What are the complexities surrounding the provision of social infrastructure in South African metropolitan areas considering the Corridors of Freedom plan? Case Study: Westbury, Johannesburg RALPH NGOMA http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiNmamv2_rPAhUJORoKHSzMAQ8QjRwIBw&url=http://www.freeimages.com/search/dot&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFZr16DlkGepfWwAONpZRRfVoOmAA&ust=1477648043943292 http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj7uLvS2vrPAhUGuRQKHVCWAF4QjRwIBw&url=http://www.canstockphoto.com/spray-paint-and-drips-4503562.html&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFZr16DlkGepfWwAONpZRRfVoOmAA&ust=1477648043943292 http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiIlqOx2frPAhWDXhQKHUSoDD8QjRwIBw&url=http://de.freeimages.com/search/spray-painting&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNEw0TNEYJj3TRHf6KPthtX7TeMmtg&ust=1477647836266147 http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=&url=http://www.freeimages.com/search/spray-painting&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNEw0TNEYJj3TRHf6KPthtX7TeMmtg&ust=1477647836266147 http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=&url=http://paper-pulp.deviantart.com/art/Gasmasked-silhouette-413152335&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFsLui4rKGEt2qhabYJLfNBFqHu2A&ust=1477647309273846 https://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=&url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/188306828145342440/&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFsLui4rKGEt2qhabYJLfNBFqHu2A&ust=1477647309273846 https://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi5iaie2PrPAhXGExoKHeCVBZcQjRwIBw&url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/552253973031423470/&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFsLui4rKGEt2qhabYJLfNBFqHu2A&ust=1477647309273846 https://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi5iaie2PrPAhXGExoKHeCVBZcQjRwIBw&url=https://www.pinterest.com/pin/376754325051016687/&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFsLui4rKGEt2qhabYJLfNBFqHu2A&ust=1477647309273846 http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwil_fzq2PrPAhXFSRoKHYiCCrAQjRwIBw&url=http://clipart.me/human-people/vector-freebie-jim-morrison-6566&bvm=bv.136811127,d.ZGg&psig=AFQjCNFsLui4rKGEt2qhabYJLfNBFqHu2A&ust=1477647309273846 Page | 1 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this research report is my own work. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination to any other University. It is being submitted for the fulfilment of a degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours in Urban and Regional Planning to the University of the Witwatersrand, in Johannesburg, 2016 ………………………………………...................... (SIGNATURE OF CANDIDATE) ……………..of…………………………….……,………….…… (DAY) (MONTH) (YEAR) 11 NOVEMBER 2016 http://www.google.co.za/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwi6kMH72Z7QAhUE2RoKHb83A2IQjRwIBw&url=http://elancetrainers.com/letter.asp&psig=AFQjCNEEisjXz5lQl_jyHvCruSpsjWWifw&ust=1478884771928528 Page | 2 DEDICATION This is for the FAMILY Page | 3 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank and praise the name of the most high God, Jesus Christ, my faith in God has given me purpose far beyond any man can give. I would also like to thank my family for their support throughout my personal and academic life, without them, I would not have completed this report. I extend my thanks to all my colleagues, friends, extended family and peers who supported and carried me throughout the process of writing the report. Special thanks to Ronwin, the research assistant, and a prominent member in the community of Westbury. Special thanks to National Research Foundation (NRF) for the financial support. And finally, I would like to thank my supervisor, Neil Klug. Thank you for your motivating words and progressive outlook of life which gave me the strength to finish the project. Thank you Page | 4 Abstract The City of Johannesburg has embarked on corridor-development plan to assist in spatially restructuring the spatially fragmented urban form of Johannesburg, which for a long time has disadvantaged poor inhabitants of city which live far from economic centres. The poor seem to be most affected by the inefficient urban form, and that means the city is at the forefront of the public mandate, to redress the past injustices and allow equitable distribution resources. The Corridors of Freedom plan is a corridor development plan aimed at transforming the city through specialised nodal developments along corridors (supported by Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). The research project will focus on the Empire-Perth corridor, particularly on the Westbury precinct. The focus will zero in on the precinct of Westbury, which lies along the corridor. The research project involves assessing the norms and standards of social infrastructure provision in Johannesburg, with a focus on education, health and sport facilities. The assessment will be in correspondence with the Corridors of Freedom plans to provide social infrastructure facilities in Westbury, Johannesburg. Therefore this will be a two-fold assessment of 1) the current norms and standards of the provision of education, health and sport facilities, 2) evaluation of the technical, spatial specifications of the CoF proposed facilities to be provided in Westbury as part of the Strategic Area Framework (SAF). Figure 1: Region B Headquarters Social Development, Westbury Source: Author, 2016 Page | 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE I Title Page……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1 II Declaration Page…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..2 III Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3 IV Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4 V Acronyms……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12 1.1.1 Johannesburg 1.2 Research Problem…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15 1.2.1 Sub question…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...15 1.2.2 Coloureds in South Africa…………………………………………………………………………………………16 1.3 Rationale of the study……………………………………………………………………………………………………….18 1.4 Delimitation of the study…………………………………………………………………………………………………..19 CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2.1 Scope of the research……………………………………………………………………………………………………….21 2.2 Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21 2.2 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23 2.3 Data Sources…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23 2.4 Data Collection Method…………………………………………………………………………………………………...24 2.5 Ethical Considerations……………………………………………………………………………………………………...26 2.6 Ethical Considerations during fieldwork…………………………………………………………………………...27 2.7 Research constraints………………………………………………………………………………………………………..27 CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..29 3.2 Norms, Standards and Guidelines…………………………………………………………………………………….32 Page | 6 3.3 Sport Facilities …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..36 3.4 Sports and Recreation………………………………………………………………………………………………………..39 3.4.3 Legislative framework and policy imperatives……………………………………………………………40 3.5 Health Facilities………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41 3.5.1 Legislative framework and policy imperatives……………………………………………………………43 3.6 Education Facilities…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….43 3.6.1 Legislative framework and policy imperatives……………………………………………………………44 3.6.2 Standards: Inner city schools……………………………………………………………………………………..46 3.7 Methods of Provision…………………………………………………………………………………………………………47 3.7.1 Cluster concept…………………………………………………………………………………………………………47 3.7.2 Thusong centres……………………………………………………………………………………………………….48 3.7.3 Transit Oriented Development…………………………………………………………………………………50 3.8 Management of Social facilities…………………………………………………………………………………………52 3.9 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..54 CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDY, WESTBURY 4.1 Brief background……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….55 4.2 Policy Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………55 4.2.1 Growth and Development Strategy (GDS) 2040………………………………………………………..57 4.2.2 Integrated Development Plan (IDP)…………………………………………………………………………..58 4.2.3 Spatial Development Framework (SDF)……………………………………………………………………..60 4.2.4 Corridors of Freedom: Westbury SAF…………………………………………………………………………61 4.3 Quantitative Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………….64 4.3.1 Education facilities……………………………………………………………………………………………………64 4.3.2 Related projects………………………………………………………………………………………………………..65 4.3.4 Sport facilities……………………………………………………………………………………………………………66 4.3.6 Related projects………………………………………………………………………………………………………..68 4.3.7 Health facilities………………………………………………………………………………………………………....69 Page | 7 4.3.8 Current projects………………………………………………………………………………………………………..69 4.3.9 Standards………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….70 4.4.0 Prevailing standards in the precinct………………………………………………………………………….74 4.4.1 Projected demand…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..76 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS 5.1 Chapter Outline………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….78 5.2 Sport and facilities………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....78 5.2.1 Union Stadium Cluster…………………………………………………………………………………………..…81 5.2.2 Golf training Centre………………………………………………………………………………………………....81 5.3 Education and facilities……………………………………………………………………………………………………...81 5.3.1 Together Action Group (TAG)………………………………………………………………………………...82 5.4 Health and facilities…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...83 5.4.1 Transformation Development Centre (TDC)………………………………………………………....84 5.4.2 Abraham Kriel Childcare, Westbury Campus………………………………………………………...85 5.5 Collaborative social projects……………………………………………………………………………………………… 86 5.5.1 The Westbury Problem………………………………………………………………………………………….86 5.6 Community social projects………………………………………………………………………………………………….88 5.