i Affordances of Digital Simulations in Training Wastewater Treatment Practicals for Process Controllers in Technical Vocational Education and Training Institutions. Student Name: Makhawukani Dawn Maluleke Student Number: 2499159 Supervisor: Dr Nokulunga S Ndlovu Co-Supervisor: Dr Khanyisile Mbatha Date of Submission: 7 November 2023 ii Declaration I hereby declare that this research report is my own work. It has been submitted exclusively to the University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Education Degree (MEd). Signature : iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. V LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... V LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................... VII ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ 1 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 2 1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION ......................................................... 2 1.2 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM .................................................................... 3 1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 4 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ....................................................................... 4 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................ 4 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .............................................................. 5 1.7 CHAPTER ORGANISATION ..................................................................... 6 2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 8 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 8 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................. 8 2.2.1 Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) ............................................ 9 2.2.2 Affordances Framework Theory ............................................... 10 2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................... 12 2.3.1 Wastewater Treatment Processes (WWTP) .............................. 13 2.3.2 TVET and the Application of ICT in Practice ............................. 17 2.3.3 Affordances And Perceptions ................................................... 20 2.3.4 Affordances Of Digital Simulators in WWTP Practical Training .. 22 2.4 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................... 28 3 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .......................... 29 3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 29 3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH ....................................................................... 29 3.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM ........................................................................ 30 iv 3.4 TARGET POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE .......................................... 30 3.5 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING........................................................................ 31 3.6 DATA COLLECTION .............................................................................. 32 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 33 3.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS............................................................................ 34 3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................ 36 3.10 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ............................................................... 37 3.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS ..................................................................... 37 4 CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION .......................................................... 39 4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 39 4.2 SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICS .............................................................. 39 4.3 SECTION B: DATA PRESENTATION ..................................................... 41 4.4 AFFORDANCE PERCEPTION ............................................................... 42 4.5 AFFORDANCE EXISTENCE .................................................................. 44 4.6 AFFORDANCES ACTUALISATION (OBSERVATIONS OF PARTICIPANTS) .................................................................................... 47 5 CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS .......................................... 58 5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 58 5.2 AFFORDANCES PERCEPTION ............................................................. 58 5.3 AFFORDANCE EXISTENCE .................................................................. 59 5.4 AFFORDANCES ACTUALISATION AND EFFECTS (OBSERVATIONS) ................................................................................. 61 5.4.1 Perceived Affordance (Concrete experience) ............................ 61 5.4.2 Reflective observation .............................................................. 62 5.4.3 Abstract Conceptualisation ....................................................... 63 5.4.4 Active experimentation ............................................................. 64 5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS ..................................................................... 65 6 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................... 66 6.1 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... 66 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................... 68 v 7 REFERENCES ............................................................................................ 69 8 APPENDICES .............................................................................................. 75 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory ............Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2: Affordances Theoretical Framework (Hutchby ,2001) .Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 3: Application Theoretical Framework ..............Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4: Data Analysis Interactive method ................Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 5: Process Overview: Created by the participants. .........Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 6: Plant optimisation created by participants. .............................................. 51 Figure 7: Block units for the plant layout of the WWTP. ......................................... 53 Figure 8: WWTP phosphates removal ........................Error! Bookmark not defined. LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Demographics of target population .......................................................... 31 Table 2: Demographic data of participants ............................................................ 40 Table 3: Observation of Participant 1 actualisation of affordances. ......................... 49 Table 4: Observation of Participant 2 actualisation of affordances. ......................... 52 Table 5: Observation of Participant 3 actualisation of affordances. ......................... 53 Table 6: Observation of Participant 4 actualisation of affordances .......................... 55 vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AC Abstract Conceptualisation AE Active Experimentation AFT Affordances Framework Theory BOD Biological Oxygen Demand CE Concrete Experience DVD’s Digital Video Disks ELT Experiential Learning Cycle GDP Gross Domestic Product HRT Hydraulic Retention Time ICT Information Communication Technology PC Process Controller PST Primary Settling Tanks RO Reflective Observation SA South Africa SCADA Supervisory Systems and Data Management Systems TVET Technical Vocational Education and Training UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization W&WW Water and Wastewater WAS Waste Activated Sludge WBL work-based learning WEST Worldwide Engine for Simulation, Training and Automation WWR Wastewater Recycling WWTP Wastewater Treatment Processes (WWTP) vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I thank the Almighty God for providing me with the strength and determination to strive towards reaching this life milestone. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the following people and institutions for their contributions, assistance, and guidance throughout this study: ❖ "To my heavenly father, who bestows upon me wisdom and strength, and empowers me to successfully complete the tasks I initiate." ❖ My Spouse Sikheto Maluleke, my greatest cheerleader, constantly motivating me to be the best version of myself, I appreciate your devotion and faith in me. ❖ To my mother, Prescilla Ndove, thank you for doing the best you could give the circumstances and showing me the value of an educated woman. ❖ To my late father, Dr Ndove, thank you for instilling education to us and the tough lessons you taught us. May you continue to rest in Christ Papa. ❖ Nkoka Maluleke, my firstborn, you stood in those weekends, days, and nights, you are a deputy mother indeed. Thank you for just being helpful and patient with your siblings. ❖ Nhlonipho and Nhlukelo Maluleke, you understood how busy mom was, and I thank you for being patient with me. ❖ To my siblings Pamela, Matlhari and Shalati, thank you for reminding me daily why this is worth the sleepless nights. ❖ To my incredible friend Hendrik Ewerts, you are the kind of friend that every student needs; you motivated me throughout this journey and listened to my frustrations. ❖ My supervisor Dr Ndlovu and co-supervisor Dr Mbatha for the guidance and support. ❖ To the Facilitators and the Wastewater Guru’s, thank you for your participation in this study and I am hoping this study contributed to the water sector as a whole. Inkomu! 1 ABSTRACT In South Africa, Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions train process controllers in various training programmes that rely on on-the-job training at wastewater treatment plants. TVET institutions are urged to include ICT into all training practises, which may necessitate curriculum updates and adjustments. The aim of this study determined how the WEST simulator can be used to enhance practical training for wastewater process controllers. This study followed a qualitative research approach and a thematic data analysis technique. In their perceptions, the participants recognised the teaching and learning affordances of the simulator such as replication of the process overview and problem-solving abilities. The study found that the participants were able to construct a comprehensive WWTP utilising WEST simulation, indicating that the affordances can be replicated and designed in actual situations. Although the WEST simulator offers various affordances, this research found a few minor limitations with its use, such as the computer requirements, which required a RAM speed of 1500 MHz Based on the findings, it is recommended that facilitators should have skills and knowledge in the field to perceive affordances, and their existence and to actualise them to apply them in practical training online. 