as a way of improving reading comprehension ................................ 192 9.2.5 Learner/Teacher attributes conducive for inclusive reading ................................ 193 9.2.6 Resources that support inclusive reading ............................................................. 193 9.2.7 Education policies governing inclusive reading in South African Primary Schools .............................................................................................................................. 194 9.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS: INTERMEDIATE PHASE ISIZULU READING TEACHERS TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION ................................... 194 9.3.1 Inadequate preparation for reading lessons .......................................................... 194 9.3.2 Structuring reading strategies for inclusive reading ............................................. 195 9.3.3 Agglutinativity of African languages ................................................................... 196 9.3.4 Teachers’ competence in cognitive reading components ..................................... 197 xiii 9.3.5 The role of inclusion in teaching reading comprehension .................................... 198 9.3.6 Amount of time reserved for reading instruction in the inclusive reading classrooms ............................................................................................................ 199 9.4 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS: PREPARATION OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS TO TEACH INCLUSIVE READING ...................................................................... 201 9.4.1 Absence of an inclusive reading policy ................................................................ 201 9.4.2 Standardization of inclusive reading in university teacher education departments .............................................................................................................................. 201 9.4.3 Inclusive reading as a way of addressing poor reading skills at primary school level .............................................................................................................................. 202 9.4.4 Reading teacher education program ..................................................................... 202 9.5 FINDINGS EMANATING FROM THE KEY RESEARCH QUESTION .............. 203 9.5.1 Findings emanating from research sub-questions ................................................ 204 9.6 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 207 CHAPTER TEN: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................. 208 10.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 208 10.2 RECOMMENDATION EMANATING DIRECTLY FROM THIS STUDY .......... 208 10.2.1 Recommendation 1: .............................................................................................. 208 10.2.2 Recommendation 2: .............................................................................................. 209 10.2.3 Recommendation 3: .............................................................................................. 209 10.2.4 Recommendation 4: .............................................................................................. 209 10.2.5 Recommendation 5: .............................................................................................. 210 10.3 RECOMMENDATIONS EMANATING INDIRECTLY FROM THIS STUDY ... 211 10.3.1 Expose pre- and in-service teachers to a transformative learning context to foster inclusive reading ................................................................................................... 211 10.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ........................................... 211 10.5 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 213 REFERENCE LIST ................................................................................................................. 215 APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................ 249 APPENDIX 2 ............................................................................................................................ 251 APPENDIX 3 ............................................................................................................................ 256 APPENDIX 4 ............................................................................................................................ 259 APPENDIX 5 ............................................................................................................................ 261 xiv xv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Simple view of reading.............................................................................................. 33 Figure 2.2: Word identification and lexical quality ..................................................................... 38 Figure 2.3: Ehri and McCormick’s Word Learning theory ......................................................... 40 Figure 3.1: Grade 4 and 6 PIRLS achievement by language of test (PIRLS 2023) .................... 50 Figure 3.2: The Matthew effect in poor reading .......................................................................... 58 Figure 4.1: Components of reading comprehension .................................................................... 64 Figure 4.2: The bridge between word recognition and reading comprehension .......................... 66 Figure 4.3: Representation of phonological awareness ............................................................... 68 Figure 4.4: differences between phonological awareness and phonics ....................................... 72 Figure 5.1: Data collection strategies......................................................................................... 103 xvi LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Summary of the research methods .............................................................................. 22 Table 1.2: Summary of data collection tools used to collect data for specific research sub- questions.................................................................................................................... 23 Table 1.3: Sample size ................................................................................................................. 25 Table 2.1: Relevance of key conceptual frameworks to the study .............................................. 44 Table 5.1: Sample size ................................................................................................................. 98 Table 5.2: Teacher demographic information .............................................................................. 99 Table 5.3: Lecturers’ demographic information .......................................................................... 99 Table 6.1: Classroom organization in the observed classrooms ................................................ 110 Table 6.2: Learner selection according to reading ability .......................................................... 111 Table 6.3: Reading scaffolding .................................................................................................. 112 Table 6.4: Learner preparation to read ....................................................................................... 113 Table 6.5: Reading instructions provided to learners ................................................................ 116 Table 6.6: Learner and teacher spelling development activities ................................................ 118 Table 6.7: Learner and teacher vocabulary development activities ........................................... 120 Table 6.8: Learner and teacher letter sound development activities .......................................... 122 Table 6.9: Teacher engaging learners in multisensory (audio-visual) activity .......................... 125 Table 6.10: Availability of reading materials ............................................................................ 126 Table 6.11: Text summary ......................................................................................................... 128 Table 6.12: Questions about the text.......................................................................................... 129 Table 6.13: Word definition ....................................................................................................... 