The AfricAn JournAl of informATion And communicATion (AJIC) issue 24, 2019 Published by the LINK Centre University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) Johannesburg, South Africa https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre ISSN 2077-7213 (online version) ISSN 2077-7205 (print version) RESEARCH ARTICLES Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station: The Case of Rhodes Music Radio in South Africa Mudiwa A. Gavaza and Noel J. Pearse Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools: A Study of Technology Readiness and Implications for the South Africa Connect Broadband Policy Samwel Dick Mwapwele, Mario Marais, Sif iso Dlamini and Judy van Biljon Realities of Microenterprises’ ICT Use for Business Activities and for Acquiring Online Government Support: A Study in Western Cape Province, South Africa Muhammad Ameer Osman, Donald Flywell Malanga and Wallace Chigona Digital Transformation in South Africa’s Short-Term Insurance Sector: Traditional Insurers’ Responses to the Internet of Things (IoT) and Insurtech Andrew J. Moodley Intelligent Malware Detection Using a Neural Network Ensemble Based on a Hybrid Search Mechanism Stephen M. Akandwanaho and Muni Kooblal Best Practices for Establishment of a National Information Security Incident Management Capability (ISIMC) Morné Pretorius and Hombakazi Ngejane AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 1AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 1 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019 i The AfricAn JournAl of informATion And communicATion (AJic) issue 24, 2019 Published by the LINK Centre, School of Literature, Language and Media (SLLM) Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) Johannesburg, South Africa https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre/ajic Published since 2000, The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) is a peer- reviewed, interdisciplinary, open access academic journal focused on information and communication ecosystems in Africa, elsewhere in the developing world, and at global level. Accredited by the South African Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET), AJIC pursues its open access objective by publishing online, free to the user, under a Creative Commons licence, and by not imposing article processing charges on its contributors. ediToriAl Advisory BoArd The journal is supported by an international editorial advisory board, comprising: Lucienne Abrahams, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Hatem Elkadi, University of Cairo, Egypt Nagy K. Hanna, author and international development strategist, Washington, DC, US Joseph Kizza, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, TN, US Tawana Kupe, University of Pretoria, South Africa Gillian Marcelle, Resilience Capital Ventures, Washington, DC, US Uche M. Mbanaso, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria Caroline B. Ncube, University of Cape Town, South Africa Tunji Oloapa, Ibadan School of Government and Public Policy (ISGPP), Nigeria Carlo M. Rossotto, World Bank Group, Washington, DC, US Ewan Sutherland, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa ediTors Managing Editor: Tawana Kupe, Vice-Chancellor, University of Pretoria, South Africa, tawana.kupe@up.ac.za Corresponding Editor: Lucienne Abrahams, Director, LINK Centre, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, PO Box 601, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa, ajic.submissions@gmail.com Publishing Editor: Chris Armstrong, Research Associate, LINK Centre, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, chris.armstrong@wits.ac.za AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-1AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-1 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) ii iii Peer-reviewing AJIC acknowledges with gratitude the following peer reviewers of articles submitted for publication in this issue: Najma Aghardien, Ufuoma Akpojivi, Olufunmilayo Arewa, Andrew Barendse, Mark Burke, Barrry Dwolatzky, Caroline Ncube, Patrick Ndayizigamiye, Sanjay Ranjeeth, Prabhakar Rontala, Kate Skinner, Roopesh Kevin Sungkur, and Ewan Sutherland. guesT ediTors AJIC acknowledges with gratitude the editorial guidance provided by Prof. Manoj Maharaj (University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), Durban) to the authors of this issue's article drawing on a THREAT 2019 conference paper, and by Prof. Hossana Twinomurinzi (University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria) to the authors of the two articles drawing on Digital Skills 2019 conference papers. ProducTion Sub-editing: LINK Centre Proofreading: Linda Van de Vijver Desktop-publishing: LINK Centre This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 ISSN 2077-7213 (online version) ISSN 2077-7205 (print version) AJIC is published by the LINK Centre, School of Literature, Language and Media (SLLM), Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), PO Box 601, Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa. The LINK Centre is located at the Wits Tshimologong Digital Innovation Precinct, 41 Juta St., Braamfontein, Johannesburg, https://www.tshimologong.joburg Past issues of AJIC, and its precursor The Southern African Journal of Information and Communication (SAJIC), are available at https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre/ajic and https://www.wits.ac.za/linkcentre/ sajic conTenTs RESEARCH ARTICLES Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station: The Case of Rhodes Music Radio in South Africa Mudiwa A. Gavaza and Noel J. Pearse Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools: A Study of Technology Readiness and Implications for the South Africa Connect Broadband Policy Samwel Dick Mwapwele, Mario Marais, Sif iso Dlamini and Judy van Biljon Realities of Microenterprises’ ICT Use for Business Activities and for Acquiring Online Government Support: A Study in Western Cape Province, South Africa Muhammad Ameer Osman, Donald Flywell Malanga and Wallace Chigona Digital Transformation in South Africa’s Short-Term Insurance Sector: Traditional Insurers’ Responses to the Internet of Things (IoT) and Insurtech Andrew J. Moodley Intelligent Malware Detection Using a Neural Network Ensemble Based on a Hybrid Search Mechanism Stephen M. Akandwanaho and Muni Kooblal Best Practices for Establishment of a National Information Security Incident Management Capability (ISIMC) Morné Pretorius and Hombakazi Ngejane AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-3AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-3 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019 RESEARCH ARTICLES AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 4-5AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 4-5 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019 1 Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station: The Case of Rhodes Music Radio in South Africa Mudiwa A. Gavaza Freelance Business Writer and Radio Presenter; Graduate, Rhodes Business School, Rhodes University, Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6104-3886 Noel J. Pearse Professor, Rhodes Business School, Rhodes University, Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7583-9845 Abstract Social media has become a major factor within the operations and functions of radio stations. This study used a social media maturity model (SMMM), developed from available literature, to assess the social media maturity of a South Africa community radio station, Rhodes Music Radio (RMR). The study found that RMR had a level 3 rating on a 5-level maturity scale, indicating that it was quite, but not yet fully, mature in its social media use. In addition to outlining the research and its findings, this article makes recommendations for how the station could increase the maturity of its social media use. Keywords social media, community radio, social media maturity model (SMMM), Rhodes Music Radio (RMR), Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa Acknowledgements This article draws on research conducted by the lead author Gavaza for his MBA dissertation, which was completed under the supervision of the second author, Pearse. This article also draws on the contents of a paper presented by the authors at the World Media Economics and Management Conference, 6-9 May 2018, Cape Town. DOI: https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/28661 AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 6-1AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 6-1 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 2 3 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station Recommended citation Gavaza, M. A., & Pearse, N. J. (2019). Assessing the social media maturity of a community radio station: The case of Rhodes Music Radio in South Africa. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC), 24, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/28661 This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 1. Introduction The aim of the research on which this article is based was to develop and implement a social media maturity model (SMMM) to assess a community radio station’s use of social media. Rhodes Music Radio (RMR) is a non-profit community radio station based on the campus of Rhodes University in Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa (RMR, 2007). The station services the general Makhanda area, which, according to the World Population Review (2019), has a population in excess of 90,000. The station operates within a 50 km radius of its location in the town (RMR, 2015). RMR uses social media in a number of different ways. Social media are sources of news content for shows, a channel of communication for the station’s listeners, a mode of internal communication for RMR staff, and a tool for marketing the brand of the station. Almost all operational departments at the station use social media in some way. Community radio and social media Jankowski (2003, p. 7) places community radio under a broader category of community media, which includes “a diverse range of mediated forms of communication: electronic media such as radio and television, print media such as newspapers and magazines, and electronic network initiatives which embrace characteristics of both traditional print and electronic media”. The uniqueness and contribution of community radio broadcasters is partly reflected in the values that they promote. Through a meta- analysis