2 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Motivation Knowledge and skills have become the most important force driving modern economies and countries are investing increasing amounts of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in TVET education and digitalisation (Stewart, 2015). Digitalisation and innovation are affecting how people work and there is an emergence of new types of employment and workforce required. The TVET is increasingly becoming the driver for innovation and technological developments have necessitated the need to provide opportunities in e-learning for effective learning. The use of information communication technologies (ICT) tools by learners has become important for learning and skills development. Agbo and Okwuddili (2018) mentioned that in Nigeria, the use of ICT in TVET education has become essential as they are exploiting modern opportunities such as e-learning and the demand has increased rapidly in TVET spaces. According to Nystrom and Ahn (2020), the use of ICT tools is placing new demands on TVET institutions, as some aspects of vocational knowledge is learned during work-based learning (WBL). Furthermore, there is a need for TVET institutions to use simulators as a possible solution to address the need for practical learning in the curriculum and to make it possible to imitate the complexity of the vocational practice in cases where human contact is prohibited. Water and Wastewater (WW) process control is an engineering discipline that is concerned with the infrastructural intricacies for maintaining the output of specific processes within the desired range of a treatment plant. (Energy Water Sector Education Training Authority; 2014). In the context of the South African (SA) water and wastewater sector, a Process Controller (PC) is defined as any person who has achieved the relevant competencies to effectively operate a unit process at a waterworks. Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions train process controllers through Learnership programmes that rely on workplace training that is conducted on the waterworks sites. In cases where human contact is not 3 possible, this becomes a challenge. According to Eggers (2021), new technologies have the potential to deliver significant learning outcomes in the water sector. The use of digital simulations can enable learners to receive training online vocational skills. This would facilitate the creation of pedagogical practices that TVET needs to prepare their learners for the industry. The practical skills training is developed in workshops/laboratories or through WBL. Scholars (Kulkarni, Appasaba, Gokhale, & Tigadi, 2022) have shown how training programmes have benefited from digital simulations and how they were useful in training practicals. According to surveys conducted by UNESCO (2020), many countries with TVET providers stated that they are also not providing or assessing practical skills training, they are only focusing on theoretical coursework when using Online platforms. There have been some attempts to close the gap of practical training by using YouTube videos and tutorial videos however, the issue with videos is that they are not interactive and do not allow the learner to troubleshoot. To qualify, learners enrolled in the Water and Wastewater (W &WW) Learnership are expected to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the treatment of water and wastewater process, distributing of water, troubleshooting in terms of the process, and interpreting water laboratory test results. 1.2 The Research Problem The application of Digital simulation in practical training can assist facilitators in the teaching and learning process. Even for technical courses requiring practicals, TVET facilitators are expected to deliver high-quality online instruction. However, TVET face- to-face instruction is more practical than virtual instruction (Razak, Noordin & Khanan, 2022). The TVET institutions are currently conducting the W &WW Learnership by providing theoretical training online using ICT tools like Teams and Zoom Applications. The TVET facilitators (teaching process controllers) have challenges with providing learners in the Learnership with practical skills training in these online platforms (Razak et al., 2022). As a result, learners lack practical training, and the learners cannot be deployed to the industry to offer a meaningful contribution to the workforce. It is a requirement by employers that learners complete practical training prior to 4 deployment to the business (Ghavifekr & Yulin, 2021). Practical training is an essential component of the qualification and if learners are not found competent in practical training, they will not be able to practice their skill and contribute to the eradication of the water sector challenges in SA. This study explored the affordances that may be presented by integrating digital simulations into the virtual learning platforms to close the gap of practical training for the W& WWT in the TVET environment (Gebreheat, Whitehorn & Paterson, 2022; Wood, Zegwaard, Fox-Turnbull, 2020). 1.3 Aim of the Study Therefore, the aim of this research investigated how facilitators (teaching process controllers) use a digital simulator for practical training of wastewater process controllers. 1.4 Research Objectives 1. To determine the perception of facilitators towards digital simulations affordances. 2. To explore the affordances of digital simulations that epitomize the features of WWT. 3. To determine how the affordances of digital simulations can improve practical training of Wastewater Treatment Processes. 1.5 Research Questions Main Research Question: How can the affordances of digital simulations be used for Wastewater Treatment process practical training in TVET? The following sub- questions were posed to answer the main research question: 1. How facilitators perceive the affordances of digital simulators, specifically in the context of WWPC training using WEST simulator? 5 2. What are the affordances of digital simulations that can epitomize the features of WWT? 3. How do the affordances of digital simulations can improve practical training of Wastewater Treatment processes? 1.6 Significance of the Study The world of learning has progressed greatly, and ICT tools are used to facilitate training online; this has detached learners from learning centres and placed them in their own environment. However, the necessity for practical training is still vital in developing competent Wastewater process controllers. Santos, Figueiredo and Vieira, (2019) identified the following approaches to teaching; 1) mixed approaches with ICTs association; 2) digital simulation; 3) approaches employed in large classes. Embedding simulations in education helps the move to a student-centred approach, where students have greater discretion over how and when they study. The simulator's capacity to boost student engagement and encourage deeper learning was proved in this study (Santos et al., 2019). Recent technological advancements have brought significant disruption to the education sector, and one of the most promising technologies (Akour & Alenezi,2022). Litvinenko, (2020) found that many countries around the world have been actively exploring and utilising digital simulations for practical training across various fields. These simulations can help improve the training of WWTW process controllers and engineers by providing a safe and cost-effective way to gain hands on experience. Scholars such as Wang ,Homer ,Dyer, White-Hull,& Du, (2005) highlighted that the United States Environmental Protection Agency has advocated for the use of digital simulations for WWTP training to aid with certification. Whilst Canada adopted digital simulations tools for WWTW training as part of their curriculum. According to Sewilam, Nacken , Breur, & Pyka (2017), Germany places a significant emphasis on environmental sustainability and WWTP. They integrate digital simulations into the educational programs of various technical colleges and institutes to educate the next generation of WWT experts. Additionally , the researchers underscore the significance 6 of employing digital simulations in WWTP and advocate for continued exploration and innovation in this field. This study contributed to both the water sector, TVET institutions and Public Universities that are currently facilitating practical training in Wastewater Treatment processing online. Furthermore, if a positive outcome is achieved, the study increases awareness in both sectors (Water and TVET) on the use of digital simulations for practical training and this may also lead to an increased understanding of digital simulations. An example of a successful implementation of digital learning in TVET is of a Public University of Malaysia (Razak et al., 2022). Public higher education stakeholders might utilise the findings to create a framework in TVET digital learning to foster the provision of high-quality and effective online teaching and learning content (Razak et al., 2022). There are limited studies done in SA that address the need for training of WWT process controllers using simulations and this study can contribute to the field. The findings will be shared with both the TVET institutions and the Water Sector, to provide them with information on how digital simulations may contribute to skills development and holistic practical training. Ngila, Matheri, Muckoya, Ngigi and Ntuli, (2020) stated the following contributions to the South African wastewater treatment fraternity are made through the application of digital simulations: conduct site inspection of the WWTPs process units, as well as mathematical modelling and simulation, to gain a better knowledge of each treatment unit. Also, simulations will ensure the comparability of acceptable findings, adjust variables, and evaluate empirical data using quality of forecasting (prediction performance). 1.7 Chapter Organisation Chapter 1 Introduction: This chapter focused on a general introduction and context with the following sub-sections: 1.1) introduction, 1.2) background to the problem, 1.3) problem statement, 1.4) aim of the study, 1.5) research objectives, 1.6) research questions, 1.7) significance of the study, 1.8) chapter organisation, and 1.9) conclusions. 7 Chapter 2 Literature review: This chapter focused on descriptions of relevant concepts, provides comprehensive thematic conceptualisation and relevant theoretical perspectives. Chapter 3 Research Methodology: This chapter provided details of the methods and research design followed. The methods selected were based on a qualitative approach. Chapter 4 Data Presentation: This chapter presented data in two sections (Section A Demographics and Section B Data presentation). Chapter 5 Data Analysis and Findings: This chapter provided the analysis and discussion/findings from the data. Chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations: This chapter included the conclusions and recommendations made from this study. 8 2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter focused on the theoretical framework and conceptualisation of key concepts that are used in this study. The theoretical framework included theories such as the affordances framework theory (AFT) and experiential learning cycle (ELT). These theories provided a framework to explore research objectives and provide perspectives to answer the main research question "How can the affordances of digital simulations enhance Wastewater treatment process control practical training in TVET Institution? The conceptualisation consisted of the following main concepts or constructs: Wastewater treatment process; training and the application of ICT in practice; affordances and perceptions; and affordances of digital simulators to enhance practical training. 2.2 Theoretical Framework The primary objective of this research is to explore the affordances of using the Worldwide Engine for Simulation, Training and Automation (WEST) digital simulator in training practicals for wastewater process controllers (Figure 3) and the research questions are designed to delve deeper into different aspects of this objective, including perceptions, affordances, and the overall improvement of practical training in WWTP. The affordances theoretical framework and Kolb's theory of experiential learning were used in this study. This section represents the theories that served as the study's foundation. The primary goal of this study was to investigate the use of digital simulations in training practicals for wastewater treatment process controllers. The setting for this study was influenced by the experiential learning theory and the affordance framework theory. Integrating Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) and Affordance Framework Theory (AFT) provided an integrated approach to investigating the efficacy and influence of digital simulations in wastewater treatment training (WWTT). ELT focuses on learning aspects, but the AFT explores into individuals' perceptions and interactions with technology, making it a more holistic approach to the 9 research. The theories that served as the study's framework are represented in this part. The ELT and the AFT influenced the study's setting. 