131 Table 6.14: Writing about the text read ..................................................................................... 133 Table 6.15: Teaching and learning resources ............................................................................ 134 Table 7.1: Pre-service teacher education courses on inclusive reading ..................................... 140 Table 7.2: Attending short courses on inclusive reading ........................................................... 141 Table 7.3: Identifying at-risk readers in a class ......................................................................... 142 Table 7.4: Sitting arrangement working better for at-risk readers ............................................. 143 Table 7.5: Benefits of organizing at-risk readers ....................................................................... 144 Table 7.6: Specifics of the lesson targeting at-risk readers ....................................................... 146 xvii Table 7.7: Selection of learners to read ..................................................................................... 148 Table 7.8: Pedagogical strategies for teaching isiZulu reading comprehension ........................ 149 Table 7.9: Challenges encountered while teaching reading ....................................................... 151 Table 7.10: Challenges encountered while practising fluency .................................................. 153 Table 7.11: Challenges encountered while identifying words ................................................... 154 Table 7.12: Challenges encountered while teaching phonemes ................................................ 155 Table 7.13: Pedagogical strategies suggested as being effective ............................................... 156 Table 7.14: Reading material available for at-risk readers ........................................................ 158 Table 7.15: Policy for teaching at-risk readers .......................................................................... 159 Table 7.16: Improvement in the curriculum and policies for pedagogy strategies .................... 161 Table 8.1: Lecturers’ understanding of inclusive reading ......................................................... 165 Table 8.2: Methodology module focusing on inclusive reading ................................................ 166 Table 8.3: Guiding pre-service teachers to identify at-risk readers ........................................... 168 Table 8.4: Preparing pre-service teachers to accommodate at-risk readers ............................... 169 Table 8.5: Recommended reading strategies to use ................................................................... 172 Table 8.6: Teaching oral reading fluency .................................................................................. 173 Table 8.7: Teaching vocabulary ................................................................................................. 175 Table 8.8: Teaching inference .................................................................................................... 176 Table 8.9: Teaching phonemics ................................................................................................. 177 Table 8.10: Challenges pre-service teachers encounter when teaching inclusive reading ........ 179 Table 8.11: Improving the reading pedagogical strategies ........................................................ 180 Table 8.12: Promoting inclusive reading in the mainstream schools ........................................ 182 Table 8.13: Teaching and learning resources suited for teaching inclusive reading ................. 184 Table 8.14: South African policy guidelines for inclusive education ........................................ 186 Table 8.15: Changes in the current SA education policies on inclusive reading ....................... 187 xviii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ANA Annual Assessment Report CAPS National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement CBM Curriculum Based Measurements DBE Department of Basic Education DBST District- Based Support Team DeE Department of Education EGR Early Grade Reading ESL English Second Language FAL First Additional Language FFW-L Fast-For-Word Language FP Foundation Phase HEQE Higher Education Qualifications Framework HL Home Language IHE Institution of Higher learning Education IP Intermediate Phase IRA International Reading Association KZN KwaZulu-Natal LoLT Language of Learning and Teaching LTSM Learning and Teaching Source Materials MRTEQ Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications NRP National Reading Panel NRS National Reading Strategy ORF Oral Reading Fluency PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study RTI Response to Intervention SACMEQ Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality SBST School-Based Support Team SIAS Strategy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization xix USAID United States Agency for International Development WCPM Words Read Correctly Per Minutes WPM Words Per Minutes xx ABSTRACT Despite several interventions put in place to alleviate the reading crisis in South African primary schools, many teachers still experience challenges in teaching reading comprehension. The situation is even more dire with regards to teaching inclusive reading to at-risk readers in mainstream schools in under-resourced settings. The term at-risk readers refer to learners with reading difficulties. Curriculum guidelines on reading do not outline pedagogical strategies that are effective in reading classrooms that include both at-risk and healthy progress readers. It is against this background that this study investigates the pedagogical strategies used to teach isiZulu inclusive reading comprehension at the Intermediate Phase level. Since the majority of studies conducted around literacy challenges focus on teachers’ capabilities to teach reading, this study extends this debate by interrogating teacher educators’ facilitation of inclusive reading. This qualitative study is guided by the interpretivist paradigm and framed by the Lexical quality hypothesis, Word Learning Theory and the Simple view of reading approach. Non-participant classroom observations and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from 10 intermediate phase isiZulu teachers based in mainstream schools, in uMkhanyakude district. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with seven isiZulu methodology lecturers purposively selected from five South African universities. The qualitative data were analysed by the researcher through thematic analysis. The unit of analysis in this research are the pedagogical strategies for developing intermediate phase isiZulu inclusive reading among At-Risk readers. Findings indicate that intermediate phase isiZulu teachers struggle to organize meaningful and cohesive reading strategies. Strategies employed are not structured to address specific reading challenges and consequently at-risk readers in mainstream schools remain inadequately catered for. Furthermore, university teacher education departments do not adequately equip pre-service intermediate phase teachers with the necessary pedagogical skills to teach inclusive reading to at-risk readers in mainstream schools. This study, thus contributes to the body of knowledge related to the pedagogical strategies best suited for developing inclusive reading. xxi 1 CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction The transformation of South African education after 1994 produced several positive outcomes in enforcing learning equality and ensuring that education must be accessible to everyone. However, many learners with learning challenges in mainstream schools are still left behind (Hodgson & Khumalo, 2016). As much as these learners are physically included in the mainstream schools, the majority of them are academically excluded as a result of insufficient academic support and interventions assisting them to meet their needs (Donohue & Bornman, 2015). It is necessary to address various learning challenges, including communication challenges, behavioural problems, reading and writing difficulties, second-language learning challenges and