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….89 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Chapter Outline………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….90 6.3 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..92 6.3.1 Education …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...............94 6.3.2 Sport …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......95 6.3.3 Health……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..97 6.4 Way Forward……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..97 References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………100 Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………104 Page | 8 Page | 9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Region B Social Development Headquarters, Westbury Figure 2: Location of Johannesburg in South Africa Figure 3: Positions of key suburbs and black locations Figure 4: Johannesburg’s current metropolitan structure of inverted poly-centricity Figure 5: Johannesburg’s current metropolitan structure of development corridors Figure 6: Approach to social infrastructure provision Figure 7: Selected elements of Social Infrastructure applied throughout research Figure 8: Determinants of Health status Figure 9: Functional cluster for educational facilities in inner city Johannesburg Figure 10: Example of a Thusong service centre Figure 11: Western Native Township (WNT), 1958 Figure 12: Seven regions of Johannesburg Figure 13: Empire-Perth corridor along BRT route Figure 14: Identification of BRT routes, transport and development corridors Figure 15: Proposed density levels Figure 16: Education facilities in Westbury Figure 17: Westbury library, next to Vul’ndlela eJozi MOOV facility Figure 19: Sports facilities in Westbury Figure 20: Health facilities in Westbury Figure 21: Gauteng Sports and Recreation: Mabaleng project opening Figure 22: Development of Westbury clinic Figure 23: Standards of Health facilities in Johannesburg Figure 24: Proposed density levels Figure 25: Densification along transport routes Figure 26: Together Action Group (TAG), located on Fuel road Page | 10 Figure 27: Homeless people living next to Union Stadium Figure 28: Abraham Kriel foundation, Westbury Figure 29: Overall precinct framework and projects Figure 30: Examples of sporting activities Figure 31: Sophiatown South African Police Station (SAPS) LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Settlement sizes according to population sizes Table 2: Rural social infrastructure management principles Table 3: Standards for primary schools Table 4: Standards for high schools Table 5: Standards of sports facilities in Johannesburg Table 6: Standards in Westbury Table 7: Typology units and corresponding population projections Table 8: Westbury population growth projections LIST OF PICTURES Picture 1: Compatibility matrix of uses ANNEXURES i) Participation Information Sheet ii) Survey for residents iii) Questionnaire iv) Formal Signed Consent form v) Ethics Clearance Committee vi) City of Johannesburg Permission Sheet Page | 11 ACRONYMS BRT - Bus Rapid Transit CoF - Corridors of Freedom CoJ - City of Johannesburg GIS – Geographical Information Systems IDP - Integrated Development Plan NMT - Non-Motorised Transportation NGO – Non-Governmental Organisation SAF - Strategic Area Framework SDF - Strategic Development Framework TOD - Transit-Oriented Development WNT – Western Native Township WSAF – Westbury Strategic Area Framework Page | 12 Figure 3: Positions of key suburbs and ‘black’ locations Source: Morris, 1980 Map of greater Johannesburg - 1980 Chapter 1: Introduction Brief Background: Johannesburg Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa and since its establishment in 1886; it has grown over the years to become the economic powerhouse of South Africa and Southern Africa. The city’s population is rapidly expanding as a result of the urbanisation and migration of people from other provinces, in search of jobs, opportunities and better lifestyles. Despite this, the city is prospering greatly, but the spatial legacy of apartheid remains an undeterred terrain which continues to disadvantage the many residents of the Johannesburg. Figure 2: Location of Johannesburg in South Africa Page | 13 Figure 4: Johannesburg’s current metropolitan structure of inverted polycentricity (Source: Urban Morphology Institute, 2015) As seen from the figure above, the western areas of Johannesburg were strategically placed quite a distance from the CBD. Despite its legacy as a segregated neighbourhood it is well located – less than 6km form Johannesburg CBD and this has affected the quality of lifestyles of these populations in diverse ways. Developments preceding this spatial form of Johannesburg and other cities in South Africa were forced to perpetuate the segregation and inequality in the city. The city is home to the Corridors of Freedom, a transit oriented development plan, which is a responsive effort towards spatial restructuring of a previously racially segregated city through the system of apartheid. In literature, the legacy of apartheid’s spatial planning is also well documented (Turok 1994). Johannesburg, like many other South African cities reflects an unequal distribution of resources, physical and economic infrastructure, accessibility, amenities. The spatial inequalities in cities was engineered to create long distances between the previously ‘black areas’ of residence and the city centres, and this was achieved through the legislative arsenals to prevent urbanization of non-whites to ‘white’ suburbs. Unfortunately this inefficient spatial pattern has since caused many difficulties and challenges which have deprived the cities’ poor from accessing improved livelihoods. Page | 14 Traditional Polycentric City Model (Source: Urban Morphology Institute) Source: City of Johannesburg, IDP 2016 Figure 5: Johannesburg’s current metropolitan structure of development corridors (Source: Urban Morphology Institute, 2015) The project of integrating the city has been well in motion in the last decade of Johannesburg’s Integrated Development Plans; the city has implemented various transit systems such as the Metrobus, Rea Vaya bus system and Gautrain (fast rail) which all seek to ensure easier accessibility and mobility in the city. According to the CoF document, the corridor developments rely on the transit system as an anchor to the developments. The 3 main corridors are; Louis Botha Corridor, Empire Perth Corridor and Turffontein Corridor. The study corridor is the Empire-Perth corridor, which is in region B of the CoJ. The corridor forms a vital link between the north (Alexandra) and the south (Soweto), and is a vital link for the western areas of Johannesburg with the inner city. Along the corridor, are vast districts and areas which are connected by the major road, namely the University of the Witwatersrand, South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), University of Johannesburg (UJ). The aim of the corridor developments is to re-stich the city, hopefully to resemble the polycentric city model, which exemplifies the compact city model. Such a compact City is energy efficient, provides residents with greater access, promotes social cohesion and creates a vibrant urban environment. For the average Johannesburg resident, the option to Page | 15 live in close proximity to public transport facilities with easy access to the City and to make use of an improved transport system can be a life-changing initiative. Research Problem The Corridors of Freedom proposes a ‘vague’ development plan for the Empire-Perth corridor, there is a lack of thorough analysis regarding the implementation of the plan. The study tackles the issue of implementation, regarding the existing mechanisms which are in place to support present development and trends, questioning how the proposed plan will be implemented in the community of Westbury. The research seeks to support the CoF plan by assessing the complexities surrounding education, sport and health, by scrutinizing the existing plan of action (CoF) and mechanisms currently in place to ensure effective provision of social infrastructure. Research question: What are the complexities surrounding the social infrastructure provision in South African metropolitan areas, case study - Westbury Sub questions: 1. How does a city provide social facilities in a context of rapidly planned density development? 2. What are the nuanced complexities of using standards as a measure of social infrastructure provision in South Africa, particularly in Johannesburg? 3. Are the current standards in use in Johannesburg Municipality appropriate in Westbury? 4. What is the subsequent impact of the continuation of the use of standards in communities of Johannesburg, such as Westbury? 5. How can the city improve social infrastructure provision in Westbury? Page | 16 Provision of infrastructure in South Africa has for a long period of time been determined by one’s colour of skin. The colour of skin determined where the individual lived, where the individual lived represented the collective lifestyle the people had, and subsequently standard of living of the majority. When considering social infrastructure provision in post- apartheid South Africa, one must be cognisant of the inherent, deeply held social, cultural and economic ties which the community is based upon. In many low-middle income coloured townships, race, language, tradition, incomes, etc., this has to be considered when providing infrastructure in these predominantly mixed race communities. This does not mean that infrastructure provision varies simply because of race, but it means that the status quo is very important determining the kind of infrastructure needed in any community, and a consideration of a community demographic profile is useful in the decision-making process (CSIR 2000). Coloureds in South Africa “Coloured people are quite colourful and straight with no refined traditions” – Dr. Renee Horne, 2013 The term coloured dates back from the apartheid demographic classifications, which categorised the groups under; blacks, coloureds, whites and Indians. The term is widely accepted in South Africa, and it refers to mixed race people. Unlike in Britain, or in the USA, where the term ‘coloured’ collectively referred to as ‘mixed race’ is classified under ‘black’, South Africa still has the traditional classification system of ‘four races’. According to Mohamed Adhikari (2005), a leading scholar on Coloured identity, the concept of “Colouredness” functioned as a social identity from the time of the formation of the South African state in 1910 to the present (Horne 2013). The difficulty in imagining a communal identity is compounded for the Coloured community in South Africa by the fact that race has always been used as a marker of difference (Dannhauser 2006). Coloured people in South Africa are heterogeneous, with ancestral links that may include Khoisan, Xhosa people and European settlers, and they comprise of approximately 10% of the population of the national population. The current situation coloured people face nationwide is the notion of not being ‘white enough’ during the National party’s apartheid rule, a not being ‘black enough’ during the Page | 17 ANC regime (Adhikari 2005). Post 1994, the government initiated a lot of programmes to redress past injustices, however due to Black Economic Empowerment (BBE) and other policies seeking to redress past injustices, precedence for jobs is most commonly for people of African descent. As a result, a proportion of the coloured has not progressed much, comparing to other races, from 1995-2001; this population ranks the worse than other groups since 1994 in income growths and university entrances. Research indicates that unemployment rates have been the worst for coloureds since the late 90s (Macdonald 2006:134). While in 1998, the unemployment rate was 15.8 percent, it rose to 22.4 percent in 2005. Among the black population, on the other hand, unemployment decreased from 32 to 31.5 percent (Amberger 2005). This relates the populations’ education levels, in 2013, a reported 