2.2.1 Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) Kolb (1984) described ELT as the process through which experience is transformed to knowledge. Knowledge is the product of grasping and transforming experience (Kolb, 1984). The ELT model below depicts two dialectically related modes of grasping experience, concrete experience (CE) and abstract conceptualisation (AC), as well as two dialectically related modes of transformation, reflective observation (RO) and active experimentation (AE) (Kolb et al., 2014). Concrete experiences are the foundation of observations and reflections in the four-stage learning cycle depicted in Figure 1 below, which are assimilated and extracted into abstract concepts from which new implications that can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences for action can be drawn. This theory played an important role in the observations for this study. Figure 1: Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory 10 In the context of WWTT, the CE phase holds significant importance as it fosters active engagement and provides the initial exposure to the simulator. During this phase, participants immerse themselves in practical, hands-on experiences where they actively interact with the simulation software. They make decisions and execute tasks that are directly related to WWTP. Following their involvement with the digital simulator, participants transition to the RO stage. During the RO phase, participants examine their experiences by reflecting on the affordances the encountered , the challenges they encountered , and how their decisions within the simulation impacted the final outcomes. The RO stage promotes critical thinking and self-assessment , enabling participants to extract valuable information from their learning experiences. After Completing the RO stage, participants progress to the AC phase which encourages the development of theoretical understanding. During this stage, participants may aim to extract more extensive principles and concepts from their simulation experiences. Additionally, they might engage in discussions and conceptualise strategies related to WWT based on the knowledge they have acquired. The final stage, known as AE, involves the practical application of the insights and knowledge gained through reflection and conceptualisation. In this phase , participants have an opportunity to apply what they have learned from the digital simulator to tackle problems. 2.2.2 Affordances Framework Theory In this study, the concept of affordance provides an understanding of the link between technology and human actors as demonstrated in Figure 2 below. Gibson (1994) defined affordances as "action possibilities" and believed that environmental information is readily available in the environment and may be immediately perceived. Norman (1999) applied the Gibson theory of affordances to human-computer interaction and technology design and defined affordances as the perceived and actual characteristics of the objects, especially those fundamental properties that influence how the object may be utilised. Hutchby (2001) adapted the principle of affordance from the environment to technology, interpreting affordances as an interaction between IT artefacts and humans. Furthermore, Hutchby (2001) claims that 11 affordances are not exclusively characteristics of artefacts; they are embedded in the interactions between users (Figure 2). Figure 2: Affordances Theoretical Framework (Hutchby,2001) Figure 2 illustrates the model's four stages, which are based on the link between affordances' existence, perception, actualisation, and outcomes. The first cognitive step of affordance existence is the point at which users recognise that they may have the ability to act while interacting with a technological item. According to Hutchby (2001), affordances exist where IT artefacts interact with the organisation/group. The arrow connecting the IT artefact and the organisation demonstrates that affordances are rational, which means they are not exclusive aspects of both the item and the organisation (Markus & Silver, 2008). The artefact and the user have a perfect correlation. The process of recognising the existence of an affordance that is modified by information observed by actors is described as affordance perception (Markus & Silver, 2008). Additionally, Markus and Silver (2008) stated that affordances perception is influenced by Information Technology artefact qualities that originate from the designer's goals and the capabilities of the actor's purpose. What the user/actor perceives as existing affordances is not the same as what is available. As the user engages with the artefact, they may see affordances that the artefact could provide; but, after engaging with the artefact, they may discover that the existing affordances are not what they perceived and discover new existing affordances. The actualisation notion was described by Volkoff, Johnson, Tulu, and Strong (2014) as the action performed by actors as they take advantage of affordances through their 12 use of technology to create immediate and tangible effects in support of corporate goals. Strong et al. (2014) stated that actualisation is a goal-oriented and interactive process, which means that goal-oriented actors can interact with the IT artefact and take actions to actualise affordances that will achieve immediate and concrete outcomes to support organisational goals, as well as provide feedback to adjust actions. Many consequences may be obtained and witnessed by the actors/users through the process of affordances actualisation, and these impacts are referred to as immediate concrete outcomes (Strong et al., 2014). The concrete outcomes are the outcomes that can assist support the organisation's goals and are identified through interaction between the IT objects and the user. 2.3 Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework was used by enabling the facilitator to identify the learning outcomes and thereafter engage with the WEST digital simulator to identify affordance perceptions. The trainer then performed actions/tasks to actualise the affordances they perceived of the WEST simulator and determined if the actions they performed with the simulator yielded the outcome. The trainer utilised Kolb's experiential learning theory as a guideline to determine whether the WEST simulator provides effective training approaches by evaluating if the affordance identified can support practical through the four stages of the cycle (Figure 4). The researcher observed the trainers as they apply the affordances identified to ascertain if the affordances can be actualised. 13 Figure 3: Application Theoretical Framework The AFT focuses on participants perceptions and interactions with simulator to identify and actualise the affordances in the learning process. Additionally, the theory aims to view how users engage with the simulator capabilities and affordances. Whilst the ETL provides a structured framework of the learning process. It highlights the significance of CE, RE, AC and AE while emphasising the importance of practical engagement and critical thinking in the learning process. These two theories offer a comprehensive understanding of how digital simulations are encountered, comprehended, and applied in the practical training. 2.3.1 Wastewater Treatment Processes (WWTP) South Africa is a water-scarce country, and therefore it is essential to protect water resources and the environment, thus wastewater must be treated and released to the environment as purified water appropriate for agriculture to enhance the environmental situation and groundwater sources. The key objective of wastewater treatment is to eliminate solids from wastewater, which can be organic or inorganic, and to discharge treated water without harming public health or when reused (Al-Suod, 2016; Ranjit et al., 2021). Ranjit, Jhans and Reddy (2021) described wastewater as water that has been used in a household (domestic water), a company (municipal wastewater), or as part of an industrial process (industrial wastewater). This water also differs depending 14 on the source from which it is discharged. The WWTP is also regarded as a water reclamation process since treated wastewater may well be utilised for various purposes such as farming and industrial usage if all pollutants are removed to the required standards (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). From literature it has become evident that unit processes of WWTP were simulated using digital programming to explore the behaviour wastewater treatment facilities (Andrews, 1993; Koyuncuolu &Erden, 2021. According to Ranjit et al. (2021), the WWTP consists of four key steps: preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, and tertiary or advanced treatment. The preliminary treatment is defined as a phase in which floating debris such as leaves, papers, wood pieces, twigs, tree branches, diapers, fats, oils, grit, and so on are removed using specially designed equipment like screens, grit chambers, and skimming tanks (Ranjit et al., 2021). The second stage of the WWTP is the primary treatment, which is used to remove small-sized inorganic matter and large-sized settleable organic matter, which can range from 60-65% of suspended solids to 30- 35% of biological oxygen demand (BOD) (Ranjit et al., 2021; Koyuncuolu et al., 2021). To further treat the primary effluent from the Primary Settling Tanks (PST) by removing residual organics and suspended solids in the form of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal solids through a combination of biological processes in anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic conditions (Ranjit et al., 2021; Koyuncuolu et al., 2021). The velocity of the wastewater is reduced during primary treatment to allow for the settling of heavier organic solids and the floatation of lighter materials such as fats, oil, and grease in tanks known as clarifiers or primary settling tanks (PST) (Ikumi, Matimba, Modiri, Coothen, Nsengiyumva, Naidoo & Power, 2019). Moreover, Ikumi et al. (2019) highlighted that the suspended particles in PSTs are sticky and tend to flocculate spontaneously, therefore depending on the process design, chemicals may not be necessary to coagulate the solids unless greater removal efficiencies are required. Variations in organic solid properties such as size, specific gravity, and shape cause this floating and settling of solids. PSTs are typically circular or rectangular basins that are 3 metres deep and have a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 1-2 hours (Ranjit et al., 2021; Koyuncuolu et al., 2021). The HRT is the amount of time that the dissolved or suspended stays in the PST. 15 In the wastewater process, there are two main types of secondary treatment systems: aerobic treatment units and biofiltration systems. These systems are also commercially available as pre-manufactured units designed to treat domestic wastewater produced by residences and, in some cases, non-residential facilities (Krzeminski, Tomei, Karaolia, Langenhoff, Almeida, Felis, E & Fatta-Kassinos, 2019). The secondary treatment, also known as the activated sludge process, involves the growth of natural microorganisms that metabolise the organic materials in the wastewater, resulting in additional microorganisms and inorganic end-products (Krzeminski et al., 2019; Ranjit et al., 2021; Koyuncuolu