listening difficulties, to name a few. The present study focuses on the isiZulu reading comprehension skills for at-risk readers in the Intermediate Phase (IP) level in mainstream schools of the uMkhanyakude District in KwaZulu-Natal province. Reading comprehension is primarily important for developing learners reading proficiency, so this study investigates three reading stages (pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading) taken into account to teach reading comprehension. The study focuses on these three reading phases to understand the reading strategies used to teach inclusive reading and how at-risk readers are supported while they are reading. The notion of inclusive reading is derived from the concept of inclusive education, which refers to teaching learners with learning challenges in the same classroom as learners who do not have learning problems as stipulated in the Education White Paper six (DoE, 2001). In the context of this study, inclusive reading then means teaching reading comprehension in the same classroom to both learners with reading difficulties and readers who are making healthy progress. This study posits that among the factors perpetuating the academic exclusion of at-risk readers are pedagogical strategies currently stipulated in the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS, 2011), which do not accommodate inclusive reading. The policy statements recommend a text-based approach to be used to develop reading amongst all learners in the mainstream IP classes (DBE, 2011: 18). The assumption of this study is that the pedagogical strategies employed by reading teachers hardly contribute to inclusive reading to accommodate at-risk readers in the Intermediate Phase in mainstream schools. In other words, many learners with academic 2 challenges in the mainstream classroom are still left behind as the consequence of pedagogical strategies which have the effect of excluding them in the academic context of learning. The recent findings of the Progress in International Reading Literacy study (PIRLS) indicate that reading is in a crisis in South African primary schools, since 81% of Grade 4 learners cannot read for meaning and understanding (Mullis et al., 2023). Inadequate reading pedagogical practices contribute significantly toward the reading difficulties experienced in classrooms. This is because many teachers in mainstream schools are insufficiently skilled to adapt their pedagogical strategies to accommodate at-risk readers (Donohue & Bornman, 2015: 4). As a result, this may place constraints upon teachers who are expected to deliver the content to at-risk readers in Intermediate Phase classes. This study examined pedagogical strategies for supporting at-risk readers in reading comprehension, specifically at the selected Intermediate Phase mainstream schools in the uMkhanyakude District. This study considered the vital nature of pre-service teacher preparation in terms of inclusive reading pedagogy in university teacher education programmes. Therefore, to understand the deeply-rooted challenges faced by teachers in undertaking inclusive reading specifically for at-risk readers in mainstream classroom, this study investigated pre-service teacher preparation in methodology courses in teaching inclusive reading in isiZulu home language to at-risk readers. 1.2 Background A mainstream school in the South African educational context refers to an ordinary neighbourhood schools that all children attend (DoE White Paper Six, 2001). Mainstream schools have an obligation to accommodate learners with learning challenges or disabilities. The Screening Identification Assessment and Support (SIAS) policy indicates that it is mandatory for all learners to attend their local neighbourhood school first, despite of their disability condition. 3 The SIAS policy plays a crucial role in identifying whether learners require a low, moderate or high level of support to meet their needs. The level of support needed will then determine their placement in schools. Different countries adopt their own policies and protocols to classify and determine the level of support required by a learner, which later guides their placements. The following section discusses the classification of learners who may require extra support in the United States, Zambia and South Africa. Whilst, this study’s focus is within the education context of South Africa, however, it was essential to further understand how reading challenges are dealt with from the international perspective as well as in the African context. While many other countries could have been selected, both Zambia and USA were randomly opted due to their comprehensive reading intervention plans which are detailed below. Through their reading intervention plan, the researcher believes that the South African DBE could learn and improve their reading intervention approach to cognitively assist at-risk readers. 1.2.1 Classification of learners with learning challenges in the United States The United States has implemented a Response to Intervention (RTI) approach to provide early systematic and effective assistance to learners with different learning challenges (Blumenthal & Vob, 2019). This approach screens learners with distinctive learning challenges and implements intensive interventions to respond to their challenges (Blumenthal & Vob, 2019). The RTI process is divided into three tiers of support to facilitate screening and providing extra support to learners with severe and moderate learning challenges. Tier 1 focuses on the core curriculum for all learners. Learners who do meet the standards in Tier 1 are provided with additional supplementary interventions in Tier2. These learners who are referred to Tier 2 could be experiencing moderate learning challenges, which include emotional/behavioural problems, hearing difficulties, visual problems, difficulties with memory, reading and written language. Tier 3 determines that a learner will require special education as a result of severe learning challenges such as mentally disability, deafness, blindness, Down Syndrome and any other type of diagnosed impairment. When all learners have been screened, then the group of learners who are found to be experiencing severe learning challenges under Tier 3 are referred to special schools for intensive support and medical interventions. The RTI approach of the United States is important and mostly reliable in the intervention support of learners in need. It also entails focusing on the effectiveness of the core curriculum and pedagogical practices required for learners who need extra support. When the curriculum is flexible, it is easier for learners with learning challenges to achieve their academic goals. The 4 South African education system could learn from the importance of addressing the flexibility of the core curriculum initially, before the screening process takes place. 1.2.2 Identification and screening of learners with learning challenges in Zambia The Department of Education in Zambia states that the process of identification and screening starts at birth using the Apgar scale (Lufumbo, 2016). The Apgar scale identifies and measures five dimensions, namely skin colour, heart rate, reflex irritability, muscle tone and breathing on a scale of 0-10. A score of 0-3 is regarded as critically low and a score of 4-6 is regarded as low. A learner with a score of 7-10 falls within the normal range. A low Apgar score indicates that the learner requires immediate medical intervention. As a result, many assessments are carried out to identify any potential learning challenges. Despite medical interventions, parents have a responsibility to identify a child’s developmental delays (Lufumbo, 2016). A team for assessment includes an audiologist, psychologist, ophthalmologist, counsellors, teachers and social workers working together to provide support and counselling to the parent (Mitiku, Alemu & Mengsitu, 2014). Sometimes the assessment team may recommend additional testing to be conducted, the process ends with the assessment report that indicates whether the learners require special or ordinary education (Lufumbo, 2016: 8). The Apgar scale method may be useful in the South African education context in identifying learners’ inabilities at birth. This may assist the later placement of learners in most appropriate type of school they belong. 