3,1% of students classified as coloureds account for university graduates nationwide. Even though all segments of races are now able to access Universities, which were previously reserved for whites, the proportion of coloured people graduating has not increased remarkably in the last decade to make a dent in the population education rates. As a result of the marginalisation and alienation of the population post 1994, many residents in coloured communities express a similar tale of disenfranchisement and some have gone as far as to refer to coloureds as the uncared foster child of the new South Africa. Many of these communities have lost hope in the government effecting real change in their communities, and as such the young people resort to alcohol consumption, crime, drug abuse and theft as a means of survival. However is it crucial to realise that these are not the product of inherent characteristics of coloured folks, but are a result of several factors, mainly the severed coloured identity, detrimental alcohol history in wine fields which have perpetuated alcohol abuse, lack of opportunities, disparaging media stereotypes, and increasing socio-economic alienation of the population. Zimitri Erasmus (2001:18-19) discusses racial categories as they relate to coloureds, but also notes that ‘colouredness is a residual entity’, that which remains when we extract black and white. The Population Registration Act No 30 of 1950 defines ‘Coloured’ as neither White nor Native. In this respect, this social construct became a racial marker of difference. In apartheid South Africa, people determined what the categories will be, filled them up with human beings, and attached consequences to membership in those categories (Cornell and Hartmann(1998:25)). Unfortunately South Africa has not progressed much when Page | 18 considering the engraved racial identities of apartheid South Africa, for this reason, the consequences of membership in the coloured category have remained stagnant since the beginning of the democracy. The Corridors of Freedom plan for Westbury(predominantly coloured township) presents a strategic turn in the developmental history of the precinct, and as such it is relevant and crucial to understand the state and position of people who will benefit from the new developments. Such information is particularly relevant for service providers, in developing lasting relationships and building approaches to effectively engage with the community in order to advance the goals of the developments. Rationale of study Westbury is one of the strategic areas identified in the Empire-Perth corridor as a high priority investment area, so I saw fit to investigate the plan in this precinct, as a way to bring attention to the areas’ growing social and economic problems, and the prospect of the plan in changing some of those prevailing dynamics in the community. With the CoF plan already underway in the corridor, it is crucial to attempt to envision spatially what the plan will mean for the suburbs in and around the corridor. Besides the promised deliverables mentioned in the plan, one has to question if the plan will be implemented effectively, considering the existing standards of health, sport and education facilities, which dictate how many of such can be built in a measured space. More often than not, mega-plans such as the CoF, are often said to be devoid of social, economic and spatial conditions, however this study seeks to delve into these conditions in the context of social infrastructure provision. The study seeks to envision this plan realistically, by projecting population changes and the expected adjustments which concern the plan, such as the projected social infrastructure demands. Page | 19 Delimitation of the study As a result of the impending constraints of time, and the researchers’ capacity to tackle all the aspects of the research topic, the study will mainly focus on the qualitative aspects of social infrastructure, while using quantitative facts such as census data and demographics. The approach requires detailed analysis of standards of facilities, however the research acknowledges the importance of analysing the condition, functioning and general state of facilities, as opposed to only recognising the fact that the facility exists. There are many sub-topics under social infrastructure, and literature is varied, A thorough review of literature led the researcher to classify the gathered information into these three broad areas of study ; namely: 1) Norms and standards 2) Financial capital models 3) Operational and management The research project focuses on norms and standards of social infrastructure, due to the researcher’s capacity and given time frame of project, however some management aspects of SI will be considered later in the report. By far, one of the biggest limitation to the study is the lack of relevant literature on norms and standards, as they relate to social infrastructure. Most literature focuses on the other two above topics (financial capital models of provision and operational aspects of SI), added to this, publications which discuss standards, are mainly focused on the state and quality of social facilities (qualitative) and neglect to review the space standards. My inability to communicate fluently in the Afrikaans language, which is mainly spoken in Westbury, meant that I had to find someone to transcribe and translate the interviews and discussions, and I believe this compromised the authenticity and trust between the interviewer and interviewee in the information gathering process. This study limitation blurred the understanding that I could acquire from a particular individual, at times distorted their ideas, possibly losing some valuable meanings through translation. Page | 20 The #FeesMustFall protests were a significant limitation of the study, the WITS campus shutdown over the 3 week period meant that all academic programmes were suspended. Computer labs and other school resources were inaccessible, and meetings with supervisors had to be postponed, thus delaying the research process. Page | 21 Chapter 2: Methodology Scope of the research The research originally set out to fully understand the idea of using standards as the measure of social infrastructure provision, and subsequently developing the appropriate standards which the Corridors of Freedom, Westbury SAF had to be aligned with. The study now focuses solely on critiquing existing standards in the context of the CoF Plan, and highlighting the complexities of using uniform standards in communities of different socio-economic backgrounds. The research utilised the qualitative methods of inquiry, as this was the most appropriate method. Qualitative method in the research allowed the diversification of the study, by aiming to capture perceptions, ideas, opinions, and juxta positioning this with policy analysis which together formed a vivid picture of providing infrastructure in the previously disadvantaged community of Westbury, Johannesburg. Methods Research methodology according to Williams, Money & Swartz (2002:28) refers to the procedural framework within which the research is conducted”. Plooy (2005:44) describe this procedural process as following a logical and structured order. Leedy & Omrod (2010:93) explain that methodology is the extraction of meaning from data to respond to a problem or challenge. The researcher will employ qualitative research, but will also use quantitative data to further substantiate the research. Leedy and Ormrod (2010, p.94) suggest that researchers determine their research process and research methodology by choosing a board category of either a quantitative research approach or qualitative research approach. Hammersley (1992) writes, that in all research we move from ideas to data as well as from data to ideas’, therefore substantiating qualitative research involves observations and interrogation of perceptions, opinions and thoughts in order to gain an understanding of Page | 22 human behaviour. Smith (1994: 491 as cited in Philip, 1998: 266) described qualitative research as “a set of tools developed to pursue the epistemological mandate of the philosophies of meaning. Quantitative research on the other hand is positivistic research which confirms and validates a certain claim, by testing the theory through deductive analysis. As Du Plooy (2009:88) explains, qualitative research can also be explanatory design which examines values and needs, therefore being subjective. Due to the research’s flexibility, exploratory research allows one to deduce significant insights which can lead one to develop new ideas and build new theories. The research will employ qualitative techniques of study, particularly surveys and semi-structured interviews. Surveys are often used to describe numerical distributions of variables, but the qualitative survey, as employed in this research, is used to determine the diversity of the topic in the defined population. Since the research will seek to understand what can be understood as basic social infrastructure, considering the Corridors of Freedom, the research will also utilise qualitative methods such as interviews, unstructured discussion and document analysis to understand quantitative data. The research process will attempt to understand the complexities of using standards in metropolitan areas, through the use of a case study, Westbury in the City of Johannesburg municipality; the study will seek to position the challenge of standards in the broader context of development issues in the precinct. This will be done so that the reader is able to understand how the use of space standards in spatial forms of South African metropolitan areas can be problematic and complex. The aim of the research is not to develop ‘basic’ or ‘satisfactory’ standards for Westbury, but rather to shine the light on the complexities of using ‘space standards’ in a city such as Johannesburg. Page | 23 Research Design Yin (1994:19) asserts that a research design can be defined as a logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study’s initial research question and ultimately, to its conclusions. It is an action plan which one has to follow to move from A to B. The advantage of this type of this research is that it is procedural, therefore allowing the researcher’s choices and actions to determine the design (Fouche 2005:268-269). Creswell & De Vos (2005, p.272) identify five designs that have proven to be representative of common practice in different disciplines applying qualitative research, which include biography, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and case study. Case study research according to Collis and Hussey (2003:68-70) involves explanatory research where the link between theory and practice is not clear, it is mainly used to understand why certain phenomenon occurs. Yin(1994) asserts that the sole tendency of using case studies is that it tries to illuminate a decision/s; why it was taken, how it was implemented, and with what result (Schramm 1971). The type of case study to be used is experimental case study research, in which the case study is the subject of the research, and the research