et al., 2021). Moreover, Ranjit et al. (2021) stated that these types of activated sludge systems combine different processes (anaerobic, anoxic, and aerobic) in several compartments depending on effluent needs. The tertiary treatment enhances the quality of secondary and secondary effluent before it is discharged into the receiving environment (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). In addition, the tertiary treatment eliminates a significant amount of biodegradable organic waste, heavy metals, phosphorus, nitrogen, and harmful microorganisms as explained by (Gedda Gangaraju, Kolli Balakrishn, Randhi Uma & Kinjal J Shah, 2021). Filtration, reverse osmosis, disinfection, and maturation ponds may also be included in these treatment processes. The residues formed during the WW process are referred to as sludge. The amount of sludge generated is directly proportional to the amount of wastewater treated (Gedda et al., 2021). According to Davies (2010), this sludge must still be treated before it is disposed of or used to ensure that the environment is not polluted, as the amount of sludge generated during primary treatment ranges from 0.25% to 0.355 by volume of wastewater and increases to 1.5% to 2.0% after the activated sludge process. According to Garner, Davis, Milligan, Blair, Keenum, Maile-Moskowitz, and Pruden (2021), the general goals of sludge treatment are stabilisation for controlled degradation of organic constituents and odour removal, volume and weight reduction, elimination of pathogenic organisms, and improvement of sewage sludge characteristics for further use or disposal. Additionally, the fundamental sludge treatment process is classified as a preliminary treatment, which is the initial step of 16 the process, thickening, stabilisation, conditioning, dewatering, and reduction (Garner et al., 2021). The preliminary treatment step of sludge treatment comprises techniques such as screening, grinding, grit removal, blending, and storing, which are often performed to deliver a homogenous mixture to downstream operations and processes while safeguarding downstream equipment or facilities (Davies, 2010). Sludge thickening is performed immediately following preliminary treatment to enhance solids concentration by removing a portion of its liquid content, resulting in a reduction of sludge volume to be delivered to other facilities while enhancing their operating efficiency (Garner et al., 2021). Stabilisation is the process of stabilising sludge to minimise infections, eliminate disagreeable odours, and reduce or eliminate decomposition, whereas conditioning is the physical and chemical treatment of sludge to enhance its dewatering properties (Koyuncuolu et al., 2021). The optimal sludge dewatering technique is determined by several parameters, including the qualities of the sludge to be dewatered (i.e., pre-thickened, primary sludge, or WAS), available space, and the required moisture content of the sludge cake. Chemical conditions, such as the inclusion of a polymer, can improve dewatering (Garg, 2009). The last step of the reduction comprises operations implemented to create the most stable form of residue and to minimise the amount of residue; these processes include composting or thermal reduction techniques such as incineration drying (Koyuncuolu et al,.2021). In an earlier study, several different types of models that may be used to describe the dynamic behaviour of wastewater treatment facilities are explored. Among these are visual, linguistic, mental, physical, mathematical, and fuzzy models (Andrews, 1993). Most dynamic models can only be solved by computer simulation. Recent improvements in the hardware and software of personal computers have produced low-cost, user-friendly systems that may be used by businesses of all sizes, as well as by independent professionals (Andrews, 1993). The performance of wastewater treatment facilities might be significantly enhanced by increased consideration of dynamic behaviour during both plant design and operation, according to a previous 17 study on dynamic models and control techniques by Andrews (1974). Using modern control systems for dynamic behaviour alteration and written operating instructions based on rapid response analysis to improve manual operation (Andy, 1974). In a recent study, conducted by Koyuncuolu and Erden (2021), demonstrates data collected from WWTP in Russia, Finland, and Canada demonstrated that preliminary and primary WWT eliminates 92-93% of waste when functioning correctly. The overall WWT consists of all the processes outlined and requires strong process measurement. Process controllers supervise and regulate the WWT, but they must also have the experience and ICT skills to manage the process, therefore they must be trained in both theories ,practice and ICT. To ensure that wastewater is treated to the required standard, education and training for water processing professionals must be implemented, and TVET institutions are critical for providing youth and adults with the necessary skills and competencies to assist the economy in dealing with labour markets and rapid development (UNESCO, 2012). The wastewater facilities employ technical operational people who need be trained (UNESCO, 2012), and there is now a shortage of capacity and experienced specialists for effective water management in South Africa. 2.3.2 TVET and the Application of ICT in Practice UNESCO (2020) defines TVET institutions as educational entities that focus on the attainment of practical expertise, attitudes, understanding, and knowledge to develop competent professionals for the workplace. Okeye (2015) stated that the TVET institution is aimed at the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as scientific knowledge and that the TVET institution's main purpose is to become a self- employment instrument for individuals who have been developed through experiential learning that is perceived in real-life problem solutions. TVET is offered at different levels of educational systems, which include technical and further education institutions, like universities, public and private and non-government providers of education and training (Chappel, 2003). 18 Additionally, TVET emphasises competency-based learning programmes, which are primarily concerned with learners receiving theoretical and practical training in the workplace (Okeye, 2015). The competency-based programme is a type of training delivery that prepares learners for jobs or self-employment. The competency-based training strategy is designed to provide training and evaluation with the goal of reaching a specified objective and supporting individuals in acquiring certain skills and knowledge (Okeye, 2015). According to Thang and Park (2017), the Education 2023 Framework for Action, which outlines how to put the global commitment into action, recognises the enormous potential of ICT in TVET that promotes lifelong learning. Furthermore, TVET has emerged as a critical platform for ensuring students' lifelong learning and the use of ICT in vocational education plays an essential role in improving the outcomes of vocational students through practical learning (Ghavifekr et al., 2021). Olakulehin (2007) stated that ICT is a set of technologies employed in the collection, storage, editing, retrieval, and transport of information in various formats. The use of ICT has developed and transformed our society, fundamentally altering how people think, work, and live. According to Thang et al. (2017), when used in learning and teaching, ICT can increase flexibility in lifelong learning, improve learning engagement and social learning, provide authentic and simulated learning, and encourage reflective learning and knowledge generation. They also highlight the need of using ICT to strengthen education systems and aid in enhancing knowledge diffusion, broadening access to information, improving the quality and effectiveness of learning, and delivering additional services. Gushu (2012), described practical training as an essential aspect of the early growth of one's professional career while pursuing a higher education certificate, and it provides the opportunity to acquire knowledge outside the academic field. In layman's words, practical training demonstrates an understanding of how to accomplish something or complete a task. The TVET sector is one of the most important sectors of higher education where ICT integration may improve productivity (Ghavifekr & Yulin, 2021). This is because practical and vocational education is an important pathway for higher education students' skill development. Mohamad et al. (2020) found that a technology-based teaching system can assist TVET teachers in 19 better implementing practical instruction and ICT does not only assist teaching in the TVET integration process, but it also improves teachers to increase their technological self-confidence and teaching quality. Simultaneously, Zulnaidi and Majid (2020), examined the Malaysian TVET curriculum and discovered that as technology advances, Malaysian vocational education would confront new problems. Tawafak (2021), believed that the use of ICT in the process of teaching and learning can effectively improve the academic performance of college students. The rational use of technology can effectively stimulate the interest of college students in learning. At the same time Tawafak (2021), also found through research that ICT helps to stimulate middle school student’s interest in learning English. The rational use of ICT can make college students' courses more flexible, and they can arrange their own practice more reasonably. According to Shaikh and Sharma (2021), whenever a country's overall ICT level rapidly develops, it is advantageous to the country's overall economic development. TVET programmes are essential for creating a skilled workforce, especially in industries that stimulate economic growth, as stated by (Okoth 2023). Furthermore, he pointed out that SA could promote TVET as a High-Value Industry (HWI) to alleviate the skills gap in sectors including manufacturing, construction, and technology. According to Allais & Wedekind (2020), SA can make sure that graduates are well- prepared for the labour market by integrating TVET with HWI. This may lead to more employment possibilities, lower unemployment rates, and improved standards of life. HWI frequently relies on innovative developments and technology. to educate individuals about these technologies, promote innovation, and keep SA technologically competitive, TVET may play a critical role (Vale, Finestone, Magadla, and Strugnell 2022). People gradually incorporate ICT into different disciplines, such as industries, public and private sectors, economic development, and education, as ICT technology advances. Chinien (2003) emphasised the relevance of ICT in learning as well as its role as a driver of the new economy. Furthermore, country studies referenced by the International Labour Organisation (2001) revealed that the introduction of ICTs may contribute to both up-skilling and de-skilling of employees; 20 nevertheless, it was also noted that ICT can degrade skills competency to single-task machine-tending. 