1.2.3 Classification of learners with learning challenges in South Africa Enormous effort has been put in place in the South African educational context to respond to the learning challenges. In 2014, the Department of Basic Education gazetted a document, the Screening, Identification Assessment and Support Policy (SIAS) (DBE, 2014). The purpose of this policy is to provide a “framework for standardisation of the procedures to identify, assess and provide programmes for all learners who require additional support”. In addition, the policy seeks to promote not only quality and equal education to vulnerable learners in terms of their economic background, but also support for those with learning challenges. The SIAS policy provides guidelines in terms of screening and identification of learners who require additional support because of their learning challenges (DBE, 2014). The policy also classifies different learning challenges and indicates whether a learner requires intensive support at a special school or moderate support from a mainstream school. The SIAS policy consists of three stages of a protocol that need to be implemented in identifying 5 and screening learners with certain learning challenges. Stage One requires a teacher in the mainstream school to perform the screening process for all learners upon admission, as well as at the beginning of each school phase (DBE, 2014). The findings must be captured in the Learner Profile (LP). Stage Two becomes relevant when a learner is found to have learning challenges during screening in Stage One. In Stage Two a teacher is responsible for organising the necessary support such as a School-Based Support Team (SBST), based on information captured in the LP in stage one. Stage Two is crucial, because referral decisions are permissible according to the standard procedure of the SIAS policy. Stage Two encompasses three classifications of learning challenges that guide decisions for a learner to be referred to a special school or not. Learning challenges in the SIAS document are categorised as follows: (a) social mode challenges, (b) moderate/mild learning challenges, and (c) severe learning challenges (DBE, 2014). In the social mode challenge, learners may be labelled by society as being disabled, not because of their disability such as a visual or hearing impairment, but because of the negative attitudes and rejection experienced by these learners in society. Social mode challenges are deemed to be dangerous because they can lead to social exclusion and a learner developing debilitating psychological conditions such as stress, depression and low self- esteem (Cortez, 2016). Stage Two of the SIAS policy asserts that learners with moderate learning challenges such as emotional/behavioural problems, hearing difficulties, visual problems, difficulties with memory, and reading and writing problems must be included in the mainstream schools. However, additional supplementary support is required to ensure their inclusion. On the other hand, severe learning challenges refer to learners with intensive learning problems such as mentally disability, deafness, blindness, Down Syndrome and any other diagnosed impairment illness. Learners with severe learning challenges cannot function adequately within a normal school curriculum (Mitiku & Mengisitu, 2014; Tungaraza, 2014). For example, a totally deaf learner cannot hear any sound. These learners may require Sign Language to communicate. In other words, they are referred to special education contexts as they require extra support, as stipulated in the White Paper 6. Stage Three of the SIAS policy is known as the action stage. The District-Based Support Team (DBST) is responsible for putting the plan into action. The plan from DBST will spell out a support package that includes a budget for additional support, resources to accommodate the needs of learners with severe learning challenges, teacher training and monitoring support. The classification of learners with severe or moderate learning challenges, specifically in the 6 South African education context as per SIAS policy, categorises reading difficulties as among the moderate learning challenges, which must be addressed in mainstream schools. Since the present study focuses on at-risk readers in Intermediate Phase mainstream schools, it is consistent with the guidelines stipulated in the SIAS policy in terms of moderate learning challenges. 1.2.4 Learners with learning challenges in the uMkhanyakude District This research was conducted in ten selected Intermediate Phase mainstream schools in the uMkhanyakude District that include at-risk readers. The uMkhanyakude District is situated in the northern region of KwaZulu-Natal province. This district is the second largest district in KwaZulu-Natal with a population of approximately 625, 846 (Statistics South Africa (STATS SA), 2022: 23). Figure 1.1 indicates the map of KwaZulu Natal Province (A) and the boundaries of municipalities in uMkhanyakude District (B): Figure 1.1: Map of uMkhanyakude District Source: (Google Maps: 2023) (https://municipalities.co.za/map/121/umkhanyakude-district-municipality) UMkhanyakude district is regarded as amongst the poorest rural districts in South Africa. The uMkhanyakude district municipality’s Integrated Development Plan review (2021/22) estimates https://municipalities.co.za/map/121/umkhanyakude-district-municipality 7 that 71% of its population lives under the poverty. The majority of schools in the district are under resourced, no-fee paying schools, classified as quantile 1 to 3. The report further asserts that there is a high unemployment rate in the district at 58.6%, and poor service delivery, with only 41,3% of people receiving electricity, 38.2% without water and 18.2% without access to toilets at all. According to Majoko and Phasha (2018: 26), a report by the KZN Department of Education states that 53% of children with severe learning challenges do not attend schools and, of those with moderate learning challenges such as reading comprehension difficulties, 53% underperform in their academic activities. The report shows that these learners are between the ages of 6 to 11, from Grade 3 to Grade 7. At least 76% of children with learning challenges in KZN may not be receiving proper schooling (Majoko & Phasha, 2018:11). A variety of problems affecting the province include poor capacity development for teachers and principals, insufficient support in terms of infrastructure, shortage of school transport, an inflexible curriculum, poor monitoring, lack of motivation and insufficient assessment support (Mbokazi & Mkhasibe, 2021). 1.2.5 At-risk readers In the education context at-risk readers are regarded as learners who struggle to develop reading skills and as a result achieve poor results (De Witt & Lessing, 2018; Rule & Land, 2017). These learners are included in the mainstream classrooms and receive no special assistance (Richard, Pretice & Keith, 2013). This study identified the pedagogical strategies that work for at-risk readers when teaching isiZulu reading comprehension skills. According to the South African CAPS, the Intermediate Phase refers to the education phase ranging from Grade 4 to Grade 6. This phase requires a learner to be fully engaged in all academic skills to advance their education. Developing reading comprehension in at-risk readers in the 21st century has changed as compared to the 20th century due to the Inclusive Education Policy implemented in the education system. Teachers are required to utilise extensive comprehension pedagogical strategies, with all learners included in one setting, not only for at-risk readers (Murphy, 2016). At-risk readers may differ from skilled readers in terms of monitoring comprehension and comprehending a text, as well as dealing with their inadequacy in reading comprehension. At-risk readers may have an insufficient understanding of the keywords and the ways in which sentences correlate with one another. On the other hand, skilled readers have enough knowledge to read for meaning and understanding. 