i THE MEDIA AS A TOOL FOR PROMOTING POLITICAL AGENDAS: A STUDY OF MEDIA COVERAGE IN THE NIGER DELTA CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA ENO ABASIUBONG BASSEY 0413406f A thesis submitted to the School of the Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in International Relations. Johannesburg 2007 ii ABSTRACT This study examines the role of the media in the resource driven conflicts of the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. It examines the media strategies of the principal actors in an attempt to sway international sympathy to their political causes. It recognises the important role the media plays and interrogates the response of the local communities to the media. The findings of this study show that the role of the media has hugely impacted the conflicts and the principal actors rely immensely on media-driven campaigns in pursuit of their political goals. However, the Nigerian media, due to the challenges it faces from its political economic structure, stands the risk of being manipulated by actors? public relations machinery and therefore, needs to focus on delivering to the Nigerian people and the Niger Delta citizens in particular, its corporate social responsibility role of public watchdog. While the media?s impact on the conflict has generated both positive and negative effects, as the conflicts are still playing out, it is hoped that the media?s role, would contribute to speeding up the conflict resolution process, which is still in its infancy. iii DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is submitted for the partial fulfilment for the degree of Masters of Arts in the Graduate School of the Humanities (International Relations Department) at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other University. ______________________________ (Name of Candidate) ____ Day of _________, 20_____ iv DEDICATION To my Father Chief Moses H. Bassey Abasiubong III, my Mother Lady Iquo M. Bassey, my Siblings David, Emem, Emmanuel, Samuel and Utom-Obong; this was worth the wait, thanks for the love and prayers. To Almighty God, whose blessings, love and protection I have continually enjoyed. v ACKNOWLEDGEMNTS I would like to thank the Department of International Relations for its support throughout the duration of this second Masters Degree I have just completed. I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof Loyiso Nonxga, Prof Rok Ajulu, Prof. Rod Alence, David Monyae, Dr Gwinyayi Dzinesa and Hazel. I would in particular like to thank my supervisor Dr. Abdul Lamin. Thanks also to Prof. Tawana Kupe, my Dean and former supervisor for the support and inspiration throughout the writing of this thesis; Prof, your insightful guidance was invaluable. To my surrogate father and mentor, His Excellency Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar, I say thanks for the love. To my adopted mothers and families here, Mrs Anne Pitt, Ms Victoria Segwai and Jennifer Becker, thanks for taking in this Nigerian kid into you hearts and homes. To Prof. John Stremlau, your mentorship and support was awesome. I thank Elizabeth King and other friends; to my friend late Deborah McConnell I wish you were here today. I know you are smiling down at me up there. To the staff of the International Office, thanks guys for putting up with me. To my friends, Ndianabasi Ukpe and Lisa, Tam George, Kwaku Asante-Darko, Ben Okolo and Dr Marcellin Zounmenou, who inspite of the problems with the post colony provided the support I needed to stay focused on the goal ahead. To all my other friends too numerous to mention, I acknowledge your love, help, prayers and support. I acknowledge the prayers and support of my friends from Family Worship Centre, Abuja, Nigeria. Guys I know that I was always in your prayers. I acknowledge the support and cooperation of all my respondents, like Ibibab Don-Pedro, Sofiri Joab-Peterside, Ogbonna Nwuke, Jahman Anikulapo and others (whom I can?t mention for their own protection) for their contributions to this research. vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIT African Independent Television ANA Association of Nigerian Authors APC Arewa Peoples? Congress BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CASS Centre for Advanced Social Science CNN Cable News Agency CSR Corporate Social Responsibility FCRN Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria GNP Gross National Product ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICESCR International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICT Information and Communications Technology ILO International Labour Organisation INC Ijaw National Congress INEC Independent National Electoral Commission IYC Ijaw Youth Council KKK Klansmen Konfratanity MASSOB Movement for the Actualisation of the Sovereign State of Biafra MEND Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta MNC Multinational Corporations MOSOP Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People MP Member of Parliament NBC National Broadcasting Corporation NDBDA Niger Delta Basin Development Authority NDDB Niger Delta Development Board NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission NDP Niger Delta Press vii NDV Niger Delta Volunteers NDPVF Niger Delta Peoples? Volunteer Force NGO Nongovernmental Organisation NIIA Nigerian Institute of International Affairs NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation NTA Nigerian Television Authority OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OMPADEC Oil Minerals Producing Areas development Commission OPC Oo?dua Peoples? Congress PTF Petroleum Trust Fund PHCCIMA Port Harcourt Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture RTML Radio-Television Milles Collines SALW Small and Light Weapons SAP Structural Adjustment Programme SIPC Shell International Petroleum Company Limited SNDYCW Supreme Niger Delta Youth Council Worldwide SPDC Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited TCA Thematic Content Analysis TNC Transnational Corporations UCT University of Cape town UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization SAPES Southern African Political and Economic Series viii CONTENTS Title ............................................................................................................................ i Abstract??............................................................................................................... ii Declaration.................................................................................................................. iii Dedication.................