2.3.3 Affordances And Perceptions Osmundsen, Meske, and Thapa (2002) described affordances as attainable possibilities in the context of (IT) objects and a goal-directed actor. They also suggest that affordances are not considered as characteristics of the artefact or the actor, but as possible actions that emerge in the actor-artefact relationship. Bernardi et al. (2019) and Faik et al. (2020) argue that affordances are impacted by perception and that these perceptions focus on actors working alone and interacting with artefacts to fulfil their goals. According to Bernhard, Recker and Burton-Jones (2013), affordance theorists frequently argue that users realise affordances through a two-stage process that begins with affordance perception, which characterises the time a user becomes aware of the presence of an action possibility based on the information available to them, the user sees an affordance. The second stage is affordance existence, which is an actor's ability to recognise the presence of an affordance. The third stage is actualisation, which refers to the steps individuals take to realise their action potential. (Strong, Volkoff, Johnson, Pelletier, Tulu, Bar-On, & Garber, 2014). According to the affordance literature, whether affordances are actualised or not is determined by the actualisation efforts, or the degree of difficulty involved with actualising the affordances (Bernhard et al., 2013). Strong et al. (2014) describe the major components as “individual abilities and preferences,” which all lead to distinct self-actualisation actions. Additionally, how users progress from perception to actualisation remains a mystery (Lehrig, Krancher & Dibbern, 2017). Moreover, Lehrig et al. (2017) said that they discovered three types of affordance perception processes in their data: 1) imitating, 2) investigating, and 3) transferring. These types of affordances are explained as follows: 1) imitating is defined as an affordance perception in which the user perceives the possibility of using the technology for a new purpose by learning about it as another person uses it; 2) investigating as a perception in which the user perceives the possibility of using the technology for a new purpose by interpreting the symbolic expressions of the technology, and 3) transferring as a 21 perception in which the user perceives the possibility of applying the user ’s existing way of using it (Lehrig et al., 2017). Affordance actualisation processes occur when users participate in a range of activities to actualise observed affordances. These processes are often split into two phases which consist of 1) configuration and 2) initial usage (Lehrig et al., 2017). Delegated configurations configure the technology based on the user’s requirements, guided configurations require a user to configure the technology under the step-by- step guidance of some other person, and autonomous configurations require a user to configure the technology without the step-by-step guidance of another person (Lehrig et al., 2017). In this context of this research, the concept of affordance actualisation was implemented by recognising that users possess different degrees of familiarity and comfort with technology. It was acknowledged that some users may require adaptable configurations choices to accommodate a diverse range of participants. In this study, the individuals, including both experienced and those dealing with complex technologies, employed guided configurations. Moreover, training sessions included a systematic, step-by-step approach to configuring the simulation. Démuth (2013) defines perception as a cognitive feature of human behaviour in which humans organise and interpret their sensory perceptions to offer meaning to their environment. He also argued that perception is our way of comprehending things and people. Different people with different perceptual abilities may attribute different interpretations to the same thing. Perception, according to Osgood (2017), is an active process in which we select, organise, and interpret information from both external and internal sources. According to Norman (1998) cited in Moll, Dlamini, Ndlovu, Drennan, Nkambule, and Phakathi, (2022), perception creates affordances, regardless of whether they are genuine qualities of the object, and the meaning or worth of a thing is determined by what it provides. Moreover, Bernardi (2020) defines perception as an occurring actor-artefact interaction that is dependent on the features or properties of the artefact as well as the abilities and aims of the actor. These artefacts contain some traits and attributes that provide the actor with information about the action options 22 that are available to them, enabling the actor to interpret and hence perceive the affordances. According to Bernardi et al. (2019), perception is also a subject that is influenced by factors such as sociocultural and organisational circumstances. Lanamaki et al. (2016) argued that affordances are designed into artefacts and that affordance perception is based on conformity, implying that designers embed affordances in the artefact through intuitive design based on anticipated interpretation. This meant that the artefact’s design should guarantee that affordances are highly noticeable to users. According to Rico and Xia (2018), the user’s specific cultural background has the power to influence affordance perception, leading to a non-conformity grasp between affordances designed in the artefact and the perceived usage of the object. The range of opinions on the nature of affordances, as well as which elements impact affordance perception and how demonstrates the inconclusiveness of affordance theory ’s relational character. According to Lu and Cheng (2013), humans’ perception and action capacities are intended to examine the scope of the application of objects, which is especially significant in cross-cultural designs. Furthermore, they argued that individuals think differently in various locations or nations, and affordances may be clearly observable in some cultures, in which people will behave well on affordances, but not in others. Additionally, Lu et al. (2013) stated that the circumstance may hinder a person’s ability to effectively interact with affordances and that it should be considered when establishing perceptions since it could influence the process of affordances perception and realisation. Van der steen (2019) also stated that what we view as affordances that are meaningful to ourselves may not be perceived as affordances by others. Before engaging with the simulator, facilitators (participants) in this study reported their perceptions about the affordances of the digital simulators. 2.3.4 Affordances Of Digital Simulators in WWTP Practical Training Simulation, according to Sauvé, Renaud, Kaufman, and Marquis (2007) is a simplified and exact representation of reality that allows users to make tough scenarios, explore 23 options and actions, experience the effects, and adjust their behaviour without danger of injury. According to Pellet (2015), a simulation is a dynamic depiction of a process, and a digital simulator, often known as a computer simulator, is a simulation implemented in a computer. Computer simulation is a unique type of simulation description and abstract simulation, consisting of a hardware material and procedural system made up of wires, plastics, electrical circuits, processors, microchips, and so on, and described as an information processing system, a sequenced programme execution, or running (Winsberg, 2015). Although Gibson’s focus is on understanding how humans make sense of our physical surroundings and see the situations in which we live as meaningful and manageable, his affordances theory has had a significant influence in other fields as well. The concept of affordance has played a significant role in studies of human-technology interaction. Sociologist Ian Hutchby makes an important contribution in this field by applying the concept to his examination of the cultural practices that arise as new technology enters our daily lives (Kelly, Hopwood, Rooney, and Boud 2016). Berthelsen and Tannert (2020) extend Gibson’s concept of affordances to describe virtual mediated social affordances as possibilities to engage with people through virtual artefacts, which they define as a type of software perspective, all digital technologies provide users with certain virtual possibilities and interaction that cannot be reduced to the corresponding physical actions. Kelly et al. (2016) mentioned that digital simulators are increasingly being utilised to bridge the gap between theory-practice and have been considered as effective for providing practical and experiential learning prior to practicum experiences (Fischetti et al., 2021). Simulations are used to engage students in more practical instruction in both virtual and in-person settings (Bondie et al., 2021). Simulation-based learning, according to Albaqawi, Dayrit, Gonzales, Algahtani, Alboliteeh, Albagawi, and Alshammari (2020) provides users with access to a technology that can be built to replicate real-life scenarios, allowing them to function in environments that closely match genuine settings. Albaqawi et al. (2020) also confirmed that a simulator can be used to simulate actual real-life event. Therefore, it is critical to comprehend 24 customers’ attitudes regarding simulation-based learning experiences and their educational benefits (Dittrich, Aagaard, & Hjukse, 2022). Dittrich et al. (2022) refer to educational affordances as correlations between educational intervention qualities and instrument properties that assist learning. As Norman (1999) pointed out, an artefact’s affordances are described by what the user perceives. The simulation-based learning experience provides educational gain and can thus enrich and augment the practical experience by providing students with opportunities to apply theoretical knowledge prior to practice in classrooms (Dittrich et al, 2022). Additionally, educational scholars believe that simulation technologies provide a secure environment for students to practise certain abilities and receive constructive feedback (Dawson & Lignugaris-Kraft, 2016; Dieker et al., 2014; Judge et al., 2013). Digital artefacts, such as simulation technologies are created by humans for specific reasons inside a specific cultural-historical context (Aagaard & Lund, 2020,). Such goals might include “facilitating communication and intersubjective knowledge development” (Trausan-Matu & Slotta, 2021,). This raises our awareness of both learning processes mediated by simulation technology and learning processes assisted by social contact. Educational affordances are “relationships between the attributes of an educational intervention and the learner’s traits” that facilitate learning (Kirschner et al., 2004). Unlike in traditional classrooms, the opportunity to pause the simulation for assistance from educators and peers, as well as to repeat practice on specific abilities, welcomes additional educational possibilities. Students can develop focused abilities in a lower-complexity context, aided by a learning community that provides constructive feedback (Grossman et al., 2009a). These disclosed educational affordances are especially significant for online student teachers, who seldom exchange practice experiences with colleagues or teacher educators while they do fieldwork among numerous schools around the country. Simulation-based learning design resulted in social engagement, which students constantly valued. During educator-led debriefings, this included peer and expert comments, as well as debates and meta reflection during peer-led group discussions. 