8 Should the reading make no sense, they are eventually able to draw on their prior knowledge of a text to comprehend words in the text. In the process of developing reading comprehension, teachers need to avoid low-quality reading material, including learning materials that do not relate to learners' daily life-experiences (Foorman et al., 2015). It is evident that at-risk readers tend to acquire knowledge of reading when using learning materials that reflect their daily experiences. Reading may also improve through frequent practice. It is therefore necessary that teachers provide motivation and help at-risk readers to improve their reading comprehension skills. In 2018, research was conducted by the Department of Education to determine the literacy level of learners in the Intermediate Phase (Majoko & Phasha, 2018). The results revealed that approximately 61% of learners in the mainstream classes have reading comprehension problems. However, it is important to note that there are various factors that may contribute to reading comprehension challenges, including learning difficulties. The study further showed that at least 18,5% of learners across all the provinces continuously fail reading assessments. These figures support the assumption of this study that the pedagogical strategies currently in use for developing reading comprehension in mainstream classes are inflexible and hardly benefit at-risk readers. Therefore, there is a need to identify the appropriate pedagogical strategies that can work when teaching isiZulu comprehension skills to at-risk readers. 1.2.6 Educational policy governing the teaching of learners with learning challenges in South Africa The post-1994 South African education system initially adopted apartheid laws stemming from the Bantu education system. Before 1994 South Africa laboured under a bimodal education system, which established two different education systems aimed to sustain apartheid in which one system represented opportunity and privilege for Whites and the other lack and disadvantage for Blacks. The bimodal education system made it mandatory that only 20% Black learners with special needs maybe included in well-resourced schools (DoE White Paper Six, 2001). This means that between 2.2% and 26% of black learners could not be identified as having learning challenges (DoE, White Paper Six, 2001). In the DoE White Paper Six (2001), the statistics indicated that 64 200 learners with special needs were accommodated at 380 special schools. Significant progress has been made recently throughout the nine South African provinces, where statistics indicate that approximately 119 403 learners with special needs are accommodated in special schools (DBE, 2018: 30). 9 1.3 Context of the study Various studies have been conducted on the physical learning challenges affecting learners at mainstream schools, some even questioning the practicality of inclusion, interventions and the provision of learning support in mainstream schools. However, there is still the potential to address learning challenges – specifically isiZulu-language reading comprehension for at-risk readers – as well as providing pedagogical strategies that can work effectively to reinforce academic inclusion in mainstream classes. The academic learning challenges in the teaching of African languages, such as reading comprehension, have been overlooked, but there has been greater input in addressing other academic challenges, which include English Second Language reading challenges as well as physical learning challenges such as visual problems and others. Developing isiZulu reading comprehension is crucial, not only for the purpose of learning isiZulu, but also for second-language learning (English), which is used as the medium of instruction at the selected schools. It has been shown that second-language learners develop competence in the second language by mastering their first language (Mezrigui, 2011: 43). While the CAPS document sets the expectation that all learners must meet the standard guidelines, little is said about the standards when teaching at-risk readers in mainstream classes. Simply including at-risk readers in mainstream classes without a proper plan of instruction raises serious issues of equity. Mere inclusion, (physically including children with learning challenges in regular classrooms) but otherwise excluding them from meaningful participation, can do little to promote equity of educational opportunities (Cortez, 2017). It is vital that pedagogical strategies that work effectively are used in classes to ensure academic inclusion in reading with comprehension for at-risk readers. A study conducted by Haager and Vaughn (2013) found that to set common academic demands for all learners may have a negative impact on learners with academic learning challenges, as they may struggle to cope with the required academic skills to complete tasks. In that sense, teachers will be forced to modify their pedagogical strategies to include learners with learning challenges during instruction (Haager & Vaughn, 2013). A study conducted by Cortez (2017) focusing on reading problems for learners in the lower grades found that the pedagogical strategies which teachers personally adopt do not always align completely with effective strategies that are supposed to ensure the inclusion of at-risk readers. This shows that teachers need to be assisted with specific pedagogical strategies that could be used for developing reading comprehension amongst at-risk readers. 10 1.3.1 Pre-service teacher training on inclusive reading for mainstream classrooms The task of teaching reading to at-risk readers has proven to be more challenging than once believed. In the past, pre-service teachers were taught that reading was a natural process (Narkon & Black, 2008); however, this view has been disputed (Pittman & Dorel, 2014). Reading instruction is a linguistic task which demands complex knowledge, effective pedagogical instruction and expertise to be properly taught in the inclusive classroom (Pitman & Dorel, 2014). The serious demand for an effective pedagogical reading strategy, including training, has been underestimated by universities. One consequence has been that teachers exhibit low self- confidence and even failure to adequately improve reading skills for at-risk readers. It is therefore important that methodology courses for all language teachers must include strategies suitable for at risk-readers. To achieve this objective this study explored how selected universities prepare pre-service teachers on the methodology of teaching inclusive reading in isiZulu home language to at-risk readers. The Minimum Requirement for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ 2015: 24) stipulates that all IP teachers must be adequately trained to teach both Home Language and First Additional English language. The guidelines of the MRTEQ policy are essential, provided that most IP teachers use irrelevant pedagogical strategies to teach isiZulu reading comprehension because of the lack of African-language pedagogical guides (Ntshangase & Tshuma, 2023). 1.3.2 Reading comprehension among at-risk readers Reading comprehension is a process in which a reader interacts and creates meaning from a text using information found in the text as well as prior knowledge (Murphy, 2016: 9). At-risk readers may come from less privileged environments with inadequate language literacy skills which may include prior knowledge in word recognition (Deacon, 2012). Comprehension difficulties for at- risk readers may be the result of difficulties in spelling, decoding words and fluency (Deacon, 2012). Learners need to have acquired prior knowledge of a word and have sufficient understanding of decoding to develop reading comprehension. To ensure adequate reading development, a teacher may require a comprehensive pedagogical strategy that will assist at-risk readers to enhance their competence in reading comprehension. Therefore, this study identified pedagogical strategies that can be used by teachers when teaching isiZulu reading comprehension to at-risk readers in the Intermediate Phase. 