outlines and evaluates the possible ramifications of implementing the CoF objectives in a particular context. The case study will assist the researcher in exploring various elements associated with the implementation of the grand-scale corridor development in Johannesburg and the resulting implication in previously deprived communities. Data sources The study required a fair amount of primary data, since it was contextually based, however secondary sources were also used to effectively the point across. Primary data was in the form of gathering perceptions, through semi-structured interviews, informal discussions and surveys. Burnard (2005:5) explains that a semi-structured interview is one in which either the interviewer refers to a sheet containing key areas to be covered in the interview, or uses a set of questions but is prepared to insert other questions into the interview so as to capture elaborations. Unlike a structured interview which has a set of fixed questions, with a given time, a semi-structured interview is more diversified, as the interviewer and interviewee can digress to other related issues, and allow for explanations and elaborations. Page | 24 Burnard (2005) agreed with the above statement, stating that because structured interviews ask each respondent the same questions, there is no room for elaboration although the data from such interviews are much easier to process Informal discussions. Donalek (2005) observes that in a semi-structured interview, the researcher has a series of open-ended questions focusing on different parts of the particular research issue. Questions should merely be there to guide the researcher in the discussions, so as to guide the conversation in the desired direction, however should not limit the scope of the conversation. The research will also employ secondary research which involves the synthesis of existing research, from journals, publications, books, and other media. Data Collection Method The main method of analysis and data gathering is document analysis, and this is much concerned with analysing the existing policy documents on the CoF, social infrastructure provision, standards and so forth. Following this is an in-depth assessment of the social facilities in the study/focus area; this is to gage the need or lack thereof. I will undertake this analysis through methods of spatial analysis on GIS, desktop study, fieldwork and unstructured engagements with residents. This analysis will also evaluate thresholds, requirements, accessibility to facilities how the various departments distribute the facilities, e.g. every 1km, there should be a level 3 clinic/health facility and then assess whether that criterion was followed to implementation in Westbury. The next portion of information to be analysed is the technical spatial specifications of the information gathered above. This is the implementation of the Corridors of Freedom plan of provision, given the provision standards of the different departments and status quo analysis and any limitations found. The next method of data collection is through semi-structured interviews with city officials, residents, and other stakeholders concerning Westbury. According to Wilkinson et al. (2004) there are three different types of interviews; structured interviews and the depth interview on both sides of the scale, with the semi- structured interview sitting in the middle of these two, however selecting which type of interview to use will depend on the purpose of the study (Donalek, 2005:124). Semi structured interviews according to Bernard (1988) are a useful tool to gain people’s perceptions about matters, as they provide rich and nuanced information. The other Page | 25 method of gathering primary research is through surveys According to Creswell (2009:145) a sample survey is implemented in order to provide a description of a population by studying a smaller sample of that population. The last method of data collection and analysis is spatial analysis; this method will interpret the data collected to a practical spatial understanding of the information. This part of the research is more about interpreting information rather than gathering raw data. It will involve interpreting the information stipulated in the CoF document and overlaying it with the data gathered from officials and community members. The collected data will be official norms and standards used for provision in the context of Johannesburg, also additional data regarding the demographic projections. The two sections guiding the research; a) Gathering of relevant data (primary + secondary data sources) b) Technical Specifications of gathered information to study area (desktop study) Various methods of data gathering techniques and analysis were used in order capture the various aspects of the research topic. However the most effective, in gathering data was the physical presence in precinct combined with discussions (classified under semi-structured interviews). The physical presence relates to the use of senses, hearing, seeing and touching, using these senses allows one to grasp certain esoteric aspects of the precinct which others are not able to comprehend. The researcher employed a questionnaire, survey and semi-structured interviews to gather information from people. There were 15 people who given the survey to fill in, 2 people interviewed from the City of Johannesburg and 5 people who were interviewed. The 15 people who were given the survey were randomly picked from the community (random sampling), and ranged from ages 22 – 50(above age of consent). The 2 city officials were both from the urban planning department, in City transformation. Out of the 5 people interviewed, 1 was the councillor of Westbury; the 4 were from the social organisations based in Westbury(Abraham Kriel, Together Action Group, Transformation Development Centre and Social Development Unit). Page | 26 Ethical considerations In scientific research, there are 3 questions to consider regarding ethics (Singleton & Straits, 1999:513): 1. Is the researcher careful in research and honest in the reporting thereof? 2. Does the researcher comply with his/her responsibility to society? 3. Does the researcher treat the participants with respect and protect them from harm? Participants(community leaders, members, organisations and city planning) in this research may well be concerned with how their views are expressed, or their interest as individuals or as a collective, along with this, is the concern for anonymity regarding their identity. The researcher is aware of such concerns, and will take precautionary measures in protecting the participants from participating in any harmful/threatening activities or information, this will be achieved through the use of pseudonyms and questionnaires do not require any personal information. The study seeks to adopt these values from the Social Research Foundation (2003:53), and the WITS ethical considerations which will guide the ethical aspects of the study.  Negotiation with those affected – Those who take part in the research in some way will not necessarily make a direct contribution to the research  Protocol observation – Participants will be informed about the study in detail, and will be informed that their participation will not compensated financially  Consent obtained for observation – Al individuals who take part in the research will be informed about the study  Privacy and respect for individuals – All individuals treated fairly and equally  Responsibility – confidentiality guaranteed to participants  The student has right to report the work Collins and Hussey (2009:39), citing Kevin 1992:38) provide a checklist to ensure that research is conducted in an ethical manner:  Is there a possibility that the research will harm the participants directly, or indirectly? Page | 27  Are the findings of the study likely to bring harm to those involved?  Are the community standards of conduct violated? The first point of this checklist questions whether the research could harm the participants, the research does not in any way harm any of the participants, during and after which the information is published. In fulfilling the community standards of conduct, the researcher employed ethical behaviours of research and general values and etiquette in interacting with people. Ethical considerations during Fieldwork In conducting unstructured discussions with residents of Westbury, one had to be aware that there is a general lack of trust between people, and tensions run high between law enforcers and law breakers. During the first few weeks of fieldwork, many suspected that I was working for police, and some an undercover journalist, despite providing the school documentation verifying my identity. However as time passed, people became comfortable engaging with me, in fact some started to assist me with the fieldwork. In engaging with people, I often approached the discussion with some random questions, just to facilitate further discussions about the research. I learned that I needed to get to know the residents prior to the discussions and interviews, if I was to acquire valuable information. This consisted of visiting the people on random occasions just to partake in community events and build relationships, e.g. sports day at Westbury High School. Research constraints In the search for the exact standards used by the City of Johannesburg for the provision of Health, education and Sport facilities, the author learned that the there are no official social infrastructure guidelines set out by the City of Johannesburg, comparing to the City of Cape Town and EThekwini Municipality which have stipulated standards. The standards in use, are those provided by the Red Book and the CSIR guidelines, the red book bases its planning guidelines from a combination of engineering standards, urban design standards and roads standards. This was the biggest constraint, because it meant that the author had to make a compilation of the standards from the various documents and make comparisons. Even with Page | 28 this at hand, it was not clear which standards are being adhered to. Another limitation was the researchers’ inability to conduct an interview with Cheri Green, a leading expert in the field of social infrastructure provision; who was unavailable at the time. She is based in Stellenbosch, Western Cape and works for the CSIR. Literature on the topic was limited, particularly that which relates to the use of standards as a measure of provision. The limited time given for the completion of the research project also limited the scope of the work which could be done, as a result, the researcher only completed that which was possible in the given time. Page | 29 Chapter 3: Literature Review This chapter reviews the relevant literature that relates to social infrastructure provision in South Africa and internationally. The chapter seeks to locate the topic in theory and state the arguments, debates and discussions surrounding social infrastructure, and also highlight the authors which write about the topic . South Africa’s historical legacy of apartheid has led to an unjust post-apartheid spatial portrait, which has