25 The induced social engagement was based on the situational experience of practising or observing peers. Moreover, learning settings that allow for social interaction may influence learning results (Kirschner & Erkens, 2013). We discovered that students explored practice difficulties collectively and related simulation experiences to past teaching experiences. It was also acknowledged that the simulation-based learning experience was significant to the learning outcomes, and meta-reflexion on issues from the simulated practise took place. Dalinger et al. (2020) found that while most participants in their study regarded the simulation to be realistic, some were surprised by the spontaneous character of the simulated interactions and others found it difficult to ignore reality completely. The findings imply that real-time engagement, as provided by the interactor, helps to bring the experience to life through natural, believable replies (Dalinger et al., 2020). Having the ability to practise numerous times in the classroom simulation would aid in both preparation and familiarity. This might also help to minimise the anxiety that comes with being observed by classmates, instructors, and researchers (Dalinger et al., 2020). Lajane, Lamiri, Bouzoubaa, Abidi, and Khyati, Qaisar (2020) stated that students believe that the education offered by a digital virtual simulator is effective and that it increases their professional understanding. Gebreheat et al. (2022) stated that digital simulation is an emerging innovation with the potential to address the limitations of traditional simulation by improving learners’ engagement and allowing participants to adopt a flexible approach and revisit. With the ongoing advancement of computer power, simulation has evolved as an increasingly important tool in decision-making processes in engineering, science, and economics, among other fields (Resul, 2020). Furthermore, simulation is not a technology for replacing or enhancing real-world encounters with guided experiences, typically immersive in nature, that elicit or replace significant features of the actual world in a fully interactive form (Gaba, 2004). Simulations approaches differ, from industry to industry, some use the DVDs focusing on workplace interactions, from web- based programs to well-developed simulated environments (Patrick, Peach, Pocknee, Webb, Fletcher & Pretto, 2008). 26 Wood et al. (2020), also mentioned that the simulations are useful for many environments and are often advanced in disciplines where it is not desirable to practice in live contexts, while there are other works of literatures stating that the use of simulations in learning results in supportive student learning environments with greater control over a range of activities (Chernikova, Heitzmann, Stadler, Holzberger, Seidel, & Fischer, 2020). According to Wood et al. (2020), simulated environments can be conducted in a broad range of settings from complex purpose-built training facilities such as clinics, restaurants, or even online spaces that are built with the use of second life and virtual reality. Furthermore, simulations exist on a spectrum of complexity, making it challenging to determine the transition from simulation to reality, as when a purpose-built environment is established that operates in student simulation mode at times and as a conventional or ordinary workplace at others (Wood et al., 2020). According to Singureanu and Woinaroschy (2019), in recent years, technologies utilised for WWT have significantly developed and introduced the use of simulation and modelling technologies, resulting in new ways of managing WWTP. According to Ngila et al. (2020), it is critical to identify the simulations to be used in WWTP by first identifying the problem, and the stakeholders, identifying key performance indicators of the chosen options, and modelling the obtained solution to obtain impartial results. This is accomplished by modelling the WWTP using the digital simulator. According to Langergraber, Rieger, Winkler, Alex, Wiese, Owerdieck, and Maurer (2004), WWTP is a valuable instrument for increasing specific information on process and system behaviour for optimisation studies, training and education, and model-based process control. Furthermore, Langergraber et al. (2004) stated that dynamic modelling not only became an essential tool for the scientific community but also showed its utility in practical wastewater treatment practice. In South Africa, WWTP modelling, or simulation software is classified into two types; namely, 1) dynamic and 2) static models (Ngila et al., 2020). Dynamic simulation is a numerical simulator that investigates the behaviour of a system without doing or performing a limited number of experiments, and they consider time as a variable, whereas the static model is a physical model (Dipl-lng.M & Schon, 2009). 27 According to Kincaid, Hamilton, Tarr and Sangani (2003), simulations have historically been a significant element of training in specific disciplines. However, as the cost of computers decreases, simulations are making their way into training for additional fields. Furthermore, Kincaid et al. (2003) stated that the world is progressively shifting away from traditional training methods and towards virtual training systems. Modelling and simulations are new concepts in the training and development space and developing technological skills in the TVET area is now a must. However, even as the cost of computers drops and they become a viable medium, economics alone do not completely account for the increased inclusion of modelling and simulations in education and training. Mathematical modelling and simulation are becoming critical for describing, forecasting, and controlling the complex interactions of wastewater treatment processes (Jeppsson, 1996). The models are idealised representations of an actual physical wastewater treatment system (Ngila et al., 2020). Mhlanga, Foxon, Fennemore, Mzulwini, and Buckley (2009) stated in South Africa that the WEST simulator model was designed for a WWTP and calibrated against plant operation, and it was used as a tool for evaluation. The WEST model used can represent the performance of the WWTP, while treating the combined influent received from the influent. Mhlanga et al. (2009) also noted that the modelling of wastewater treatment systems has progressed from fundamental notions to mathematical models. The effectiveness of knowledge acquisition remains a persistent concern, whether in online or face-to-face practical training. Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate Kolb’s ELT into the training process (Korucu-Kış, 2021). As stated earlier in the chapter, ELT highlights the significance of acquiring knowledge through firsthand experiences and active involvement. The integration of this theory into the study has contributed to rendering training more interactive and participative, resulting in a more profound comprehension of the subject matter and better knowledge retention. Furthermore, the theory acknowledges that people have different learning styles which include RO,AC,CE, and AE. These identified phases within the theory are acknowledged for their capacity to enhance the effectiveness of training for a wider range of participants. 28 2.4 Conclusion Theoretical framework includes two theories: namely, the ELT and the affordances framework theory (AFT). The ELT and AFT, respectively give guidelines to evaluate the learning cycle and the affordances from the cognitive process until the affordance effect. The conceptual framework explains the unit processes and operations of a wastewater treatment facility, which is the basis of the WEST simulator. The TVET and ICT concepts refer to the learning environment and the required practices considered to be implemented. Affordances refer to achievable opportunities in the context of information technology (IT). The concept of perception explains the way participants interpreted their experiences and perceptual abilities towards the same thing. 29 3 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This Chapter outlines the research design and the research design and methodology, including research approaches, sampling, data collection, and analysis. The chosen approach is qualitative, aimed at exploring- people’s beliefs, experiences , attitudes , behaviour, and observations. This aligns with the interpretivist philosophy, using interviews and observations as data collection instruments. 3.2 Research Approach The focus of this study was to investigate the affordances of using digital simulations in training practical aspects of Wastewater treatment processes. Williams (2007) identifies three types of research methodologies: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. According to Creswell (2002), as cited in Williams (2007), the quantitative research method entails gathering, analysing, interpreting, and reporting the findings of a study, whereas the qualitative research method entails grouping, analysing, and reporting information in a way that is unique from the conventional approaches of quantitative methods. The reason for adopting this qualitative approach was its ability to be flexible to follow unexpected ideas during the research (Shank,2002). Furthermore, its ability to take place in realistic settings, as well as the fact that it may be utilised to answer questions regarding experience from the participant’s perspective and to further comprehend people’s perspectives, experiences, attitudes, behaviour, and interactions, the qualitative method is being used (Pathak et al., 2013). According to Kumar (2011), a study design is a methodological approach that the researcher uses to respond to research questions with validity, objectivity, accuracy, and efficiency (Du Plooy-Cilliers et al., 2017). As a result, the research design may be characterised as a thorough strategy that includes the whole research effort. Researchers must observe essential study design concepts such as linking research questions to procedure methods, considering data collection and analysis concerns, and being explicit about the research’s goals 30 (Haradhan, 2018). According to Leedy and Ormrod (2001), as quoted in Williams (2007), there are various approaches for performing qualitative research, including the following: A case study, an ethnographic study, a grounded theory study, a phenomenology study, and a content analysis study are all examples of research designs. The basic comparative study design allows the researcher to assess the relationships between independent factors and their impact on dependent variables (Williams, 2007). This study explored the affordances of digital simulations through interviews and observations, and interpreted, and analysed data in a deliberate manner (Williams, 2007). The latter research design methods are qualitative research qualifications (humanistic or idealistic approach); so, this investigation employed a qualitative approach (Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). 3.3 Research Paradigm The study used the Interpretivism Paradigm to recognise the subjective view of the world of the facilitators being monitored (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). Additionally, the Interpretivism Paradigm emphasises understanding the individual and their perception of the world around them, and it recognises that interaction between the researcher and his or her study participants is unavoidable. The Interpretivism Paradigm was used in the study because it was considered that knowledge is created by the results and that contextual elements must be considered in the pursuit of understanding. In this study, the researcher embraces the interpretivist paradigm by recognising that the participants have their own unique perspectives and interpretations of how the digital simulations affect the training of WWTP and aimed to understand and interpret these subjective viewpoints. 3.4 Target Population and Sample size In qualitative research, selecting an adequate sample size is a source of conceptual disagreement and practical ambiguity. As a result, sample size rules, standards, and instruments have been developed to enable researchers to set and justify the acceptability of, their sample size. This is an indication that the topic is an important indicator of the quality of qualitative research (Vasileiou et al., 2018). In qualitative 31 research, selecting an adequate sample size is a source of conceptual controversy and practical uncertainty. As a result, sample size rules, standards, and instruments have been developed to enable researchers to set and justify the acceptability of, their sample size. This is an indication that the topic is an important indicator of the quality of qualitative research (Vasileiou et al., 2018). The study included a total of four participants, all of whom were facilitators in the field of WWT. This sample was considered representative of the facilitators involved in the study, as indicated in Figure 5 and detailed in Table 1 below.. This sample size was adequate to respond to the research objectives formulated for this study, which provided comprehensive and in-depth knowledge of the affordances of digital simulations when training WWTP (Figure 1). Table 1: Demographics of target population Criteria Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 Participant 4 Company A B A B Area of specialisation WW&W WW&W WW&W WW&W Years of experience 12 12 12 8 WEST simulator experience 1 2 1 2 Qualifications NQF 8 NQF 8 NQF 8 NQF 10 NQF Level facilitating NQF 3 NQF 2 NQF 4 NQF 4 & 5 All companies are in the water and sanitation sector. 