of the literature, Order (2015) identified these distinguishing values as access, diversity, alternative, independence, representation and participation. In addition, the content of community radio has unique features, which are valued by its listeners. Lewis (2000) has noted that, despite the growing preference for visual media, radio remains important in the personal lives of listeners. This may be explained by the unique offerings of radio in comparison to other media, such as: the appeal of radio music (MacFarland, 2016), the affinity of radio soap opera with storytelling traditions (Makoye, 2006), the growing popularity of radio talk shows (Owen, 2018), and the opportunity that radio provides to the audience to be the co-producers of radio (Hendy, 2013), or to be citizen journalists (Atton, 2003). Community radio typically has communitarianism (Brevini, 2015), the facilitation of social inclusion (Correia, Vieira & Aparicio, 2019), or the development and maintenance of a local community identity (Scifo, 2015) as its primary purpose. Therefore, central to its raison d’être is the building of a relationship between the station and the local community, particularly if community radio is viewed as a communication system rather than as a distribution system, allowing listeners not only to hear, but also to speak (Hendy, 2013). Community radio can also serve a number of other purposes, including community development (Wabwire, 2013), the promotion of democracy and citizen participation (Barlow, 1988; Mhagama, 2016) and the promotion of socio-cultural cohesion (Correia, Vieira & Aparicio, 2019; Rodríguez, 2005), but relationship-building remains a central characteristic. Looking specifically at the South African context, the 1993 Independent Broadcasting Authority Act (IBA Act) made provision for three types of radio broadcasters, namely public, commercial and community services (RSA, 1993). Within a few years of the Act being promulgated, around 100 community radio stations had received operating licences (Sparks, 2009; Tacchi, 2003), and by 2007, 152 of South Africa’s 191 licensed radio stations were classified as community services, reaching an estimated 6.5 million listeners (Da Costa, 2012). These radio stations were either serving a localised geographic community, or a community that had a common interest (Tacchi, 2003). (The IBA Act was repealed, and its provisions on community broadcasting replaced, by the Electronic Communications Act (ECA) of 2005 (RSA, 2005).) Subsequently, community radio in South Africa has been found to serve as an effective way to: • raise awareness about health-related issues (Hlongwana, Zitha, Mabuza & Maharaj, 2011; Mawokomayi & Osunkunle, 2019; Medeossi, Stadler & Delany-Moretlwe, 2014). • inform and empower women (Fombad & Jiyane, 2019; Oduaran & Nelson, 2019). • build communities (Mawokomayi & Osunkunle, 2019; Tacchi, 2002). • provide a vehicle for participatory communication amongst previously disenfranchised communities (Megwa, 2007; Olorunnisola, 2002). • facilitate access for community members to information and communication technology (Megwa, 2007). However, Sparks (2009) observes that there is some concern that the essence of community radio in South Africa has been eroded by financial pressures and the adoption by many stations of a more commercialised operating model. Observing international trends in emerging community radio, Da Costa (2012) cautions that there is a tendency for the original purpose of community radio to be eroded when funding sources and models change. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-3AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-3 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 4 5 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station As social media has emerged, it has been increasingly integrated into the activities of radio, with journalists adopting social media as a tool of their trade ( Jordaan, 2013). For example, Rooke and Odame (2013) found that community radio hosts in Canada were using blogs primarily to generate a larger audience base and to interact and connect with listeners. In community radio in South Africa, there has been an increasing but uneven use of social network sites, and even a negative correlation between the number of listeners and the number of followers on social media (Bosch, 2014). This anomaly is partly explained by the economic inequalities of South African society, with some of the larger radio stations targeting poorer communities that are unable to afford internet connectivity (Bosch, 2014). Nevertheless, social media provides an added dimension to the relationship that a radio station has with its local community, as it represents an additional tool with which to build these relationships through the two-way communication that it enables. Furthermore, Bosch (2014) found that audiences already on social media tended to have greater access to, and participation in, community radio, with, for example, their messages being read on air. She also notes that the virtual and distributed nature of these networks is redefining the notion of a community, beyond geographic confines. In addition to building a relationship with their listener base, broadcasters cannot ignore the potential of social media to complement fundraising efforts (Rooke & Odame, 2013) and to generate an additional advertising revenue stream (Albarran & Moellinger, 2013; Lietsala & Sirkkunen, 2008). However, this places greater demands on broadcasters, who must continue to pay attention to the quality of their radio broadcasting as well as effectively integrate their use of social media. Quality in radio Radio stations derive their assessment of quality from three main dimensions (Ngcezula, 2008), namely: (1) content produced by the station, such as programming, jingles and music played; (2) the style and overall effectiveness of radio hosts and presenters; and (3) listenership, which determines, in part, the advertising revenue potential of the station. In South Africa, the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA) is mandated by legislation to regulate “the telecommunications, broadcasting and postal industries in the public interest and ensure affordable services of a high quality for all South Africans” (ICASA, n.d.). ICASA fulfils several functions, including receiving and resolving complaints (ICASA, n.d.). Largely due to these regulatory requirements, the quality of radio programming receives a great deal of attention. A typical approach to monitoring the quality of programmes is for executive producers or management to conduct “snoop sessions”, which involve listening to the station’s content (Radio Talent, 2013). In addition, focus group discussions amongst shows’ listeners are held to assess the quality of the on-air content from a listener’s point of view (Freitas et al., 1998). Media organisations are still trying to devise ways to integrate, fully and effectively, the use of social media into their operations (Alejandro, 2010). This is one reason why journalists and media organisations follow, or monitor, each other’s activities online. They hope to identify best practices, or new ways of using these platforms (Harper, 2010). Despite some interest in the management of quality in radio, relatively little research has been done on quality management in media organisations. It is not surprising, then, that only a limited number of research studies have been conducted to investigate quality aspects of the use of social media, or online activity in radio. To date, research has focused on issues such as: accessing radio programming using online platforms (Evans & Smethers, 2001); using social media to grow radio listenership (Greer & Phipps, 2003); making radio more personal through social media (Lüders , 2008); investigating youth attitudes towards traditional media in the age of social media (Tapscott, 2009); exploring the place of traditional radio stations in the age of social media and online streaming services (e.g., Pandora, Apple Music and Spotify) (Winans, 2012); and determining how radio stations should be conducting themselves on social media (Resler, 2016). 2. Models for assessing organisational maturity and social media maturity Operational excellence and organisational maturity As one aspect of the quality process of an organisation, operational excellence can be described as the consistent and reliable execution of the business strategy (Wilson Perumal & Company, 2013). Organisational maturity is referred to when measuring the level of quality, and is defined by Torres (2014, p. 1) as “a measure of an organization’s readiness and capability expressed through its people, processes, data and technologies and the consistent measurement practices that are in place”. Models of organisational maturity have been developed, with their origins in the software industry (Wendler, 2012). These models are presented in the form of a matrix that is made up of five or six discrete and cumulative levels (or stages) of maturity, against which varies categories of performance are measured (Wendler, 2012). While the publication of maturity models is still dominated by the software industry, there has been a rapid growth in the number of areas where maturity models are applied (Tarhan, Turetken & Reijers, 2016; Wendler, 2012) and the development of more generic models such as the business process orientation (BPO) maturity model (Tarhan et al., 2016). The BPO maturity model identifies five levels of maturity or quality, naming them as follows: ad hoc; defined; linked; integrated; and extended (Lockamy & McCormack, 2004). A second generic model, the capability maturity model (CMM) has been adapted from the BPO maturity model (Lockamy & McCormack, 2004, p. 276) and is a five-level generic maturity model used to assess an organisation’s ability or capacity to deal with any type of proposed change (Perkins, 2012). According to Perkins (2012, p. 4), “CMM describes the behaviours, practices and processes of an organisation that enables them to reliably and sustainably AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 4-5AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 4-5 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 6 7 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station produce required outcomes.” The model adopts a multi-dimensional approach to assess an organisation’s ability to adapt to a proposed change (Perkins, 2012). The basic premise of a third