11 1.3.3 The importance of developing reading skills in a home language at the Intermediate Phase level The ability to acquire reading proficiency in one's native language can be transferred to other languages (Dolean, 2022). Pretorius and Stoffelsma (2021: 28) point out the degree to which vocabulary growth in one's native language positively influences vocabulary development in a second language. This builds on Cummins’s Linguistic Interdependence Hypothesis, which suggests that there are benefits to transferring some first-language abilities to the process of acquiring a second language. An adequate comprehension of isiZulu reading can be correlated with a knowledge of English reading, based on the Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT) transition from mother tongue instruction in the Foundation Phase (FP) to the use of English or Afrikaans as LoLT at the IP level. The threshold hypothesis states that a learner's level of home language proficiency already acquired determines whether or not they will experience cognitive deficit or benefit from learning a second language (Cummins, 1979). This implies that there may be a "threshold" that an individual must pass in their mother-tongue language, which is isiZulu in this case. Those who begin learning a second language before they reach this level will face considerable learning challenges (Cummins, 1976). Therefore, learners who have not yet reached a high enough level of isiZulu reading proficiency will experience difficulties when they switch to an English- language instructional setting. Additionally, Tshuma (2021) demonstrates the cognitive advantages for learners who have studied in both their first and second language for academic purposes. This is a justification for strengthening learners’ isiZulu reading abilities, which will inevitably equip them for a seamless transition and cognitive advantages when learning English as a second language in addition to improving their English reading abilities. 1.4 Problem statement The implementation of an inclusion policy for learners with diverse needs in the South African education context has been a matter of intense debate since 1994. The Salamanca statement (1994) asserts that every learner has a constitutional right to receive quality education. The Education White Paper Six (DoE, 2001) stipulates that learners with learning challenges should be included in the same classrooms as learners who do not have learning challenges. The idea of inclusive reading is therefore included under the umbrella of inclusive education stipulated in the Education White Paper Six (DoE, 2001). Inclusive reading refers to the teacher’s ability to teach both at-risk readers and healthy progress readers in one classroom using effective reading strategies (Berkeley 12 & Larsen, 2018). Reading challenges among learners appear to be perpetuated by the challenges facing teachers in the inclusive reading classrooms such as inadequate pedagogical strategies. These strategies are often perceived to be inflexible and resistant to acknowledging and accommodating at-risk readers (Land, 2015). It is a problem that many teachers it mainstream schools are insufficiently skilled to adapt their pedagogical strategies to accommodate at-risk readers (Donohue & Bornman, 2015: 4). This may place constraints upon teachers who are expected to deliver the content to at-risk readers in Intermediate Phase (IP) classes. This study identified the pedagogical challenges faced by IP isiZulu teachers when teaching reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in the mainstream schools of uMkhanyakude district, in the Northern part of KwaZulu-Natal province. There is a significant need to understand the role of methodology courses offered by university teacher education programmes in the preparation of pre-service teachers to teach inclusive reading to at-risk IP readers in mainstream schools. Changes in the education sector regarding the inclusion of diverse learners in one setting have been underway for at least two decades; this has placed pressure on pre-service teacher preparation programmes to incorporate inclusive pedagogies. As pre-service teacher preparation for inclusive teaching and learning in mainstream schools gains momentum, teacher education programmes are increasingly presenting introductory courses on inclusion and the factors to take into account when teaching learners with learning challenges (Allday, Neilsen-Gatti & Hudson, 2013; Harvey et al., 2010; Pugach & Blanton, 2012). Farr (2020) points out that in-service teachers do not view teaching learners with reading challenges as their responsibility. A lack of teaching strategies focusing specifically on learners with reading challenges makes pre-service teachers feel underprepared to teach reading effectively (Kennedy, Hart & Kellems, 2011). Such teacher deficiencies regarding learners with reading challenges negatively affect learner performance and deprive learners of the necessary teacher support as well as their right to quality education. One of the ways of upskilling teachers to address the teaching of learners with reading challenges involves embedding elements of inclusive reading in pre-service teacher methodology courses. 1.5 Conceptual framework This study uses the theoretical lenses of the lexical quality hypothesis, word learning theory and the simple view of reading theory to identify and explore effective reading strategies including how to understand and support at-risk readers in mainstream schools who are experiencing reading comprehension difficulties. 13 1.5.1 Lexical quality hypothesis (Perfetti, 2007) The lexical quality hypothesis describes word recognition and its significant role in reading comprehension (Perfetti, 2007; Perfetti & Hart, 2002). The lexical quality hypothesis advocates that efficiency in word recognition depends on high-quality lexical representations, namely orthography, phonology, morphosyntax and semantics. The high-quality lexical representations play an important role in word integration, including how accurately and quickly the word is read (Murphy, 2016: 9). High-quality representations are connected and well specified, leading to reliability and easy word recognition to develop better comprehension. 1.5.2 Phases of word learning theory (Ehri & McCormick, 2008) Ehri and McCormick (2008) developed five phases of word learning for improving comprehension skills among beginners and at-risk readers. The five stages help the learner to become fluent and promote the development of reading abilities. These stages are known as pre- alphabetic (preschool), partial alphabetic (kindergarten), full alphabetic (First Grade), consolidated alphabetic (Second Grade) and automatic alphabetic phase (beyond Second Grade). The word learning theory is relevant to this study as it addresses the critical phases a learner has to go through to develop reading fluency. Teachers’ understanding of these critical phases could effectively address the needs of at-risk readers in inclusive classrooms. 1.5.3 The simple view of reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) The simple view of reading approach was propounded by Gough and Tunmer (1986) and it focuses on language comprehension and word recognition as the only two processes that are necessary for success in the difficult task of reading comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990). According to the simple view of reading, both elements are crucial, and each provides the necessary skills for at-risk readers. The distinct components of the simple view of reading contribute in different ways to the development of reading comprehension across different learners with reading problems. Therefore, employing the simple view of reading approach in this study was important to understand different types of at-risk readers and their areas of reading deficiencies. 