invariably segregated people by class and race, and the result is communities which are economically differentiated. Municipalities are the bodies at local government which have to contend with the inequitable distribution of facilities. In many areas informal settlements and townships have no developed facilities, even though there is the greatest concentration of people in those areas, compared to the previously ‘white’ suburbs, where there sufficient infrastructure. This legacy of inequality remains engrained in most of Johannesburg’s communities, as a result, the conversation around social infrastructure provision in previously disadvantaged suburbs needs to evolve towards implementation techniques rather than mere discourse. However problems in Sport facilities cannot be solved using the same type of thinking used in the apartheid regime. While there is a rapidly increasing population in Johannesburg, there is also an expected increase in demand of recreational facilities. The city of Johannesburg in 2011 embarked on a new spatial vision for the city in line with its growth and development Strategy 2040, to redress past injustices as they relate to the provision of infrastructure, which was previously denied to certain communities. It is primarily based on a corridor Transit- Orientated Development (TOD) (CoF 2011). This plan guarantees the following rights to inhabitants of Johannesburg:  Citizens have the right to hold the city of Johannesburg accountable and become active participants in the delivery of services. Page | 30  The Right to a Spatially Integrated and United City – in which we rebuild and reconnect the divisions created by decades of Apartheid spatial planning  “The Right to Developmental Service Delivery – where the city maintains and improves existing infrastructure, while expanding new infrastructure”. (Bickford, 2014: 19). The approaches which will support this development are large scale transport arterials across the city – through the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT).There is a strong focus on mixed use developments and high density developments in this corridor, as a way to‘re-stitch’ the city, by supporting the creation of social and economic opportunities along the corridor so that working class people and poor citizens are closer to opportunities. The research report will rely on and assess the stipulated promises/lack thereof of the CoF policy document, critically questioning the practicality and feasibility of the plan in Westbury. The Corridors of Freedom document highlights a planned development corridor which will pass through Westbury, a formerly ‘coloured’ township in the West of Johannesburg, bordered by Westdene, Crosby and Sophiatown. The area is in a state of social and economic decline, it is plagued social ills such as gangsterism, high drug use and general violence. Against this background, the study will mainly focus on norms and standards of social facilities, namely; health, education and sport facilities. The proposed plan is to densify and diversify along the BRT stations, as a strategy to create equal development by also creating affordable housing stock in the Far East and west. In Westbury the identified development street is a continuation of Empire Perth street, which is Fuel Street. It is unavoidable that with densification comes an increased population, which means an increase in social facilities needed as a result, however it is not clear how this plan will deal with the projected population increases and adjustments thereafter in infrastructure. Social infrastructure is critical to the development of sustainable communities, it is loosely defined as infrastructure used to increase the social comfort and to act on the economic productivity; these include: schools, structures for public safety, council flat, plant of waste disposal, hospitals, sport structures, green areas, and so on (Hansen, 1965). It also refers to the community facilities, services and networks which help individuals, families, groups and Page | 31 communities meet their social needs, maximise their potential for development, and enhance community wellbeing. While the provision of housing, potable water and electricity are vital for meeting basic human needs, other services such as schools, transport and health care are important for ensuring the long term satisfaction of residents. “Social Infrastructure is that which is developed at a household or community scale, is intended for the delivery of basic services and which has a direct and/or indirect impact on the quality of life” (DEAT 2004) .SI in its wider sense refers to a number of issues; these include: • Universal facilities and services such as education, health recreation and sport facilities • Lifecycle-targeted facilities and services, such as those for children, young people and older people • Targeted facilities and services for groups with special needs, such as families, people with a disability and Indigenous and culturally diverse people. Socio-economic development, according to Familoni (1996) can be facilitated and accelerated by the presence of social and economic infrastructures. Argy (1999) further differentiates social infrastructures into hard and social infrastructure, claiming that soft infrastructure consists of social security, while hard infrastructure consists of schools, and hospitals. This paper will solely focus on literature on hard infrastructure, mainly education, health and sport facilities, since they are the three most basic infrastructures of all developing communities. Health and education are two dominant social infrastructures which can have profound effects on social and economic development of communities. According to Mukherjee and Banerjee (2009) assert “that education and health comprise the social sector, and social development of any region is highly dependent on the performance of the social sector”. They also argue that education and health can be important instruments of social change. In fact education levels affect the proper utilisation of health care services, and therefore these factors cannot be separated. The Millennium development Goals in the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in South Africa, 2002 also emphasise the importance of the social sectors, as prerequisites to achieving the stipulated goals. Page | 32 Following in Nelson Mandela’s words in a speech at the launch of Mindset Network (2003) stated that “Education is the most powerful weapon we can use to change the world”, education is considered a good social and economic investment which enhances the stock of human capital (Denison 1962).The role of education as a social infrastructure and as a stimulant of growth and development can be enhanced only if it qualitatively provided. Similarly health is important when engaging in the argument of socio-economic production function; in this case there is a general understanding that health is the major determinant of productivity and efficiency in all facets of life. Sport facilities are particularly important for children, youth and young adults, these development stages are fostered by a healthy balance of physical activity in sport centres and education in schools. Norms, Standards and Guidelines Norms can be loosely defined as the typical, usual or expected behaviour in a particular environment. The Department of Public Service and Administration (2013) defines ‘norms’ as the ‘usual or average level of performance’. They do not have to be formal; however they are general understandings, which are culturally accepted by society at large. Standards, on the other hand are quantifiable, and act as a measure of quality, therefore a binding level of attainment. Standards are not only ubiquitous, but they are also normative. The Department of Public Service and Administration (2013) defines standards as the ‘basis of measurement, something desired and achievable’. ’By creating ‘ideals’ and ‘norms’, standards also create the ‘less-than-ideal’ and the ‘abnormal’ (Gorur 2013). They are the ‘level of attainment’, threshold which all related things must contain or be able to uphold. The Webster third International Dictionary (1966) states that standards, in general, designate any measure by which one judges a thing as authentic, good or adequate. It refers to any authoritative rule, principle, or measure used to determine the quantity, weight, extent, value or quality of a thing. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English language (1969) defines a standard a measure of comparison for quantitative or qualitative value, norm or criterion; it also refers to a degree or level of requirement, excellence or attainment. They may also be interpreted as the measure of appraisal, a stimulus future developments or simply a model procedure. (Hirsch 1970) The Department of Public Service and Administration (2013) lists the three broad categories of standards: Page | 33 a) Structure standards – regarding personnel or finance b) Process standards (generic) – regarding minimum service levels c) Outcome standards (specific) – regarding front office services The research focuses on the process standards, which are the minimum levels of service which the relevant government agencies seek to attain in the provision of infrastructure. Standards encourage conformity to the ideal and dictate how things ought to be, restricting decision-making, setting parameters and narrowing choice (Gorur 2013). Generally they are criticised because they are seen to limit human capacities, instead creating standardisation, and reducing human creativity, imagination and thought. Gorur (2013) argues that the more we use standards, the more they are less visible, and as such they have been woven and institutionalised into all aspects of our existence. Sociologists in the field of Science and Technology go as far as to say standards are ‘recipes for reality’ (Busch, 2011), they are ‘performative’, in that they are structuration and stratification tools. Standards have replaced human relations at multiple levels, in that their original aim was to assure quality in different spaces, however this has destroyed trust, honesty and integrity among people, instead some restrictive rituals of legitimation have replaced these. Busch (2011) identifies 4 types of standards: (1) Olympic standards (creates one winner, many losers), (2) filters - creates two categories; included and excluded, (3) ranks, arrange categories into hierarchies and (4) divisions, classifies entities into unranked categories. Standards, as they relate to social facilities can be classified as ranks, these are standards which have hierarchies, and space standards in this context depend on hierarchies of settlements. The challenge for planners when the standards are not contextually responsive is then to destabilise such standards which more often than not is created by distant ‘others’, who are removed from the context in which the standards operate in. Bursch elaborates that the problem with these standards is that civil servants are not able to effect real change in the built environment due to the rigid standards which are removed form context. The rapidly