model—the organisational IT maturity (OITM) model— is that it specifically examines an organisation’s ability to invest in, or implement, information technology solutions (Ragowsky, Licker & Gefen, 2012). This model has six levels, rather than the typical five, making use of a “level 0”. These levels go from “ignorant” at level 0 to “aware” to “willing” to “trusting” to “accepting” and ultimately to “responsible” at level 5 (Ragowsky et al., 2012). Organisational maturity models incorporating social media The social organisation model (Campbell & Gray, 2014), developed by PMWorks in Australia, is used to assess the likelihood of success when incorporating social media into the operations of an organisation. The basic premise of the model is that the business must first understand the model of social organisation which prevails, before implementing social media, as a failure to do so may “hamper or possibly kill the successful uptake of social media within the organisation” (Campbell & Gray, 2014, p. 9). The five stages, or levels of the social organisation model are: (1) traditional: traditional hierarchical communication structure; (2) decentralised: no centre of power and influence; (3) hub and spoke: communication occurs with a common purpose; (4) dandelion: multiple hub and spoke networks working towards a common purpose or goal; and (5) honeycomb: fully integrated communication without hierarchical structure but with a common purpose (Campbell & Gray, 2014). The least favourable of the five levels is the first one—traditional—which hinders the adoption of social media and is focused on hierarchical communication, while in the fifth level—honeycomb—an organisation is fully adapted to social media (Campbell & Gray, 2014). Social media maturity model (SMMM) Organisations are increasingly using social media, in recognition of its strategic importance for marketing, communication and other purposes, and yet there is a paucity of research on social media management in organisations (Chung, Andreev, Benyoucef, Duane & O’Reilly, 2017; Duane & O’Reilly, 2016). PMWorks has put forward a social media maturity model that is focused specifically on the employees of an organisation and how much they are involved with social media in their lives, both personally and professionally (Campbell & Gray, 2014). Given its focus on employee use, the relevance of the work of Campbell and Gray (2014) to this study was recognised. The five levels are labelled and defined as follows (Campbell & Gray, 2014): • Level 1: Ad hoc or absent: Some individuals are literate in social media and use it for their own personal purposes, mostly, or even exclusively, outside of work. • Level 2: Isolated users connected: Some individuals use social media to connect with other workers within the organisation for work and/or social purposes. While nothing is officially organised, experimentation and use are tolerated within the organisation. • Level 3: Emergent community: An application for social media is identified and implemented within a group or in a specific project. This may emerge from organic growth, or an executive sponsor (e.g., marketing), or to support communication efforts associated with a specific project. • Level 4: Community: Organisation-wide models and tools are broadly deployed for managing social media content and platforms, and some metrics are implemented. Social media is used to support the management of cultural change at the corporate level. • Level 5: Fully networked: All employees are connected to the organisational social network and have a recognised role. Social media values and practices are an embedded part of the culture, and individuals operate in multiple relationships across the organisation. The inclusion of metrics and determining the return on investment are an accepted part of the model. Social media is an accepted part of the change management tool set and/or marketing mix. 3. Development and application of an SMMM for community radio It was decided that the organisational maturity of Rhodes Music Radio’s use of social media should be rated using an adapted version of the Campbell and Gray (2014) SMMM, with the adaptations drawing on other models from the literature outlined above (Lockamy & McCormack, 2004; Perkins, 2012; Ragowsky et al., 2012). Five-level scale The adapted SMMM has a five-level scale, with 1 being the lowest level of maturity and 5 being the highest (Lockamy & McCormack, 2004; Ragowsky et al., 2012). Each level is matched with a general description of characteristics, as adapted from the Lockamy and McCormack (2004) BPO maturity model and the Campbell and Gray (2014) SMMM. The levels of these models differ somewhat. Lockamy and McCormack (2004) include an experimental level between Campbell and Gray’s (2014) levels of ad hoc and defined. This level was included to provide a more granular distinction of levels at the lower end of maturity. Furthermore, Lockamy and McCormack’s (2004) extended level, which describes multi-firm networks, was not included, given the interest in the maturity of social media use in a single entity, namely RMR. The levels, as outlined in Table 1 in ascending order of maturity from 1 to 5, are therefore: ad hoc; experimental; defined; linked; and integrated. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 6-7AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 6-7 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 8 9 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station Table 1: SMMM rating scale for a community radio station Level Characteristics Level 1: Ad hoc The organisation makes little to no use of social media. Usage is confined to a few individuals who occasionally use social media during shows. Level 2: Experimental Some individuals or departments begin to use social media for personal branding purposes or to connect with other similar parties. Usage is spurred by external stakeholders who expose the organisation to social media influence. No systems exist as yet. Level 3: Defined Social media used formally in certain departments to engage with stakeholders. Organisation has a formal presence on social media across multiple platforms. Brand is beginning to grow online. Staff members begin to have training on rules and guidelines for social media conduct. Level 4: Linked Organisation-wide models and tools are broadly deployed for managing social media content and platforms, some metrics are implemented and monitored, culture is moving towards social media being used in all departments. At the organisational level, social media is now recognised as having strategic value. The organisational structure is adjusted to cater for this. Training and engagement are the norm. Level 5; Integrated All staff members and departments are aware of and fully plugged into the social media of the organisation. Policy framework is fully in place and guides issues around social media specifically. Social media used across all departments, with each having its own agenda and uses for online platforms. Online activity is fully integrated with social media having full skills and technical support, as well as providing a revenue stream for the organisation. The brand of the organisation is well articulated on social media with full buy-in from staff members. Source: Adapted from Campbell and Gray (2014) This SMMM uses model descriptions at each level to describe the general level of maturity (Campbell & Gray, 2014; Ragowsky et al., 2012). With these descriptions as a base, the SMMM uses more specific descriptions at each level of maturity for the specific factor to be investigated. Organisational spheres The organisational spheres chosen for application of the model were: • organisation-wide spheres: (1) policy and (2) monitoring. • all the RMR departmental operational spheres, namely: human resources, programming and production, technical, marketing and branding, music, sales and advertising, communication, news, and on-air programming. Data collection The model was applied to RMR using two sources of data, namely the RMR’s “Operational Policy” document and 14 interviews with RMR staff, including: the station manager, all nine functional managers, and four presenters. All the interviews were conducted within a month and face-to-face, and—with the permission of the interviewees—were audio recorded. The sources of information for developing the SMMM were therefore RMR staff members, who were asked questions during the semi-structured interviews that were customised to their area of functioning. For the most part, the sources had an intimate knowledge of how their department was making use of social media, or of how their department’s efforts were contributing to the overall organisation-wide social media use of the station. Deductive thematic analysis (Boyatzis, 1998; Braun & Clarke, 2006) was used to analyse the data. In accordance with the model, the assessment was focused on finding out which systems the station has in place to make effective use of social media—both generally and within individual departments, and at what level of maturity. For two organisation-wide spheres, as well as for each department, the data collected was summarised and compared to the SMMM rating scale descriptors as set out in Table 1, to reach a judgement on the level of maturity. In addition, based on the summaries, short descriptions of level characteristics were formulated. Table 2 summarises the SMMM’s organisational spheres and maturity level characteristics. Table 2: Organisational spheres and level characteristics Organisational spheres Maturity level characteristics Organisa- tion-wide spheres Depart- men- tal-level operational spheres 1 Ad hoc 2 Experi- mental 3 Defined 4 Linked 5 Integrated Policy social media strategy None Social media dealt with using other existing policy or policies Social media policy in development Preliminary enforcement of policy Full policy in place which directs all station social media efforts Monitor- ing social media listening and moni- toring No systems in place Monitor basic activity and simple metrics online Tracking trends on various social media Use analytic tools like Google and Twitter analytics Full moni- toring of all platforms with regular reporting AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 8-9AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 8-9 12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM12/9/2019 5:38:18 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 10 11 