1.6 Literature review The literature reviewed in this section discusses reading phases, foundational reading skills in reading, preparation for teaching at-risk readers, curriculum stipulations regarding the 14 development of home language in the IP, and pedagogical strategies to foster reading comprehension. These concepts are the fundamental building blocks towards comprehensive reading comprehension skills and the implementation of effective pedagogies that accommodate inclusive reading in the IP. 1.6.1 Reading Phases Pre-reading The pre-reading stage refers to the reading activities that introduce the reading text, to enable learners to have sufficient background knowledge, grammar and vocabulary in order to read the text (Wahjudi, 2010). Teachers often work on a general aspect of the text to convey the background knowledge and get learners prepared to acquire new information in the pre-reading stage (Zarfsaz & Yeganehpour, 2021). It is imperative that teachers set the reading objectives they aim to achieve during pre-reading. This could be done through stating the reasons for reading, unpacking unfamiliar words or asking leading questions. Given that at-risk readers have low working memory, the pre-reading stage serves as the most important aspect in helping them recall what had been read previously and what is being read currently. While-reading The while-reading stage is an important phase which provides comprehensive demonstrations of reading pedagogical strategies (Güzel, 2022). In this stage a teacher improves at-risk readers' reading skills by identifying the main ideas of the text, making inferences about what comes next, providing ideas that relate to one another and predicting meaning of the unknown words in the text (Wahjudi, 2010). This stage is usually dominated by discussions that relate to learners’ interests. It is a crucial stage where a teacher has to be cautious not to select a reading strategy that will exclude at-risk readers from meaningful classroom participation. In other words, reading strategies selected should serve the common interest of improving not only healthy progress readers’ reading skills, but also at-risk readers included in the mainstream classrooms. Post-reading While intensive work is done in the while-reading stage, general comprehension is intended to evaluate learners’ reading skills. In the post-reading phase, learners are given opportunities to respond to what they have comprehended in the text (Güzel, 2022). Learners may be asked to provide their narrative view of the characters and authors in the text, then relate this to their personal lives, discussing ideas, incidents, turning points, feelings, and predict what would happen 15 afterwards (Güzel, 2022). Wahjudi (2010) maintains that many reading lesson plans do not reach a post-reading stage because of factors such as the teacher’s reluctance, time constraints and lack of awareness of the importance of the post-reading stage in learners’ reading development. Something must be done to assist learners to use the new information they have attained, so that the new information becomes more than just some knowledge acquired. Teachers must understand that in the post-reading stage, learners are not comprehending the text nor learning about the language of the text; instead they are applying what they have learned. Teachers could use this opportunity to examine whether at-risk readers have made significant progress, and whether they were able to read for meaning and understanding. 1.6.2 Foundational skills in reading At-risk readers reveal an early inability to manipulate phonemes and this inability is among the primary causes of subsequent reading comprehension problems (Cortez, 2017). Ehri, Stahl and Williams (2001) compared systematic phonics instruction and unsystematic instruction for learners with reading comprehension difficulties. The results showed that systematic phonics instruction assists learners to be able to read more effectively compared to non-systematic instruction. These findings are also supported by Swanson (1999), who revealed that the combination of both strategy instruction and direct instruction have a positive result amongst at- risk readers in acquiring foundational reading skills. Computer-based instruction is another approach teachers could use to support at-risk readers. It is worth noting that the computer-based approaches have not received sufficient support on the basis that many at-risk readers may lack basic knowledge about using technological systems during their learning. 1.6.3 Preparation for teaching at-risk readers There is ample evidence championing programmes that promote teachers’ ability to support the academic inclusion of learners with learning challenges (Gottfried, Ethan & Kirksey, 2019; Naidoo, 2012). Collaboration among general education and special education teachers to teach learners with learning challenges in one class was crucial in developing collaborative skills and building relationships (Wang & Fitch, 2020). Brownwell et al. (2005) reveal that the collaboration strategy fosters the academic inclusion of learners with learning challenges. In addition to the collaboration of teachers, there is also a need to promote work collaboration among school stakeholders for the purposes of educating at-risk readers attending mainstream schools. Courses in teacher education that are entirely removed from authentic field-based experiences are 16 weak in preparing pre-service teachers for inclusive teaching (Gottfried et al., 2019). Boe, Shin and Cook (2007) posits that that teachers who are novices in the profession believe that content- based preparation in relation to pedagogy is better than content knowledge alone. In other words, field-based experiences for teachers in mainstream schools may assist in developing isiZulu reading comprehension to at-risk readers. In addition, it is important to align the coursework with classroom practice to effectively prepare pre-service teachers to be able to provide support for learners with academic learning challenges. Due to the various policy and curriculum changes at higher education institutions, there are incoherent strategies of how to prepare teachers to manage inclusion in mainstream schools (Gottfried et al., 2019). Thus, universities may experience challenges in enforcing collaboration between theory and classroom practice. Sharma and Sharma (2010) recommend that education programmes must encourage pre-service teachers to reflect on their lessons so that they can identify learning issues and then rectify them to ensure academic inclusion for all. The ability to reflect on teaching practice and modify one’s practice has positive outcomes in developing reading skills among at-risk readers. Through reflection, teachers are able to identify areas that cause difficulties in reading comprehension, such as poor language comprehension, low-quality lexical representations or lack of fluency. Preparing pre-service teacher to teach effectively plays a crucial role in upskilling teachers to teach inclusive reading. 1.6.4 Curriculum stipulations for the development of home-language reading in the Intermediate Phase The Curriculum Assessments Policy Statement (CAPS) could be a contributing factor to reading difficulties in indigenous South African languages in particular (Land, 2015; De Vos et al., 2014). Many African learners struggle to remember the five vowel letters' distinct sounds and have difficulties in understanding the letters in a constructed word, yet they can chant the letters a, i and u more easily (Cronje, 2021). According to De Vos et al. (2014: 3), there is a lack of indigenous language knowledge among the curriculum developers of the CAPS document. For instance, irregularities in isiZulu structures are among the CAPS’ limitations for IP isiZulu Home Language (Cronje, 2021). The CAPS specifies various methods to spell words, however isiZulu does not use different ways to form sounds. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend the difficulties and viewpoints that teachers have when it comes to teaching inclusive reading. 17 1.6.5 Pedagogical strategies to foster reading comprehension Differentiating between written and spoken language development calls for specific skills. According to Bharuthram (2012:208), reading comprehension does not automatically improve with increased language proficiency. Instead, attention devoted to reading improves reading comprehension skills, which automatically enhances language proficiency. Watson et al. (2012) suggest a variety of tactics and elements that can be considered, including graphic organizers, text structures, summarization, text coherence and prior knowledge. 1. Concept maps, semantic feature analyses, or diagrams are examples of graphic organizers that are used to bolster knowledge in a variety of text structures, including expository and narrative texts (Ciullo, Falcomata & Vaughn, 2015). 2. Text structure: Understanding text structure aids in comprehension and helps readers retain what they have read. It is implied that students would not know how ideas should be organized if they were unable to comprehend various text structures (Watson et al., 2012). 