developing and changing context of African cities calls on local governments to thoroughly engage with development dynamics of infrastructure provision in such a way Page | 34 that equitable distribution is prioritised. Urban planners are at the focal point of this endeavour, in that they are required to provide infrastructure in communities with varied contexts, yet adhere to a set of guidelines and norms. The norms and standards of social infrastructure provision in planning provide a framework and a benchmark in strategic forward planning, and are useful in allocating suitable land for particular uses, developing capital budgets within an area, regardless whether provision is from public or private developers. In respect to planning over the long term, access standards, threshold guidelines and site sizes are increasingly important in ensuring that sufficient land has been reserved for essential facilities in terms of future growth and development without being wasteful and/or encouraging the illegal use of underdeveloped land (Green and Argue 2012:8). They become a yardstick against which space has to measure up to, and is useful when designing and constructing structures in space, with the understanding that numerical data alone will not solve the problems, but is a good starting point. The goals of providing standards which departments adhere to, is to ideally provide equitable distribution of resources and services. However it is useful to note that be it, that they are legally prescriptive and binding, provision of infrastructure should always respond to local contextual conditions, taking into account neighbourhood, suburb, district and city scales. Normative standards should ideally serve four purposes, to: (Green and Argue 2012) 1) Determine the threshold populations for facilities and basic land requirements; 2) Serve as a departure point for negotiations with respect to land provision between developers and the City; and, 3) Provide a basis for developing a spatial distribution network for a facility – but without this being the final determinant of the scale and detail location of a facility which would require more local input. 4) Provide an input to prioritise capital investment based on relative backlog with respect to standards. Hierarchies of settlements Catchment size (no of people) Examples – settlement sizes Metropolitan cities/regions  1 000 000 Johannesburg, eThekwini, Page | 35 Cape Town Large cities, small metros 350 000 – 1 000 000 Port Elizabeth, Bloemfontein Large towns/ regional service centres 100 000 – 350 000 Nelspruit, Newcastle, Witbank Small to Medium towns/regional service centres 60 000 – 100 000 Grahamstown, Ermelo, Mosselbay Small towns/ isolated regional service centres 10 000 – 100 000 Beaufort West, Kokstad Villages 5 000 – 25 000 Stella Table 1: Settlement sizes according to population sizes Source: CSIR (2012) Planning standards generally refer to the provision of land uses, community facilities, and it is expressed through population sizes and threshold requirements. Hierarchies of settlements are essential understanding norms and standards because the premise of standards lies in hierarchies, such as ranges of sizes, population threshold sizes and levels of specialisation provided by facilities. There are some social facilities which transcend across various settlement sizes, and therefore require attentive planning methods which accommodate the complexities of inter-regional planning, e.g. sports stadiums. Casey (2005) outlines the advantages of establishing standards for social infrastructure, these include;  Replacing ad-hoc decision making with rational processes of decision-making  Achieving consistency in the strategic development plans within the city’s methods of provision  Establishing a baseline to guide and assist development by identifying appropriate tools and methods of provision  A useful tool to inform planning a budget mechanisms Standards are a complex phenomenon, in that they are essentially a measure of ‘perfection’ (maximum level of attainment), or ‘adequacy’ (minimum level of attainment) (SRSA 2010). Page | 36 The creation of the two levels, and everything in-between is the complex part, perspectives of individuals and organisations differ. Due to high levels of specialisation, standards have become a contentious issue because what may be adequate to some, but is sub-standard to some. However standards have evolved from the modernist perspective of planning which insisted on implementing scientific based standard with a disregard for thorough analysis. The post-modern thought however introduced the multiple levels of reasoning, which acknowledges context as a factor of influence for interventions. Sport Facilities According to Sports and Recreation South Africa (SRSA 2010), the definition of sport and recreational facilities is a difficult one, as it depends on a number of factors, e.g. those facilities, such lakes, dams, beaches where people could participate in sport and recreation activities, are excluded from the definition of a sport facility, however stadiums, motor tracks, bowling alleys and recreation facilities constitute sport facilities (SRSA 2010). These are areas generally considered as enclosed public assembly areas/arenas, for entertaining or non-entertainment purposes where people congregate in large groups for sporting events. Essential to the definition is ‘enclosure’ and controlled access to the facility, thus beaches and lakes do not qualify in the classification of sport facilities, also having a place for spectators and participants, i.e. stadiums and bowling alleys. Page | 37 Nelson Mandela once said: “Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else can. Sport can awaken hope where there was previously only despair.” (Mandela 2000:5) “Sport is a universal language that can bring people together, no matter what their origin, background, religious beliefs or economic status” (Annan 2005). Against this background, it is clear that sport is a world renowned activity which has crucial elements of nation building and unification outside race, gender and class. With South Africa hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup, resources were poured into sport facilities, through upgrading of sport infrastructure and the construction of new stadiums. This infrastructure is still in existence, however at a much more local level; there has been lagging effort towards creating sustainable environments for children and the youth, through the provision of contextually responsive facilities. There is strong correlation between good provision of social infrastructure in communities and the overall wellbeing of the inhabitants of that community. Social facilities are described as a variety of built environment structures and public utilities necessary for the general wellbeing and development of the community (Uduku 1993). The lack of facilities and resources thereof to maintain facilities at schools and inaccessibility to the community facilities has resulted in high levels of inactivity among children and youth and the absence Figure 6: Approach to Social Infrastructure provision Source: Planning for social infrastructure and Community for urban growth areas (2012) Page | 38 of structured sport at schools in the historically disadvantaged communities .The problem is even more serious for young adults after their school days (SASR 2012). One can proceed further by speculating that in communities where there are high concentrations of youth and young adults who are idle, without access to economic and social opportunities, there is a tendency for substance abuse, violent crimes, and reduced social ties. IIhamdaniah (2005) conducted a study in Ahmeddabad, India where he assessed present provision of social infrastructure in terms of spatial distribution and accessibility to the facilities through GIS techniques. It is quite interesting to note that in the analysis he conducted he highlighted the importance of placing social infrastructure in close proximity to transport infrastructures, as he believed that the infrastructure would be ineffective if it is inaccessible to the intended users, which in his case where the youth and young adults Planning for social infrastructure provision in South Africa is an issue which requires comprehensive approaches which take into account the many facets of social infrastructure in order for it to be effective. The above diagram describes the comprehensive approach which the government of South Australia adopted to looking at social infrastructure as a whole. The intersection of the three aspects; physical facilities, human capital and social support services (Institutional support) is the basis of this research report, however only the following aspects have been selected In the approach. Community (physical) facilities are the required spaces which all interventions are conceptualised and resources are poured into (health, education and recreation). The human services is the community, the hands that combine to work on the way forward (youth, families, etc.) and finally the community and cultural development are the mechanisms put in place to achieve the community goals, e.g. local economic development and place management. The intercession of these three aspects creates a comprehensive approach to development. Page | 39 Sports and Recreation Curtis and Kraus (2000: 85) stated that "since recreation involves the voluntary choices of participants, it is essential that all programme activities and services be keyed to the actual wishes or desires of community residents or organisation members and that they are perceived as potentially enjoyable or valuable in other ways." Driver (1991:5-105) lists the benefits of sport and recreation into 5 categories, these are; psychological, economic, environmental, physiological and social benefits. Balmer and Clerk (1997:10-11) on the other hand list the following benefits of participation in sport and recreation activities;  Recreation reduces anti-social behaviour and while discouraging destructive behaviours  Promotes a healthy lifestyle – determinant of health status  Improve one’s quality of life Social support Youth Community health Identifying community needs Capacity building Community centres Libraries Education Recreation Youth Community health Community Facilities Human Services Community and Cultural Development Figure 7: Selected elements of social infrastructure applied throughout the research Adapted from: Planning for social infrastructure and Community for urban growth areas (2012) Page | 40  Key to developing balanced human development, especially for children and young adults  Reduces social services, justice and health care costs  Useful for ecological survival Scholtz adds that in the provision of sports and recreation, the following principles need to be considered; 1. The equality of opportunities in the provision of sport infrastructure must be regardless of sex, race, disability or age 2. Joint provision of the infrastructure – community, authorities, education institutions, private business sector and individuals 3. Provision of infrastructure must be cognisant of spatial and