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station Human resources No training, norms or code of conduct for online activity Social media training – occa- sional and unplanned Establish- ing a set of norms for conduct and training on social media for staff Enforcement of norms and training Social media becomes integrated into staff training and development Program- ming and production Limited consideration in content production Use social media as a secondary resource/ channel for content Developing norms in how to use social media in content production Social media plan for cer- tain shows, not all Social media plan for all shows Technical No specif ic technical support giv- en to social media Social media used within existing technical support structures Developing technical support norms for social media use Support sys- tems in place for most platforms Full techni- cal support Marketing and brand- ing Little to no presence online Brand exists on social me- dia with no set identity or structure Developing brand iden- tity through social media properties Communi- cate brand identity to the station and staff All internet and social media properties aligned with one brand vision Music Little to no social media acknowl- edgement of music and artists Acknowl- edgement of artists and music on social media occasional and unstruc- tured Introduce social media formally into on air music playing Social media acknowl- edgement where information is available All songs played accompa- nied by social media acknowl- edgement of artists Sales and advertising No part in sales promo- tion Occasional use of social media in advertising agreements and projects Introduce social media formally into advertising agreements Creating different sales pack- ages with varying levels of social media engagement Advertising agreements include full social media exposure as standard Communi- cation No use of social media in internal staff commu- nication Occasional use of social media for less import- ant or casual announce- ments Social media used to dispense both formal and informal communica- tion Social media used for- mally as an alternative communica- tion channel All internal communica- tion explic- itly conveyed using both email and social media News No expecta- tion of social media use to broadcast news stories or headlines RMR News uses social media for certain events Social media only used to give updates on specif ic types of events e.g., crises and live events Social media used for- mally as an alternative broadcast channel for news Full inte- gration of social media to accompa- ny all news broadcasts and live events On-air program- ming No expec- tation to use social media in radio work Staff members use social media if they wish to Staff members expected to have so- cial media accounts Staff use social me- dia during shows and for content production Staff use their personal social media to promote the social media of the station Table 3 lists the departments that constitute the operations of RMR and describes the elements with relevance to the SMMM that were investigated in each departmental sphere. After first assessing the social media maturity of each department, an aggregate maturity level for the whole organisation was then determined. Table 3: Elements investigated in each departmental-level operational sphere Departmental- level operational spheres Elements Human resources The Human Resources Department has programmes in place that help staff members to work with social media in the day-to-day presenting and produc- tion of shows. Programming and production The role of social media in the production of content for shows (e.g., using so- cial media as a source for content, news, features and trends; systems to ensure that content sourced online is true and accurate). Technical The role of the Technical Department in the use of social media (e.g., ensur- ing that staff have access to working computers, RMR’s internal computer network and the internet). Marketing and branding Online branding of the radio station and ensuring consistency over the various platforms that the station uses to promote or present itself, including social media. Music The role of social media in the sourcing, programming and distribution of music, and in interactions with the music industry. Sales and advertising The role of social media in bringing revenue to the station, including the na- ture of advertising agreements and services, and the utilisation and integration of all media for advertising (e.g., during on-air programming and on online platforms). AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 10-11AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 10-11 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 12 13 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station Communication The role of social media in communication, particularly with staff members, RMR student society members, and the public at large. News How social media is used as a source of news content and to inform the news stories that are covered. On-air program- ming How presenters and producers are using social media to gather content for their shows and to communicate with the public about their shows. 4. Findings Organisation-wide spheres: policy and monitoring It was found that RMR did not have a formal social media policy in place, but had other working documents that it used as guidelines. The main document used for the day-to-day running of the station was an Operational Policy document that was formulated in 2014. Regarding the use of social media at the station, the Operational Policy was used as a guideline for how staff should conduct themselves online, both professionally and personally. The policy indicated that staff members should not act in ways that bring the name of the station into disrepute or use language on air that is derogatory, for example. This policy originally applied to the general conduct of staff members at RMR, but had since applied to the conduct of staff members in their use of social media. A Social Media Policy was being developed at the time of the field research and still had to be finalised and implemented. As a station, RMR was using Facebook, Twitter and Instagram. In terms of administration of the different social media accounts, the following portfolios had administrative access on behalf of the station: the Station Manager, the Deputy Station Manager, Communications, Marketing and Brands, and Social Media. When live events were posted, the content for the various accounts was verified by the Social Media Manager. RMR was monitoring its performance on social media using the analytical tools made available by the different networks, and through feedback received by the station in the form of word-of-mouth and written comments. However, the station had no benchmarks in place to gauge the performance of social media posts, and no formal or systematic way of monitoring the social media activities of staff members to ascertain the quality and integration of social media use. Departmental-level operational spheres Human resources Internally, staff members were expected to participate as much as possible on social media, in ways that helped to promote the station and its programming. However, staff had not received any formal training from RMR on social media use. No training was offered and no guidelines on responsible behaviour were available. Instead, staff had learnt through their own research and experience. Presenters followed national and local media organisations that always seemed to be up to date with what was happening nationally, and that updated their social media platforms frequently. Individuals with national profiles in radio were followed, as well as some with a local profile. Programming and production RMR considered social media to be a major source of content for its programming. The production team tended to rely on credible or established news outlets and media organisations to verify the content of stories sourced from social media, and the Production Manager controlled the type of content that was aired, by approving show content plans before shows went on air. Presenters recognised that social media helped them to stay abreast of trends and the general state of society. One interviewee was of the view that the public’s expectation was that presenters “should be informed about what is going on in the society, since they are the people who are a voice for the people.” Another interviewee noted that listeners expected presenters to interact with them online when presenting their shows on radio. However, interviewees were of the view that listeners expected presenters to stay neutral on radio and in social media, since they were viewed as journalists. As one interviewee stated: “One needs to be unbiased and I find that my interactions on social media remain consistent whether I’m dealing on a personal or professional level.” Technical The technical team was responsible for setting up equipment, including ensuring that computers are in working condition and that they can access the internet. While the technical team members were trained as sound technicians, with the expanding scope of their work, they had to develop expertise in the areas of IT, networking and engineering as well. Marketing and branding RMR used Twitter, Instagram and Facebook to communicate and market its brand. The station also derived some benefit for its brand through the personal social media accounts and networks of RMR staff. However, it was difficult to monitor how staff members carried the RMR brand online. The Marketing Manager said: “There are no systems in place to help maintain the values, mission and brand image of RMR. There is room for improvement when it comes to RMR’s efforts to grow its brand using social media.” Music RMR’s Music Department engaged with the music industry using social media as a channel of communication. Formal communication with public relations companies promoting songs took place through email. Music submissions were mainly done AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 12-13AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 12-13 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 14 15 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station using digital submissions or email, with the sending of physical CDs to the station “becoming less by the week”. It was not possible for songs to be added to RMR’s library from social media interaction, but when songs were play