3.5 Purposive sampling The non-probability sampling method was chosen for this research because it may be employed when a study’s findings do not need to be generalised to a wider population, such as in exploratory and qualitative investigations (Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). The study employed pseudonyms as a measure to safeguard the anonymity and privacy of the participants, thereby upholding the credibility and transparency of the research. Pseudonyms were thoughtfully selected to carry no resemblance to the participants actual names while remaining memorable and pertinent to their roles in 32 the study. Consistency in the use of these pseudonyms was maintained throughout the research, in strict adherence to ethical guidelines and regulations governing the field of study. Purposive sampling was used for this study because it allowed the selection of participants and institutions who would offer the data needed to properly answer the research objectives. Purposive sampling, according to Etikan (2016), entails the researcher having a clear notion of which individuals would be employed rather than relying on relevant volunteers to come forward. This approach has the advantage of ensuring that each component of the sample that assisted the researcher in answering research questions since each component be a good match with the demographic characteristics of the study. If an element is inappropriate, it can be ignored (Du Plooy-Cilliers et al., 2017). 3.6 Data Collection Qualitative researchers refer to a “whole-world experience” and are concerned with the spectrum of human experience, which includes all the personal and subjective individualities connected with experiences. As a qualitative researcher, it is critical to remember that the goal is to investigate, comprehend, and describe rather than to explain, measure, predict, or quantify as quantitative researchers do (Du Plooy-Cilliers et al., 2017). Interviews – This method allowed the researcher to ask participants questions to learn about their perspectives, ideas, and beliefs about a given phenomenon. The method was a structured dialogue with the primary goal of gathering information, based on open-ended inquiries (Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). Face-to-face conversations are the most prevalent, however, telephone interviews are increasingly being used to remove geographical barriers between participants and investigators (Barrett, 2018). A semi-structured interview is a common approach in qualitative research in which the investigator freely questions key components of the phenomena under investigation. As a result, an efficient semi-structured interview ensures that data is captured in critical areas while allowing participants to add their own personalities and opinion to the dialogue (Barrett, 2018). The researched tool in Addendum A consists of two parts that were used for the Observations as well as for the In-depth interviews. The 33 interviews were arranged using the Teams Application, and each interview was scheduled to last a maximum of one hour. Furthermore, during these interviews, participants were asked to respond to research question number 1, which aimed to understand how facilitators perceive the affordances of digital simulators, particularly within the context of WWPC training using the WEST platform. Observations – The use of observations in this study was prompted by their capacity to provide direct access to the studied phenomenon as well as their flexibility in the application by allowing the researcher to watch what happens in a natural situation (Gill, Stewart, Treasure & Chadwick, 2008). The researcher compiled an observations checklist to observe each participant as they actualise the affordances by creating a learning environment. The researcher made notes of actions demonstrated by participants. Observations were used to assess and confirm the application of Kolb’s ELT. The observations were conducted in accordance with two research objectives. The first objective aimed to identify the characteristics of digital simulations that can represent the features of WWT, while the second objective aimed to assess how digital simulations can enhance the practical training of WWTP operations. 3.7 Data Analysis According to Flick (2014), data analysis is essential in qualitative research since it has an influence on the results of each research. The study used a technique that describes data analysis’s three components as “data reduction,” “data presentation,” and “drawing and confirming findings” (Punch, 2013). 34 Figure 4: Data Analysis Interactive method Source: Miles and Huberman, in Punch (2009). Data collection – Through the purposive sampling technique, a selected number of participants were interviewed using structured interview questions. Observations were conducted using pre-determined questions. Data display – Data sets collected from participants are presented in figures (demographics), tables and coding grouping. Data reduction was conducted through thematic grouping and analysis. Conclusion drawing or verifying was conducted from thematic discussions and findings and interpretation of data. Raw data from interviews and observations were gathered, and common trends were found and used as themes. After reduction, the data was presented in tables and graphs to provide a more realistic picture of the research. In this study, graphs were employed with the aim of recognising patterns and succinctly summarizing the results to convey essential insights. The results were drawn from recognised patterns, and links in the data that may support or produce a new idea (Bogdan, & Biklen,2003). The researcher used the process demonstrated above by collecting data, analysing the data, reducing the data through thematic analysis, and drawing conclusions and findings to answer the research questions. 3.8 Trustworthiness Daniel (2019) developed an equal set of criteria for qualitative research trustworthiness, which are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. 35 The study was carried out with thorough record-keeping, demonstrating a clear decision, and ensuring that data interpretations are consistent and transparent. Additionally, it is suggested that while qualitative research techniques vary, no commonly accepted criteria exist to determine validity in qualitative research investigations. In this study data, was recorded and kept in both Microsoft Excel and Word documents. Data interpretations were conducted consistently and transparently in an Excel spreadsheet. To ensure transparency, all responses were interpreted using the same criteria such as coding and themes. Credibility and Transferability – the researcher’s correctness or precision in interpreting data gathered from participants. When adequate time is spent studying the perspectives of participants, as well as when more than one research method is used, for example, when in-depth interviews are paired with focus groups, credibility is strengthened (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 cited in Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). Transferability deals with the ability to use findings in a similar situation to create similar findings or results. This is the stage at which analysis and outcomes may be employed outside of the individual research endeavour, allowing for technique generalisation and the generation of generalised findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 cited in Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). To ensure credibility, the researcher interpreted the data of all participants with precision and correctness. This means that the responses used in this study, are the actual responses of participants. To ensure transferability, the researcher facilitated the identification of corresponding outcomes within the data by offering a comprehensive depiction of the research context. This entailed encompassing details about the study’s environment, participants, and any distinctive features, thus enabling readers to comprehend the circumstances in which the research took place. Dependability and Confirmability – refer to the quality of an integrated method that was used for data collection, data analysis, and data-generated theory (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 cited in Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). Confirmability deals with how well- gathered facts support the researcher’s results/interpretation, as well as how well efficient findings resonate with data. As a result, it is critical that the researcher provides a detailed description of the procedure so that others may study the research 36 and/or reach comparable findings when analysing the data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 cited in Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). The researcher focused on dependability by means of integrating theories and data as well as applying the concepts when discussing the data. The researcher used research findings and discussions from similar studies to support the results and findings of the study. These gathered facts to support findings from the study were selected from recent studies (mostly sources from the last 5 years). 3.9 Ethical Considerations Ethics are crucial in research because they safeguard not just the researcher’s personal reputation and credibility, but also all other stakeholders in the study process (Du Plooy-Cilliers et al., 2017). To ensure all aspects are addressed, the following ethical considerations were followed: (create a personal ethical code of conduct as a researcher); being honest in reporting data, findings, techniques and processes, and publication status. No data was falsified or misrepresented; objectivity – try to be objective in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel choices, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research. Integrity entails fulfilling promises, acting truthfully, and aiming for consistency of thinking and conduct. Transparency share data, outcomes, ideas, tools, and resources. Be open to new ideas and constructive criticism. Bear in mind the possible harm that unethical behaviour by a researcher might do to the rest of the research community (Du Plooy Cilliers et al., 2017). The University of the Witwatersrand's ethical clearance forms and templates were completed and submitted. Participants were made aware that they are participating in a research project and were informed of what was expected of them as well as how the data was going to be used. Participants in research have the following rights: 1) privacy; 2) anonymity and confidentiality; 3) consent and the ability to withdraw; 4) informed consent; and 5) not to be damaged. The researcher guaranteed overall integrity by not being selective in reporting and by being objective in data analysis and interpretation. Furthermore, the researcher also kept in mind various limitations that may occur due to the nature of this study; however, alternative 37 mitigations were considered: 1) availability of senior officials to conduct in-depth interviews during the research period and therefore considers alternative approaches for interviews were discussed in the method section; some data and information might be protected. In the study the importance of data storage practices to ensure the reliability of and longevity of the research data. To address this, the study employed a multifaceted data storage approach. First, all raw data, including interview transcripts and observation notes were securely stored in password-protected digital folders on a dedicated research server. Furthermore, to facilitate easy retrieval and organisation of the data, the researcher maintained a detailed data inventory which documented the type of data, its location, access permissions ,and any relevant data. The researcher designed tools for collecting the required data information to achieve all objectives. Processes to obtain permission were followed to use the contact details of prospective students according to the Promotion of Personal Information Act (POPI Act 2 of 2000). 