demographic considerations 4. Long term relationships between communities and service providers, so as to improve standards and foster fair and balanced provision 5. Promotion of public interest in decision-making process Legislative framework and policy imperatives The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996 Schedule 5, Part A of the Constitution lists functional areas of exclusive provincial legislative competencies, which includes provincial recreation, provincial sport, municipal parks and local sport facilities. The implication of this legislative competence is those provinces have exclusive competence to pass legislation as it relates to the governing of sports and recreation. However this competence is governed by national government which legislates so that provinces are aligned with those goals, this is in accordance to s 147(2) which states that national legislation in s 44(2) prevails over matters listed in schedule 5. Municipalities also have a role to play, which is mainly to create by-laws governing aspects of sports and recreation at a local level. However according to s 139(1) of the Constitution, provinces have a supervisory responsibility and mandate over local government as it pertains to norms and standards. Page | 41 The National Sport and Recreation Amendment Act, 18 of 2007 This act places responsibility on the Minister of Sport and Recreation to ensure upgrading of sports facilities, creation and providing funds, oversee and management of sport and recreation facilities in South Africa, s 8 (a) (b). NSRA also provides the framework for relationships between the Department and other related clients, as a way to boost sporting activities. Legislation to be considered in the NSRA (2011/12): 1. South African Combat Sports Bill. 2. National Sport and Recreation Amendment Bill (2ND) (based on outcomes of 2011 National Sports Indaba). 3. South African Boxing Repeal Draft Bill. Health Facilities There is an old saying that ‘health is wealth’, this implies that health and mental wellbeing of any human translates into a resource and human capital which can be useful in some way to the community. This means that good health directly correlates with productivity, wellbeing and economic growth. The World Health Organisation (WHO)(1994:2) defined health as ‘a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, rather a continuous balancing of these various components in an effort produce happiness and higher quality of existence ’. Health facilities are essential to the health of any community, and appropriate measures need to be enforced to ensure adequate facilities are provided for people, especially in the previously disadvantaged communities of South Africa. The provision of adequate basic health care services, particularly in urban contexts, is becoming harder because of (1) the rapid growth of cities and their population and (2) the available resources for the provision of medical care services (Amer, 2007). Chatterjee (1990) has pointed out that the health status of the people is generally determined by the intersection of four factors need, perception, ability and availability Page | 42 Figure 8: Determinants of Health Status (Adapted from: Chatterjee 1990) The need for health services in the above diagram refers to the allocation of resources or environmental pollution, Perception of the need relates to socio-economic and cultural factors, e.g. income level and social background. The factors which affect perception also determine a person’s ability to recognize the health need and get it attended (Chatterjee 1990). Availability of health care services is reflected in the physical manifestation of health care facilities, e.g. hospitals and dispensaries. In service provision of health facilities, one has to consider the contextual needs, the perceived needs (service providers determine these based on desktop study), ability of the government to provide services within the available resources. Legislative framework and policy imperatives The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa mandates the state to ensure the realisation of the right to access health care and other socio-economic rights. Health services fall under schedule 4, Part A of the constitution as a concurrent national and provincial legislative competence, meaning that provincial and national government are able to pass legislation as to the regulation and management of health care. A Perceived need Ability Availability Ideal space Page | 43 Section 9 of the Constitution states that everyone has the right to equality, including access to health care services. Section 27 of the Constitution states: with regards to health care, food, water and social security: 1. Everyone has the right to have access to – a) Health care services, incl. reproductive health care b) Sufficient food and water c) Social security, incl. if unable to support themselves, and their dependents 2. The state must take reasonable legislative and other measures within its available resources to achieve the progressive realisation of each of these rights 3. No-one may be refused emergency medical treatment Section 28 of the Constitution states that every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter, basic health care services and social services. National Health Act, 61 of 2003 This act provides a basic framework for uniform health care provision and management in South Africa Education Education is a social investment, because it enhances the stock of human capital (Familoni 1996). Even though education may be a social investment, it is also an economic investment since it enhances the stock of human capital Denison, (1962). Again, the role of education as a social infrastructure and as a stimulant of growth and development can be enhanced only if it is qualitatively provided. Historically, inequality was mainly exacerbated through the provision of a much lower education standard (Bantu education) and subsequently lower school infrastructure, as a means to realise the apartheid vision. Education reform has been a priority in South Africa since the establishment of the Government of National Unity in 1994 and has played a key role in redressing the injustices of Apartheid. The enforcement of this educational system Page | 44 meant that for decades ‘blacks’ and ‘coloureds’ were systematically deprived of the basic right to access adequate education. Essentially these economic, infrastructural and educational inequalities robbed many of the ability to participate in public discourse and engage in state programmes. While progress has been made to redress inequalities pertaining to distribution of resources inputs and outcomes through institutional and policy reforms, there is still more to be done to truly realise the mission and vision of the Department of Education. Legislative framework and policy imperatives The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 specifies the 3 spheres of government; the national, provincial and local sphere, and the Constitution mandates the spheres to work together, being interdependent and interrelated in their relations. It provides that the national sphere has exclusive legislative responsibility for tertiary education and shares concurrent responsibility with the provincial spheres for all other levels of education (OECD 2008). According to Section 29(1) of the Constitution, everyone has the right: a) To basic education. To further education, and the state must through reasonable measures, make progressively available accessible b) These rights place a duty on the state to respect an individual’s right to education. It also imposes a positive obligation on the state to promote and provide education by putting in place and maintaining an education system that is responsive to the needs of the country. The norms and standards for school infrastructure are not just for the profit of providing an equitable distribution in communities of all sizes, but also assist in enhancing teaching effectiveness and student learning outcomes. In 2008, the SA government allocated 17 billion over 2008 medium term expenditure framework to upgrading existing unsafe structures, improving physical infrastructure and bettering learning processes, and norms play a big role in directing such investments. One of the key challenges of the education system of South Africa relates to the lack of an integrated system of delivery, e.g. while physical infrastructure might be put in place, studies indicate that demand for schooling is Page | 45 mainly determined by the academic track record of the school. Therefore norms and standards should include ‘capital works’ required to provide the services and operational and management aspects in order to adequately serve the needs of the system rather than the schools (FFC 2009). The Department of Education in 2013 released a draft of the minimum norms and standards of public school infrastructure; this aim of the document was to provide clear and concise norms and standards in the provision of education infrastructure from the 2008 version. According the rights listed above, everyone has the right to basic education, and at this point ‘basic education’ becomes contested. Section 29(1a) of the Constitution includes the use of internet and other infrastructure necessary, also section 29(1b) states reasonable measures required to realise the goal of further education , and that includes infrastructure and skills for internet use, as a way to realising ‘further education’ Some argue that access to internet is a way to realise other rights such as access to information and Freedom of expression, and therefore restriction of the right to internet access, would be violating other rights. Standards: Inner city schools Many South African inner city schools are subject to deteriorating, poor academic achievements, increased school violence, mismanaged bureaucracies and low extracurricular activities (Wasserman & William, 2002:26). Many inner city school principals do not have time engage students in meaningful extracurricular because they are too busy trying to raise the academic achievement. Gauteng Education Member of Executive Council(MEC) Angie Motshekga, 2006, after visiting the inner city schools as part of a campaign for effective teaching and learning, expressed shock at the condition of some of schools, stating that some were located along busy streets, making it an unconducive learning environment. Extracurricular activities are part of the holistic learning environment which is as crucial to youth development as the academic programmes, if not more; therefore the standards need to be effectively implemented in inner city schools, to some degree, if academic achievements of inner city schools are to improve. As a result of lack of physical space to Page | 46 conduct physical activities, the schools opt to engage in activities which do not require much space, such as drama, music, chess or dance (Inglis & Straton, 1994:112; Nkosi, 2005:21). Hellison (2000) claims that supervised school-based recreational opportunities for youth from low income inner city neighbourhoods are often lacking. Watkins makes the claim that engagement