listed or added to the music library, this was acknowledged on Twitter. Recording companies and artists tended to interact with RMR on their various social media platforms when their music was played on RMR. Twitter seems to be the music industry’s preferred platform, because of its immediacy and the capability to gauge trends on this platform. Sales and advertising While potential advertisers were made aware of RMR’s presence and engagement on social media through statistics and website links, the main channel for advertising was on-air advertising, and RMR did not charge for advertising on its social media, but offered it as an added benefit to advertisers. Therefore, the radio station did not generate any revenue directly from its social media platforms. Furthermore, competitions were used as a vehicle to get people to view RMR’s social media platforms and thereby to view the advertising content placed there. Communication The Communications Manager highlighted that the official channel for internal communication for staff members was email, but recently this had been extended to the use of social media: a special Facebook group was established for staff. Email was still used for communication with the RMR Club. For external communications, RMR had established a social media presence and now had to work on increasing the level of interaction with its online platforms. News RMR used social media as a source of news and content. RMR recognised that social media can be a biased news source, but there were no formal systems in place at RMR to check the credibility of sources. However, the news team tried to fact check stories before reporting on them. RMR News operated as a broadcast news team with on-air bulletins being the only way in which RMR conveyed news to people. RMR did not publish news anywhere else. Overall assessment Table 4 provides a summary of the assessment of RMR’s social media maturity. According to the model, the station was assessed as being at level 3 maturity overall in its social media use, with room for improvement. In Table 1, a level 3 maturity was described as “defined”, meaning that social media was used formally in some departments. As set out in Table 4, three departments were found to be at level 3, and five at level 4, with only the Technical Department rated at level 2 (as skills related to social media support were still being developed in that department). Furthermore, the organisation had a formal presence across multiple social media platforms, and there was evidence to suggest that the station’s brand was beginning to grow online. RMR had also begun tracking the trends in its social media presence. Furthermore, consistent with the level 3 descriptor, staff members were being trained in social media use, and there were rules and guidelines related to social media conduct, even though a formal policy on social media was still to be finalised. Table 4: Assessment of RMR’s social media maturity Organisational spheres Findings on level characteristics Organisa- tion-wide spheres Depart- metal-level operational spheres Ad Hoc Experi- mental Defined Linked Integrated Policy social media strategy None Social media dealt with using other existing policy or policies Social media policy in development Preliminary enforcement of policy Full policy in place, which directs all station social media efforts Monitor- ing social media listening and moni- toring No systems in place Monitor basic activity and simple metrics online Tracking trends on various social media Use analytic tools like Google and Twitter analytics Full moni- toring of all platforms with regular reporting Human resources No training, norms or code of conduct for online activity Social media training – occa- sional and unplanned Establish- ing a set of norms for conduct and training on social media for staff Enforcement of norms and training Social media becomes integrated into staff training and development Program- ming and production Limited consideration in content production Use social media as a secondary resource/ channel for content Developing norms in how to use social media in content production Social media plan for cer- tain shows, not all Social media plan for all shows Technical No specif ic technical support giv- en to social media Social media used within existing technical support structures Developing tech- nical support norms for social media use Support sys- tems in place for most platforms Full techni- cal support AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 14-15AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 14-15 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 16 17 Gavaza and Pearse Assessing the Social Media Maturity of a Community Radio Station Marketing and brand- ing Little to no presence online Brand exists on social me- dia with no set identity or structure Developing brand iden- tity through social media properties Communi- cate brand identity to the station and staff All internet and social media properties aligned with one brand vision Music Little to no social media acknowl- edgement of music and artists Acknowl- edgement of artists and music on social media occasional and unstruc- tured Introduce social media formally into on air music playing Social media acknowl- edgement where information is available All songs played accompa- nied by social media acknowl- edgement of artists Sales and advertising No part in sales promo- tion Occasional use of social media in advertising agreements and projects Introduce social media formally into advertising agreements Creating different sales pack- ages with varying levels of social media engagement Advertising agreements include full social media exposure as standard Communi- cation No use of social media in internal staff commu- nication Occasional use of social media for less import- ant or casual announce- ments Social media used to dispense both formal and informal communica- tion Social media used for- mally as an alternative communica- tion channel All internal communica- tion explic- itly conveyed using both email and social media RMR News No expecta- tion of social media use to broadcast news stories or headlines RMR News uses social media for certain events Social media only used to give updates on specif ic types of events e.g., crises and live events Social media used for- mally as an alternative broadcast channel for news Full inte- gration of social media to accompa- ny all news broadcasts and live events On-air pro- gramming No expecta- tion to use social media in radio work Staff members use social media if they wish to Staff mem- bers expected to have social media accounts Staff use social media during shows and for content production Staff use their per- sonal social media to promote the social media of the station 5. Recommendations and future research We now provide our recommendations for how RMR can increase its social maturity level, followed by recommendations for further research. Technical skills The department that required the most urgent attention was the Technical Department, to develop its members’ capacity so that they could provide the required support for social media. This required creating a position responsible for computer- related technical support, and the recruitment of someone with the relevant skills to fill the post. Internal capacity development To develop capacity internally, the station needed to urgently finalise and endorse its Social Media Policy. Thereafter, RMR staff had to be trained on the policy and how to apply it properly in their work. Finally, once staff were informed of the Social Media Policy and formally trained in the use of social media, they had to be encouraged to become more involved in the social media of the station, by following the various RMR accounts and engaging with listeners and other staff members on these platforms. Integration of social media into activities Once internal social media capacity had been developed, the station needed to find ways to better integrate social media into its activities. First, it had to find ways to connect more frequently with the Rhodes University and Makhanda communities, as these two audiences formed the main listener base for the station’s estimated 3,000 listeners. RMR also needed to find ways to convert its social media following into listeners of its broadcast programming. Marketing through live broadcast events that are also promoted through social media could be an effective means to achieve this. Furthermore, RMR could try using new social media platforms such as Snapchat and Google Plus, to complement its traditional Facebook, Twitter and Instagram platforms. These recommendations highlight the need for RMR to adopt a more strategic and integrated approach in its use of a combination of radio and social media, to provide a more holistic set of media to its audience. Future research The SMMM developed in this study seemed to be appropriate for assessing the social media maturity level of RMR and appeared to be practically useful in identifying areas for the station’s potential improvement. However, the research was of limited scope given that it involved only one community radio station. It is therefore recommended that further research be undertaken with the same model at other community radio stations, to test the utility of the model in other contexts. 