3. Summarization: the capacity to succinctly and clearly state the main ideas of the text (Stevens & Vaughn, 2019). In order to understand and remember what they have read, this aids learners by concentrating on the main ideas of the narrative and emphasizing the text's main points. 4. Text coherence is the extent to which a reader can understand the connections between the different concepts and ideas that are conveyed in the text. Lack of knowledge would prevent a learner from identifying coherence in a text (Nahatame, 2017). 5. Past knowledge activates readers' prior knowledge on the subject and increases the likelihood that they will interact with the text, which improves readers' cumulative reading comprehension skills (Smith et al., 2021). The National Reading Strategy (DBE, 2008) aims to improve the reading level of all learners in the country, including those who experience barriers to learning and those learners who are at special schools. In order to address the reading crisis, the National Reading Panel (2000) suggests teaching the five components of reading: phonemics, vocabulary, fluency, phonics and comprehension. These instructional techniques might be adequate to encourage an optimal progression in reading abilities, but they might not go far enough in addressing the comprehension 18 difficulties that an at-risk reader faces. In primary schools, teachers must inculcate in learners the persistence required to read and comprehend challenging texts (Graves et al., 2010). 1.6.5.1 Text-based approach to language teaching The CAPS prescribes the use of a text-based language approach as an effective pedagogical method to develop reading skills amongst all learners (DBE, 2011: 18). The prescription of the text-based approach includes the development of competence, confidence, critical reading and comprehension. In other words, the text-based approach provides an understanding of how reading skills must be acquired. There are gaps between curriculum stipulations and actual classroom practice in terms of adhering to the inclusive policy regulations in place (Donahue & Bornman, 2015; Buli-Holmberg & Jeyaprathaban, 2016; Phahlamohlaka, 2017). This study contends that the text-based approach does not address the inclusion of at-risk readers during the learning and teaching process. In addition, policy does not provide clear guidelines in terms of how teachers must present their content in a way that will accommodate both skilled readers and at-risk readers in one setting. The prescribed time for conducting reading lessons in the curriculum expects of every learner to be competent in the reading area within the prescribed period, despite the inclusion of at-risk readers in the mainstream classes. Consequently, this study set out to understand how teachers in the Intermediate Phase use the prescribed pedagogical strategies to ensure inclusive reading when teaching isiZulu reading comprehension to at-risk readers included in the mainstream classes. 1.7 Rationale of the study Conceptual: The rationale of this study is to identify pedagogical strategies for developing reading comprehension skills among at-risk readers in Intermediate Phase mainstream schools. Developing these skills will allow at-risk readers to rely on their mother tongue to master the second language used as the medium of instruction. Professional: The Progress in Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS 2022/23) reveals that many learners cannot read for meaning and understanding in any language, the statistics indicate that the reading challenges are predominant in African language classrooms, including isiZulu. These results raise the question of the effectiveness of the prevailing pedagogical approaches for teaching reading in African languages. This research focuses on isiZulu to champion reading comprehension knowledge. Moreover, it is crucial that the current teacher preparation departments not only promote effective pedagogical strategies for inclusive reading in the 19 mainstream classroom to deal with at-risk readers, but also equip teachers with sufficient skills to identify at-risk readers in their classrooms. Personal: At a personal level, this study will be useful to the researcher as uMkhanyakude is the area in which the researcher grew up and is familiar with the context and has a vested interest in better understanding social issues affecting the community, including the literacy levels of learners in the district. 1.8 Aim and objectives of the study 1.8.1 Aim of the study The aim of this study was to investigate the pedagogical methods that can be suggested as being effective for teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in uMkhanyakude district mainstream schools. 1.8.2 Objectives 1. To identify the pedagogical strategies currently in use for teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers at uMkhanyakude district mainstream schools. 2. To identify the pedagogical challenges faced by Intermediate Phase isiZulu teachers while teaching reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers at uMkhanyakude district mainstream schools. 3. To determine how universities prepare pre-services teachers on inclusive reading to accommodate at-risk reader in mainstream schools. 4. To identify pedagogical strategies that can be suggested as being effective for teaching reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in mainstream schools. 5. To identify progressive policy stipulations focusing on pedagogical practices for developing reading comprehension skills among at-risk readers in mainstream schools. 1.9 Key research question and research sub-questions 1.9.1 Key research question What pedagogical methods can be suggested as being effective for teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in uMkhanyakude district mainstream 20 schools? 1.9.2 Research sub-questions This study addressed the following research sub-questions: 1. What are the pedagogical strategies currently in use for teaching Intermediate Phase isiZulu reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers at uMkhanyakude district mainstream schools? 2. What are the pedagogical challenges faced by Intermediate Phase isiZulu teachers while teaching reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers at uMkhanyakude district mainstream schools? 3. How do isiZulu methodology lecturers prepare pre-service teachers for teaching inclusive reading to accommodate at-risk readers in mainstream schools? 4. What pedagogical strategies can be suggested as being effective for teaching reading comprehension skills to at-risk readers in mainstream schools? 5. What are the progressive policy stipulations focusing on pedagogical practices for developing reading comprehension skills among at-risk readers in mainstream schools? 1.10 Research design and research methodology Research paradigm Paradigms are the worldviews that researchers bring to their studies, and which influence the ways they use the research design and conduct successful research (Creswell, 2013: 68). Bertram and Christen (2014) point out that a paradigm refers to the framework that indicates to the researcher what must be done and how to do it. This research is located within the interpretive paradigm. This is because the interpretive paradigm creates meaning that focuses on understanding people’s experiences (Husam & Pius, 2020; Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011). Through the interpretive paradigm, the study captured the experiences of teachers who educate at-risk readers in isiZulu reading comprehension at the selected Intermediate Phase mainstream schools in uMkhanyakude district, and the experiences of lecturers in the teacher education programmes. Four philosophical orientations that describe how individuals perceive the world and how relationships are developed are epistemology, ontology, methodology and axiology. Epistemology refers to how the creation of knowledge is theorised. The creation of knowledge in this study comprises suggestions of effective pedagogical practice that could be used to teach isiZulu 21 reading comprehension to at-risk readers. Ontology entails specifying the form and nature of reality. The reality in this research is that there are at-risk readers in the mainstream schools, however the teachers who are teaching them are not academically reaching out sufficiently to them. Axiology refers to the