3.10 Limitations of the study The researcher would have liked to interview 8 facilitators; however, this was not possible because of the facilitators’ unavailability in the Wastewater field who have experience with digital simulators. The study was meant to record observations during the actualisation of affordances; however, this was not possible due to the limitations imposed by the simulator’s intellectual property rights. 3.11 Concluding remarks A qualitative research approach was followed using interviews and observations data collection instruments. To interpret in-depth interviews, the interpretivist paradigm is described for this study, since it focuses on perceptions and viewpoints. This study required participants with specific competencies, backgrounds, and qualifications; therefore, the purposive sampling technique was applied. To ensure the trustworthiness of this study, good record keeping, demonstration of clear 38 decision-making, and transparent data interpretations was applied. Various ethical practices were considered in this study to protect participants (e.g., personal information, identity, and their willingness to participate in this study). All demographic information associated with participants was kept anonymous (e.g., companies A and B). In the forthcoming chapter, the study will explore the presentation of data, providing a detailed examination of outcomes derived from the interviews and observations conducted. 39 4 CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the data obtained from participant interviews and observations. This section presented data on how facilitators perceive the affordances of simulations; what affordances digital simulations bring to WWT Process practical online training and assess the development of knowledge construction by using Kolb’s ELT. Section A provides the participant demographics such as company, area of specialisation, years of wastewater treatment experience, WEST simulator experience, qualifications, and the Water and Wastewater NQF level they facilitate at their respective companies. Section B presents data for affordance existence, affordance perception, affordance actualisation and effects. 4.2 Section A: Demographics The participants were from the Gauteng province-based companies A and B. The selection of participants from these companies was made possible by their extensive expertise in training Process Controllers in the wastewater treatment process and their use of the WEST simulator in the day-to-day operation of the process. Due to a scarcity of facilitators who are familiar with how the WEST simulator operates, participants were chosen from two distinct companies. In the following table, information about the number of individuals linked to companies A and B, the specific fields of expertise among participants, their years of experience in WWT, experience with the WEST simulator, their NQF facilitation levels, as well as the qualifications held by the participants. Using the selected group of participants (or a purposeful selection approach) added significant value to this study in terms of gaining different perspectives, various experiences, and a wide range of in-depth knowledge about wastewater treatment practices, as well as different approaches towards the application of the WEST simulator. In addition to adopting the criterion of sampling that was acceptable for the 40 research, the study used identification and selection of participants who can supply information related to the study. Table 2 below shows the demographic data for companies of participants, area of specialisation, years of experience, WEST simulator experience, and qualifications. Table 2: Demographic data of participants Facilitator Names Area of specialism Company Years of training experienc e Experience with WEST digital simulator NQF Level facilitating Qualification Participant 1 Water and Wastewater Treatment process and Facilitation. A 12 2 NQF Level 3 Honours Degree in Water Care Participant 2 Water and Wastewater Treatment process and Facilitation. A 12 2 NQF Level 2 Honours Degree in Water Care Participant 3 Water and Wastewater Treatment process and Facilitation. B 12 1 NQF Level 4 Honours Degree in Water Care Participant 4 Water and wastewater Treatment process Research B 8 4 NQF Level 4 & 5 PhD in Water studies When participants were selected for this study, it was crucial that they had the proper experience in both wastewater treatment process, facilitation, and experience with the WEST simulations (refer to figure 1 in the previous chapter). The participants are full- time employed at two companies (A and B) within the water and wastewater sector. These companies have recently incorporated simulation technologies as part of their training practices.. The areas of specialisation are closely related to the fields of water and wastewater. Most participants specialised in treatment processes and facilitation, while one participant specialises in research. All participants are highly skilled professionals in their respective areas of specialisation. The recorded years of experience were 12 years for the three participants and 8 years for the one participant. This range of experience, spanning from 8 to 12 years, 41 suggests that the participants possess a substantial level of expertise and competence, especially in the context of process optimisation. Participants’ years of experience in using the WEST simulator are relatively lesser when compared to their overall experiences in wastewater treatment as illustrated in the previous diagram. The WEST simulator experience varied between 1 to 2 years. All participants have qualifications at a postgraduate level, with 3 Honours Degrees in Water Care and 1 PhD in Water Studies. These qualifications show that participants have advanced knowledge in the fields of water and wastewater. Furthermore, the participant facilitates several NQF levels ranging from Level 2 to Level 5. 4.3 Section B: Data Presentation The data was reviewed using both the affordances theory and Kolb’s ETL, which assisted in understanding the relationship between technology and the human actor. The cognitive process of affordance existence is the initial stage in the theoretical framework of affordances. It demonstrates the existence of affordances because of the interaction between the IT artefacts and the goal-oriented actor. The second stage is recognition, which requires the goal-oriented actor to perceive or recognise the IT affordances. The third stage observes the activities presented while using the WEST simulator affordances to create a practical learning experience. The researcher employed ETL lenses to determine whether the required practical learning environment could be realised. While creating activities, the ELT elements focused on the participant's ability to use concrete experience (CE), reflexive observations (RO), abstract conceptualisation (AC), and active experimentation (AE).The purpose of this analysis was to highlight significant themes related to the interaction between technology and the learning process, specifically within the framework of the WEST simulator. These themes , namely affordance perception, affordance existence, and affordance actualization, were grouped to address the research questions effectively. 42 4.4 Affordance Perception Affordance perception is influenced by the properties of IT artefacts that stem from the designers’ objectives and capabilities. To ascertain the participants perceptions regarding the capabilities and possibilities linked to the WEST simulator, particularly concerning its applications in learning or practical contexts, the following question was posed to the participants: “ What did you anticipate the WEST simulator would enable you to accomplish?”. The participants’ initial perceptions were positive, while impressions were relatively similar because 100% of them were able to identify possible affordances of the simulator. These affordances may benefit them in them in operating WWTP Participants replied 1, 2 3, and 4 as follows, Participant 1 ; The simulator has the potential to assist with optimising of the plant. Participant 2 ; The simulator may enable me to run a WWTP based on the information input. Participant 3 ; I think I can be able to see the whole plant on the system. Participant 4 ; The simulator may assist us with plant monitoring. As stated by Participant 1, the perceived affordance of plant optimisation implies that the simulator can improve the final water quality for the WWTP and ensure continued performance. Furthermore, if the WWTP is optimised, the process controllers followed the appropriate operational practises and to monitor the overall process which was mentioned by Participant 4. Plant monitoring and operation is an essential task in WWTP because it allows the process controller to use tools and techniques developed to monitor the operation of the WWTP. Participant 2, on the other hand, mentioned that the simulator may enable them to perform a WWTW based on the information provided, which means that the simulator may allow data collected, such as plant sizes, to be captured in the simulator and replicate the real process. Participant 3 perceived affordance was aligned with Gibson’s (1994) concept of affordance, which states that digital technologies offer students virtual affordance and interactions that are like physical actions of the WWTP. The process overview acted as a visual aid which enabled the students to view an entire WWTP in the simulator. 43 Furthermore, the simulator affordance was perceived as providing participants the possibility of enhancing their classroom education. For instance, Participant 2 stated, I believe digital simulators may assist us with enhancing classroom instructions and access to the process overview. Simulators can replicate the actual events, problems, processes, or skills required to achieve a specific instruction goal. This means that classroom instruction has the chance to improve as the simulator may place students in situations where they can actively solve WWTP challenges and gain skills. When asked the question ,” In what way did the utilisation of the simulator contribute to understanding of the process?’ Participants did not only identify the possible educational affordance, but they also identified possible safety affordance that can be brought by the WEST simulator, Participant 2 mentioned that, To improve learner safety, a thorough and successful practical training programme is essential, and it is my belief that the simulator can provide both for our students. The simulator could be the answer to our dilemma; I find it fantastic that our students can now finish their practicals without us having to worry about their safety. Participant 2 mentioned that using the simulator provided students with practical training that can improve overall safety. Given that it is hosted on a computer rather than an actual WWTP, the simulator offers a risk-free training environment which is seen as an affordance by the participant. It is evident that a