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments........................................................................................................ v List of Abbreviations????????????????????????...vi Table of contents........................................................................................................ viii Chapter One: Introduction?????....................................................................... 1 1.1 Aim??????????............................................................................3 1.2 Statement of the Problem..................................................................................3 1.3 Research Questions??????????????????????...4 1.4 Limitation and Scope of Study??????????????????..5 1.5 Rationale\ Motivation??????????????????????5 1.6 Theoretical framework and Literature Review????????????.6 1.6.1 Theoretical framework?????????????????????..6 1.6.2 Human security: theory and concepts????????????????9 1.6.3 The Media and Society????????????????????....11 1.7 Literature Review???????????????????????12 1.7.1 Resource Driven Conflicts???????????????????...12 1.7.2 The Role of the Media in International Relations??????????....14 1.7.3 Media in Conflict???????????????????????.15 1.7.4 Globalisation and New Media??????????????????.18 1.7.5 News management techniques: a global model???????????...20 1.7.6 De-escalation of conflict????????????????????..23 1.8 Analytical Framework?????????????????????.24 1.9 Data collection????????????????????????.26 1.9.1 Data Collection Tools?????????????????????.27 1.9.2 The Interview Process?????????????????????.27 1.9.3 Interviewees?????????????????????????.29 ix 1.10 Data Analysis and Interpretation?????????????????29 1.11 Study Outline????????????????????????..30 Chapter Two: Origins of political agitations in the Niger Delta???????..32 2.1 Background on Nigeria...................................................................................32 2.2 The Niger Delta: An Overview........................................................................35 2.2.1 Socio-economic features????????????????????.35 2.2.2 Niger Delta and National Politics????????????????...37 2.2.3 Isaac Boro and the Niger Delta Republic?????????????...38 2.2.4 The Nigerian Civil War????????????????????..39 2.2.5 Oil Exploration and the Nigerian economy????????????....40 2.2.6 The Politics of conflict?????????????????????42 2.2.7 Oil exploration and the environment???????????????..44 2.3 The Ogoni struggle and the formation of MOSOP........................................45 2.3.1 Saro-Wiwa and MOSOP.................................................................................47 2.3.2 Nigerian media coverage of the conflict.........................................................49 2.3.3 Niger Delta Communities and their Perception of the Media.........................51 2.4 Conclusions......................................................................................................53 Chapter Three: Militancy and the Escalation of Conflict- A Media Driven Blueprint? ......................................................................................54 3.1. The Niger Delta Struggle...............................................................................54 3.1.1 The Ijaw National Congress and the Kaiama Declaration...........................55 3.1.2 Resource Control and the Quest for the Soul of Nigeria..............................57 3.2 Origin of Militancy in the Niger Delta.........................................................60 3.2.1 The Ideology behind MEND??????????????????63 3.2.2 Constituency and Organisation????????????????? 64 3.2.3 MEND?s Military Tactics...........................................................................65 3. 2.4 MEND?s Resistance Diary??????????????????66 x 3.2.5 A Media-driven blueprint?..............................................................................68 3.3 Niger Delta conflicts and the Implications for Human Security in Nigeria?72 3.4 Conclusion?????????????????????????..75 Chapter Four: The Nigerian Government?s Response and the Role of Secondary Actors in the Conflict ??????????????...............................77 4.1 Multinational Corporations and Globalisation................................................77 4.2 The Media Blitz and its Effects on the Nigerian Government and Shell.........79 4.2.1 Nigerian Government and News Management????????????80 4.2.2 Media Strategies of the Oil Companies??????????????...89 4.3 Actors in the Conflicts?????????????????????.92 4.3.1 Civil Society and New Media??????????????????..92 4.3.2 Response by the International Community......................................................93 4.4 Towards a sustainable development in the Niger Delta...................................95 4.4.1 Shell and the Politics of Community Development.........................................97 4.5 Conclusions......................................................................................................98 Chapter Five: The role of the Media in the Niger Delta conflicts..............................100 5.1 The Nigeria Media..........................................................................................101 5.2 Political Economy of the Nigerian Media......................................................102 5.2.1 Media ownership and control??????????????????.102 5.2.2 The Constituents of the Nigerian Media??????????????105 5.3 The Nigerian Media and Social Responsibility.............................................107 5.4 The Media and Civil Society.........................................................................110 5.5 Challenging Media Representations..............................................................112 5.6 The Nigerian Media and Corruption..............................................................112 5.7 The Nigerian Media and Nigerian Conflict..................................................114 5.7.1 The Media and Nigerian Conflict????????????????.115 5.7.2 The Media and the Niger Delta Conflicts?????????????.116 xi 5.8 Conclusion..................................................................................................123 Chapter Six: Conclusion...........................................................................................125 6.1 The Niger Delta Conflicts.........................................................................125 6.2 The Role of the Media in the Niger Delta conflicts..................................127 6.2.1 Negative effects........................................................................................127 6.2.2 Positive effects..........................................................................................129 Appendix....................................................................................................131 Bibliography............................................................................................. 140