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Retrieved from http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/south-africa-population/cities AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 20-21AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 20-21 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 1 Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools: A Study of Technology Readiness and Implications for the South Africa Connect Broadband Policy Samwel Dick Mwapwele Postdoctoral Fellow, College of Science, Engineering and Technology (CSET), Science Campus, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida, Johannesburg https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2316-262X Mario Marais Principal Researcher, Council for Scientif ic and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3302-1230 Sifiso Dlamini Researcher, Council for Scientif ic and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3756-4980 Judy van Biljon SARChI Chair in ICT4D, College of Science, Engineering and Technology (CSET), Science Campus, University of South Africa (UNISA), Florida, Johannesburg https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4646-1641 Abstract The South Africa Connect national broadband policy of 2013 aims to ensure that the country achieves universal internet access by 2030, thereby fostering digital skills development. This study investigates one dimension of the South Africa Connect policy objectives, by considering rural teachers’ adoption of information and communication technologies (ICTs) for teaching and learning at 24 schools. This research used baseline data from the Information and Communication Technology for Education (ICT4E) project undertaken in rural schools in seven South African provinces. The technology readiness index (TRI) was used as the theoretical lens. We found that the vast majority of the teachers surveyed were optimistic about the use of ICTs for teaching and learning, which suggests teachers’ readiness to use ICTs despite the existing financial, technical and digital skills challenges at their schools. We also found that the majority of the schools had policies prohibiting student use of personal digital devices, apart from calculators, on school premises. In our analysis, these policies potentially conflict with the objectives of South Africa Connect. This study contributes to theory and practice by offering empirical evidence of the usefulness of the TRI for presenting teachers’ readiness to adopt ICTs in situations of conflicting forces. The study also has the potential to contribute to policy deliberations by highlighting the possible disconnect between the schools’ bans on student personal digital devices and the objectives and targets set by the South Africa Connect policy. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 1-1AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 1-1 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 2 3 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools AJIC Issue 23, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) Keywords information and communication technologies (ICTs), schools, rural areas, teachers, adoption, teaching and learning, technology readiness index (TRI), South Africa, national broadband policy, South Africa Connect Acknowledgements This article draws on a conference paper presented at Digital Skills 2019: Digital Innovation and Transformation Conference, 29 August 2019, Boksburg, South Africa. We acknowledge the support for this research from the South African Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) ICT for Education (ICT4E) project. The ICT4E project was funded by the DRDLR and supported by the University of the Free State (UFS) through its training of teachers and National Rural Youth Service Corps (NARYSEC) youth at 24 schools in seven South African provinces. We also acknowledge the support of the ICT4E project research and implementation team at the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The research upon which this article is based was also supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative (SARChI) of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation (Grant No. 98564). DOI: https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/28658 Recommended citation Mwapwele, S. D., Marais, M., Dlamini, S., & Van Biljon, J. (2019). Teachers’ ICT adoption in South African rural schools: A study of technology readiness and implications for the South Africa Connect broadband policy. The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC), 24, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.23962/10539/28658 This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 1. Introduction The fourth industrial revolution (4IR) is centred on the application of digital technologies so that distinctions between the physical, digital and biological spaces are reduced. Among the central manifestations of the 4IR are job automation and an always-connected, converged world (Eberhard et al., 2017). For a country to achieve the benefits of the 4IR, emphasis needs to be placed on building citizens’ optimism through providing access to, and the skills to operate, digital technologies, i.e., emphasis needs to be placed on building citizens’ skills competencies in the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). A country’s ICT policies guide the adoption and use of technology by explicitly setting out what needs to be done to achieve national goals (Gibson, Broadley, Downie & Wallet, 2018). Educational technology policy development and implementation aim to facilitate the sustainable adoption and application of technology so that it assists the country’s education system, through implementation by students, teachers, parents, principals and administrators. ICTs, which include internet, PCs and mobile devices (e.g., mobile phones, tablets and laptops), are used in schools with the expected national goals (outcomes) being improved access to and dissemination of teaching and learning materials (Hennessy, Harrison & Wamakote, 2010). National goals in education need to align with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 4, which is to ensure that quality education is offered at all educational levels (Department of Basic Education, 2017; Gibson et al., 2018). In developing countries, ICTs are proposed as tools to assist in reducing the digital divide, especially in education (Rena, 2008) where they can, among other things, provide access to secondary learning materials (Porter et al., 2016) with hard-copy textbooks still being the recommended primary sources (Eberhard et al., 2017). Notwithstanding the concerns raised by Hargittai (2010, p. 93) that researchers should be mindful of the “assumptions about widespread digital skills among [citizens]”, African researchers have provided empirical evidence of the efficacy of building digital skills in education and of the spread of digitally enabled education. Kaliisa and Picard (2017), via a systematic review of literature from nine African countries on the use of mobile devices in higher education, find that smartphones are the predominant mobile devices used for learning, followed by tablets. Rambe and Ng’ambi (2014) have found that students in South Africa can expand their digital skills through the use of Facebook. As a result of the positive empirical evidence witnessed in Ghana, Malawi and South Africa, Porter et al. (2016) conclude by urging relevant authorities in Sub-Saharan Africa to address the challenges faced by youth concerning the use of mobile devices for education. However, there is still very little empirical evidence from Africa on ICT adoption for teaching and learning in schools (Liebenberg, Benade and Ellis (2018) is among the notable exceptions), particularly from the perspective of teachers, and this gap necessitates research of the kind described in this article. Like other developing countries, South Africa has policies aimed at boosting the adoption and use of ICTs, specifically in education. South Africa Connect, the country’s national broadband policy of 2013, mandates the introduction of a broadband connection (with a download speed of at least 100 Mbps) to every primary school and secondary school as part of an initiative to ensure the countrywide availability of broadband internet access by the year 2030 (DoC, 2013). The policy positions the enhancement of teachers’ and principals’ internet connectivity as necessary to support access to, and the use of, learning materials that can enhance learning in classrooms and foster the development of students’ digital skills. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-3AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 2-3 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 4 5 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools AJIC Issue 23, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) Schools in South African rural areas suffer from shortages of teachers and of teaching and learning materials (Waller & Maxwell, 2017). Projects in South Africa, as in other countries around the world, are providing teachers with ICTs in order to assist them with teaching and to increase their ICT knowledge and skills (Botha, Herselman, Rametse & Maremi, 2017; Frohberg, Göth & Schwabe, 2009; Roberts & Vänskä, 2011). One element of focus has been on ensuring that the digital tools diffused in schools are sensitive to the schools’ resource challenges and are sustainable. Central to this sustainability dimension are teachers’ skills and attitudes with respect to the use of technology. Many ICT interventions meet with failure when the recipients of the intervention struggle to sustain the tools introduced and used during the project. Among the reasons for such failures, it has been argued, are lack of fit between the ICTs and user need (Alsabawy, Cater-Steel & Soar, 2011; Avgerou, 2008). To limit the challenges of sustainability of interventions after completion of ICT interventions in school settings, teachers’ ICT competencies and attitudes must be assessed, based on the ICTs they have personally adopted and used, prior to the introduction of new ICT tools. In our study, we collected empirical data from 24 rural schools (primary and secondary) across seven South African provinces in order to seek answers to the following questions: • what are rural South African teachers’ experiences and attitudes in respect of the use of ICTs in support of teaching and learning? • which technology readiness factors are impacting teachers’ ICT adoption in support of teaching and learning? The overall intention of the research was to interrogate an element of the objectives of the South Africa Connect national broadband policy (rural teacher ICT adoption), and in the process to extend our understanding of the factors that impact teachers’ ICT use. The research applied the technology readiness index (TRI) as the theoretical framework to guide the investigation of teachers’ ICT readiness and adoption. 2. Literature review ICTs for teaching and learning in African schools ICTs have received widespread optimism, adoption, and use in African countries, including use in educational provision (Barakabitze et al., 2019; Kafyulilo, 2014). For teachers, the spread of digital skills offers, among other things, opportunities for formalised recognition of their new competencies—as documented by Botha, Herselman, Rametse and Maremi (2017) in their research into the training of teachers in ICT use in rural schools in South Africa. Botha et al. (2017) looked at a training programme, as part of teacher professional development, whereby teachers received “badges” for skills acquired. Osakwe, Dlodlo and Jere (2017), in their research into Namibian secondary school teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of mobile learning, found that teachers and learners who owned mobile devices were accessing the internet, accessing social media, and searching for information, which shows that they had mastered digital skills and were participating in digitally-enabled informal educational pursuits outside the school setting. Meanwhile, Yidana and Maazurre (2012) paint a less optimistic picture. They reveal the discomfort faced by Ghanaian teachers in integrating ICTs into their work due to, inter alia, insufficient digital skills caused by lack of integration of ICT adoption into teaching and learning. Omoniyi and Quadri (2013) have found evidence of insufficient ICT competency among a group of surveyed secondary school teachers in Ogun State, Nigeria. South Africa Connect policy and its application in education The South Africa Connect policy, published in 2013 by the Department of Communications (DoC) and currently driven by the newly created (in mid-2019) Department of Communications and Digital Technologies (DCDT), advocates for a digital society characterised by widespread ICT knowledge and use for individuals, communities, organisations, and the society as a whole (DoC, 2013; Hankel et al., 2017).1 Digital education modalities, through innovations such as the internet, tablets, digital academic content (embedded in applications) on tablets, and mobile services, are positioned as offering hope to the nation towards attaining improved economic and social development (DoC, 2013) through digital education. Operationalising the policy must include the assessment of both innovations that are currently in use and those that are intended for diffusion and adoption. South Africa Connect seeks to operationalise elements of South Africa’s National Development Plan (NDP) of 2012 (NPC, 2012). The NDP provides a vision for the eradication of poverty in South Africa by the year 2030. Sustainable poverty eradication and education are inseparable (Avgerou, 2008; Fardon & Furniss, 1994; Ngwenyama, Andoh-Baidoo, Bollou & Olga, 2006). Education is required to help develop knowledge and skills that assist an individual to either join the job market or create job opportunities for others through innovative discoveries (Rena, 2006). Among other things, the NDP states that “children of today must be guaranteed access to high-quality education and professional training throughout their education and working life” (NPC, 2012, p. 366). The South Africa Connect policy has, since its adoption in 2013, been augmented by two other policies: the National Integrated ICT Policy White Paper (DTPS, 2016) and the Policy on High Demand Spectrum and Policy Direction on the Licensing of a Wireless Open-Access Network (DTPS, 2019). The Policy on High-Demand 1 The DCDT was formed in June 2019 through the merger of the Department of Communications (DoC) and the Department of Telecommunications and Postal Services (DTPS). AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 4-5AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 4-5 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 6 7 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) Spectrum, an extension of the White Paper, has little focus on schools. Meanwhile, the White Paper itself, in naming nine key challenges facing South Africa that ICTs need to assist in addressing, states that one of the challenges is that “[t]he quality of school education is poor” (DTPS, 2016, p. 8). The White Paper points to evidence in other countries that “connecting a school is often the first step to connecting a community …” (DTPS, 2016, p. 36). The policy insists on the need, as also stated in South Africa Connect, for schools and clinics to be key points of ICT access. South African rural schools and demand for technology Rural areas are defined as “farms and traditional areas characterized by low population density, low level of economic activity and low level of infrastructure” (Department of Basic Education, 2017, p. 20). Schools in South Africa’s rural areas are faced with numerous challenges, including unstable electricity, high dropout rates, poor classroom infrastructure, security problems (Adukaite, Van Zyl, Er & Cantoni, 2017), and, with particular relevance for this study, shortages of qualified teachers and shortages of teaching and learning materials (Mestry & Ndhlovu, 2014). The Department of Basic Education (DBE) Rural Education Draft Policy of 2017 states that “it is difficult to recruit, retain and develop qualified teachers in a rural setting due to the distances of schools from towns, poor infrastructure and limited service delivery” (Department of Basic Education, 2017, p. 18). To assist in reducing this and other problems, the policy recommends increased diffusion of ICTs to rural schools. ICTs are seen as empowering teachers by allowing them to, inter alia, access teaching content on the internet; develop a better understanding of content they are teaching; improve communication with colleagues when seeking support; participate in online training; and become more knowledgeable about ongoing political, social, economic and financial developments in the world (Hennessy et al., 2010; Kopcha, 2012). Technology readiness index (TRI) The technology readiness index (TRI) is a framework, initially developed by Parasuraman, to assess the ability of individuals to adopt and use technology (see Lai, 2008; Parasuraman & Colby, 2015; Summak, Baglibel & Samancioglu, 2010). The framework investigates individuals’ intentions to adopt and use technology, primarily based on their state of mind rather than their skills (with, however, the recognition that digital skills may influence the state of mind). The TRI uses four concepts to understand an individual’s (in this study, the individuals were teachers) state of mind, namely: • optimism; • innovativeness; • discomfort; and • insecurity (Parasuraman & Colby, 2015, p. 60). In the TRI, optimism is characterised by the presence of a positive mindset, i.e., the belief that one can attain intended goals by using technology (Hennessy et al., 2010; Kopcha, 2012; Summak et al., 2010). For our study, we sought to identify instances where teachers believed that the use of technology could enhance classroom interactions and were thus optimistic that increased levels of learner engagement could be the outcome, together with improved learner results and improved digital skills (Partin & Lauderdale, 2013). Innovativeness, in the TRI, refers to actions such as being the first in a cohort to acquire technology, displaying a willingness to use technology, and being a constant information-seeker in respect of new technologies (Falloon, 2013; Ifenthaler & Schweinbenz, 2013). An innovative individual will, thus, be someone who actively engages with sources of information in order to acquire information on upcoming technologies and the impact they will have on society. Once the technology is widely introduced in a society, the innovator becomes a source of support for colleagues. In the context of our study, we sought evidence of innovativeness in the form of teachers offering technical support to colleagues during the diffusion and adoption of technologies. Discomfort is conceptualised, in the TRI, as being in evidence when people struggle, for example, to comprehend how technology is used (Frohberg et al., 2009; Ifenthaler & Schweinbenz, 2013). In our study, we looked for teachers expressing discomfort about potential lack of control regarding the use of technology, and expressing the views that suggested they found technology overwhelming. Further, we looked for teachers showing discomfort through expressing that they had limited knowledge and skills in respect of technology (Yidana & Maazurre, 2012). In the TRI, insecurity is seen as resulting from distrust based on, for example, concerns about security and privacy (Ampofo et al., 2014; Summak et al., 2010). Discomfort and insecurity can affect teachers’ perceptions of technology and limit the potential value of technology diffusion. In line with the TRI, teacher optimism and innovativeness were, in our study, positioned as technology enablers, since they would assist teachers in their quest to adopt ICTs. Teacher discomfort and insecurity, meanwhile, were treated, in line with the TRI, as inhibitors of ICT adoption that might not only affect teachers’ ICT adoption but might also affect how they viewed ICT use for teaching and learning, and how they viewed other teachers who readily adopt ICTs. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 6-7AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 6-7 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 8 9 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools 3. Research methodology The study was conducted under the direction of the Next Generation Enterprises and Institutions cluster at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The research was funded by a South African Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) project entitled “Information and Communication Technology for Education” (ICT4E). The 24 rural schools from which we recruited teachers for data collection were primary and secondary schools identified by the DRDLR. The schools were from seven of the nine South African provinces, and 197 teachers served as respondents for data collection. In South Africa, schools are classified according to the quintile system, starting at quintile 1 for the most disadvantaged schools and ending at quintile 5 for the most affluent schools (Mestry & Ndhlovu, 2014; Roberts & Vänskä, 2011). The 24 rural schools from which data was collected were all in either quintiles 1 or 2. The per- province breakdown of the 24 schools was as follows: • Eastern Cape (2 schools); • Free State (3); • Gauteng (3); • KwaZulu-Natal (3); • Northern Cape (7); • North West (3); and • Limpopo (3). A previous project, called ICT for Rural Education Development (ICT4RED) and conducted in the Eastern Cape Province, developed a curriculum that was used, during the diffusion of tablets in schools, to train teachers on their use. The intention of that project was not only to equip teachers with tablets but also to teach them teaching strategies while using the tablets. The results from the ICT4RED study (see Botha et al., 2017; Herselman & Botha, 2014; Marais & Van Biljon, 2017) were used to guide our ICT4E project’s approach to understanding ICT adoption by schools. Before commencement of ICT4E, we collected baseline data in order to assess ICTs that teachers had already adopted and were using (1) in their personal lives, and (2) for teaching and learning. The intention of the baseline study was also to identify challenges that teachers faced in using ICTs for teaching and learning so that the ICT4E project could incorporate solutions to the challenges into the curriculum it used. The data on which this article is based, and as reported in the findings section, is a sub-set of the data we collected during that baseline study. The data collection tool we used was a questionnaire composed of initial demographic questions followed by closed- and open-ended questions. In this article, we focus on the demographic information and the responses from some of the closed-ended questions. The findings from the open-ended questions are discussed in a different publication (see Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini & Van Biljon, 2019). The questionnaire was self-administered by teachers in the school settings from June to August 2016. Ethical clearance was received from the CSIR Research Ethics Committee (REC) and the principals of the schools where data was collected. The teachers were informed of the objectives of the research, and of ethical guidelines for consent, confidentiality, data collecting and data reporting. Teachers gave consent for data collection before they completed the self-administered questionnaires. We present our findings using a combination of frequency distributions and percentages from the data. In places where teachers did not respond to a particular question, we use “no response” to denote such an instance. 4. Findings Teacher demographics and ICT access and ownership Age Among the 197 teachers surveyed, the youngest was 22 years old, and the oldest was 64. The majority of the teachers were aged between 46 and 50 years old. Gender Among the 197 respondents, there were 129 (65%) female teachers and 68 (35%) male teachers. Teaching experience Among the 197 teachers, 128 (65%) had at least 10 years of teaching experience, 43 (22%) had four to nine years of experience, and 25 (13%) had three or fewer years of experience, as represented in Table 1. One teacher did not indicate years of experience. Table 1: Teachers’ teaching experience and positions Teaching experience Frequency Percentage 3 years or fewer 25 13% 4-9 years 43 22% 10-19 years 51 26% 20-29 years 67 34% 30-39 years 10 5% No response 1 <1% Position held at the school Frequency Percentage Head of Department 30 15% Deputy Principal 3 2% Principal 9 5% No additional position 146 74% No response 9 5% AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 8-9AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 8-9 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 10 11 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools Administrative positions Table 1 also shows the instances where the surveyed teachers held additional positions in their schools, i.e., in addition to their teaching positions. Thirty (15%) were heads of departments (based on the subjects in which they had specialised), three (2%) were deputy principals, and nine (5%) were principals. Teachers’ access to computers (laptop or PC) at school It was found that 51 (26%) of the teachers had access to computers for administrative duties at their schools (this included using school secretaries’ computers to record academic results and print examinations), 19 (10%) had access to a computer in their school’s computer laboratory, and 29 (15%) had access to a computer in their office (where they could use the computer to prepare content for teaching and learning). A total of 97 (49%) of teachers did not have access to computers at their schools. One teacher did not respond to the question. Teachers’ access to tablets at school Figure 1 presents information on teachers’ access at tablets at the surveyed schools, with 186 (94%) of teachers indicating that their school had tablets for both teachers (educators) and learners. Six (3.05%) of the teachers stated that tablets were available for learners only, four (2%) of teachers said that tablets were available for teachers only, and one teacher said there were no tablets at the school. The one teacher who stated that there were no tablets at the school was at a school where the rest of the teachers from the same school stated that there were indeed tablets available and that they were used by teachers and learners alike. This indicated a lack of awareness on the part of the teacher in terms of available resources, and possibly some indifference towards the use of ICTs. Figure 1: Teachers’ access to tablets at their schools Teachers’ ICT ownership and use at home In respect of personal ownership and use of technology at home, as displayed in Table 2, 133 (67%) of the 197 surveyed teachers said they owned one or more of a smartphone, feature phone (non-smart cellphone) and/or tablet; 121 (61.5%) confirmed that they owned a computer or laptop; 67 (34%) printers in their homes, and 55 (28%) had access to the internet from home. Table 2: Teachers’ ICT ownership and use at home ICT tool No. of teachers who owned and used the tool at home Percentage Smartphone, feature phone, and/or tablet 133 68% Computer (PC or laptop) 121 61% Printer 67 34% Internet 55 28% School bans on use of personal digital devices Of the 197 teachers surveyed, 163 (83%) indicated that their schools had banned learner use of personal digital devices, with the exception of calculators, on school premises. Meanwhile, 17 (9%) of the teachers stated that their schools allowed learners to use personal digital devices on school premises. The remaining 17 (9%) teachers did not respond to the question. Teacher technology readiness The findings in this sub-section are organised according to the four aforementioned technology readiness index (TRI) dimensions: • optimism; • innovativeness; • discomfort; and • insecurity. Teachers’ optimism about the use of ICTs Figure 2 illustrates the findings from the survey questions probing teachers’ degree of optimism about using ICTs. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 10-11AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 10-11 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 12 13 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools Figure 2: Teachers’ optimism about the use of ICTs Ninety per cent of the surveyed teachers agreed (via an “agree” or “completely agree” response) with the statement that they expected to find ICTs useful in teaching their subjects, as presented in Figure 3. Ninety-five per cent of the teachers agreed that they were comfortable with the idea of a tablet as a tool for teaching and learning, and 94% agreed that the use of tablets was exciting. With reference to their perception of using tablets for teaching, 94% agreed that tablets would change the way they teach. The same percentage agreed that tablets would assist learners in understanding concepts effectively. Furthermore, 97% of teachers agreed that the use of tablets would allow learners the freedom to express their views, 90% agreed or strongly agreed that ICTs would encourage positive learning experiences for learners, and 90% agreed or strongly agreed that they could refer learners to relevant content on the internet to support content covered in the classroom. In reflecting on their own abilities, 94% of the teachers agreed that tablets could assist them in approaching teaching effectively, and 79% agreed that their colleagues could assist them in collaborating on teaching and learning opportunities. Teachers’ innovativeness in the use of ICTs Figure 3 illustrates the findings from the survey questions probing teachers’ degree of innovativeness in using ICTs. Figure 3: Teachers’ innovativeness in the use of ICTs Eighty-five per cent of the teachers agreed (via an “agree” or “strongly agree” response) with the statement that they had the ability to easily learn new technologies, and 67% agreed that they were keeping up with new technologies. Forty-three per cent of the teachers agreed that technical support at their school was adequate, 64% agreed that they could teach learners to select appropriate software to use for their projects, and 78% agreed that teaching colleagues at their school used tablets or computers in the classroom for teaching. When teachers were probed about the impact of tablet computers in the classroom, 94% of the teachers agreed that it “will change the way students learn in my classes”, and 83% of the teachers agreed that they intended “to continue using ICT for teaching rather than traditional teaching”. Teachers’ discomfort with the use of ICTs Figure 4 represents the findings from the survey questions probing teachers’ levels of discomfort with using ICTs. Because discomfort is an inhibitor, the description of findings is focused on disagreement with the potential discomforts posed to them, i.e., the percentages we report are the number of teachers who responded with “disagree” or “completely disagree” to each statement they were asked to respond to. AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 12-13AJIC 24 - 9-Dec-19 - 17h36.indd 12-13 12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM12/9/2019 5:38:19 PM AJIC Issue 24, 2019The African Journal of Information and Communication (AJIC) 14 15 Mwapwele, Marais, Dlamini and Van Biljon Teachers’ ICT Adoption in South African Rural Schools Figure 4: Teachers’ discomfort with the use of ICTs In some areas, the teacher responses suggested very little discomfort. Eighty-eight per cent of the teachers disagreed (via a “disagree” or “completely disagree” response) with the statement that “[t]he tablet computer is not suited to student learning because it is not easy to use”, 86% disagreed with the statement that “[t]he tablet computer is not suited to good teaching because it creates technical problems”, 81% disagreed with the statement that “use of tablet computers in teaching and learning scares me”, 79% disagreed with the statement that “[t]he idea of using a tablet computer in teaching and learning makes me doubtful”, and 78% of the teachers disagreed with the statement that using tablets for teaching and learning “stresses me out”. All these responses suggest high levels of comfort with ICT. There were, however, indications of some substantial feelings of discomfort