in school sponsored activities means more supervision from teachers, preventing them from falling prey to inner city vices(Watkins 2004:4). The school environment of inner city schools challenges schools to implement solid extra-curricular activities, in order to retain attention and improve the holistic physical and mental state of children. It is a valuable substitute to gangs, delinquency or idleness. It is a key intervening factor in dropping out. (McNeal (1999:50-53) and Rentz 5 (1996:309) for instance points out that sports participation correlates with higher levels of self-esteem, improved racial relations, feelings of control over one’s life and lower delinquency rates among learners. Holt et al. (2008) found the following three types of life skills were associated with participation on the team: learning to take initiative, respect, and teamwork/leadership, and as such these skills could also be transferable to other areas of life. Researchers acknowledge that further research is needed to understand how to instil such skills in the school setting. Inner city schools are forced to share facilities with the public and as a result of the lack of resources across the broad spectrum, the pupils are forced to engage in extracurricular activities at home or in their own time (Haliimah 2011). The importance of standards comes into question when one considers traditional education facilities in the townships or even suburban parts of the city. The application of standards can prove problematic because the school sizes will differ significantly along with the infrastructure that follows. For example, it is recommended that the minimum size of a high school is 2,4ha, including sports field, but this cannot be achieved by inner city schools due to the price of land and availability. As a result of this trade-off to opt for physical education spaces rather than sports facilities, inner city youth programmes tend to focus more on academic programmes, rather than extra- curricular activities. Methods of provision: Cluster concept Page | 47 The Red book vol 1, suggests a model of provision for inner city schools that involves shared facilities. This model of provision can be highly beneficial only if implemented in partnership with other schools. The functional cluster concept is reasonable measure to ensure that inner city schools have extracurricular activities which are so vital to children’s academic performances. The Red Book volume 1, lists some of the advantages of clustering functional facilities;  Convenience  Reduction in inequalities of provision  Sharing of specialised facilities  Minimum maintenance costs The functional cluster method of provision is an alternative form of provision which can be utilised in urban areas, predominantly cities where there is little space for sports fields, and the urban form does not allow for low density developments. The cluster development utilises minimum space, yet allowing for maximum densities. In utilising space standards for education facilities, it is recommended that due to the complex nature of the urban form, Figure 9: Functional cluster for educational facilities in the inner city Johannesburg Source: Red Book, vol 1 Page | 48 the city embarks on developing specialised standards which are directed towards the spatial vision. Thusong centres There are various ways of providing social infrastructure; however it varies in each residential settlement because the conditions, both physically and socially differ. This section will deal with the alternative ways of looking at social infrastructure, innovative and sustainable methods of provision. The most sustainable way of killing two birds with one stone when working with social infrastructure is through the sharing of infrastructure. For example, a shared facility between two schools. Shared facilities may include; specialised facilities (e.g. main hall), sport facilities (swimming pool and tennis courts).These shared facilities are also accessible to the public, although responsibility is delegated to the schools that use it. According to the Red Book I, this presents opportunities for clustering of facilities into one centralised area; it can range from a metropolitan node, to a local cluster of sports fields or schools. Multipurpose facility clusters are multifaceted facility under one roof (Red Book vol 1, 2000).These are often strategically located along transport interchanges or central markets/squares. Thusong centres (formerly known as Multi-Purpose Community Centres- MPCCs) are a good example of sustainable provision of services. The centres aware commissioned in 1999, to reduce distances people had to travel to access basic government services. They are one stop, multipurpose development centres where local, provincial and national government seek to empower the previously disadvantaged by bringing these centres with information from government, NGOs, and business agencies. Thusong centres Figure 10: Example of a Thusong service centre, Kroonstad Page | 49 usually have services from Department of Health, Department of Education, South African police Services, NGOs and community based organisations. Picture 1: Compatibility of social facilities (Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design, Red Book vol 1) The clustering of facilities in the provision of services needs to be properly and carefully implemented because the facilities need to be compatible with each other for the development node to be highly successful. Picture 1 shows a compatibility matrix which outlines the different facilities and how they relate to each other. The degrees of compatibility are outlined below: Page | 50  Incompatible – unsuitable interrelationships between the facilities, due to their contradictory uses  Neutral – no perceived relationship between the uses, no benefits and disadvantages to clustering them together  Compatible – good interrelationships between the facilities, therefore can be clustered together Picture 1 is merely a guideline used to cluster facilities, to ensure compatibility of facilities in asocial hub or cluster. It is an alternative way of providing social infrastructures, as opposed to the conventional method which supplies on an individual facility basis in a designated space. This method of provision provides for flexibility of standards, and increases accessibility to various services in one designated area. Transit Oriented Development This concept was originally codified by Peter Calthorpe in the late 80s, who originally defined it as a simple, moderate and high-density housing along with complementary public uses, jobs, retail and services, are concentrated in mixed-use developments at strategic points along the regional transit system (Calthorpe 1993). There has been no universally accepted definition of the concept; but it development centred around transit stations, promoting concentration of mixed uses, all in an attempt to increase ridership on public transport. The key components of TOD are as follows, (as summarised from “The Next American Metropolis” by Calthorpe and Poticha):  Organize growth on a regional level to be compact and transit-supportive  Place commercial, housing, jobs parks, and civic uses within walking distance of transit stops  Create pedestrian-friendly street networks that directly connect local destinations  Provide a mix of housing types, densities, and costs  Preserve sensitive habitat, riparian zones, and high-quality open space  Make public spaces the focus of building orientation and neighbourhood activity In an attempt to create a sustainable compact city, the transit-oriented development along major transport route presents major opportunities for increasing the densities, land uses Page | 51 and public spaces. In a neighbourhood where youth unemployment exceeds 60%, the TOD will be vehicle of economic growth, through the provision of opportunities, choices and variety. Social and economic amnesties are a crucial in all TODs, moreover the provision of these facilities will be much easier, while also maximising its use at the same time. The success of TODs depends highly on a successful transit system; this is so because, an efficient public transport system is likely to motivate private car users to use public transport, therefore increasing ridership. At the same time, this encourages the use of non- motorised transport and cycling, which is environmentally sustainable. The Rea-Vaya and metrobus transport systems in Johannesburg have been crucial in expanding TODs. Measuring the effects of TOD according to Belzer and Autler (2002:4) is through the functional characteristics:  Access to jobs  Lifestyle changes as a result of the infrastructure  Choice and variety of transportation modes  Housing typologies The provision of social infrastructure in Transit Oriented developments will require careful planning which entails a comprehensive demographic understanding of population dynamics. The transport system is key in this understanding; standards of provision will be inclusive of population thresholds, distances and accessibility to facilities through the transport system. Multi-purpose facilities will have to be considered because of the limited space and the high rents along TODs. Management of social facilities In the management of social facilities, the sizes and types of facilities is dependent of the size and character of the community. Flood(1993) makes the argument that in the provision of facilities, communities must be considered as ‘customers’ and ‘clients’, this type of thinking would increase community involvement, effective implementation and finally Page | 52 community upliftment. Flood (1993) urges the government to understand communities as internal and external clients, those directly involved in the programmes are internal clients, while those who are beneficiaries are external clients, and all community groups are clients. He suggests this with the argument that when government considers people as clients, they will automatically satisfy their client’s needs. According to Paul (1987), community participation serves the following functions;  Increase project effectiveness  Building beneficiary capacity – operational responsibility  Desire to share costs of project  Instrument of empowerment, people are able to initiate actions, therefore influencing outcomes  Promote agreement, co-operation and interaction According to William (1983), when communities are given a stake in the planning and constructing a system, they will also take charge of managing and maintaining it. This element of management is essential when considering any project involving or affecting people livelihoods. Segaloviciene (2012) outlines 8 key management principles which need to be considered in the development of social infrastructure; Rural Social Infrastructure management principles 1. Coordination of approach “bottom to top” 2. Satisfaction of social needs & local initiatives 3. Partnership and division of responsibility 4. Involvement of local residents & decentralization of decision- making processes 5. Continuous study, professional development and stimulation of self esteem 6. Integrity and hierarchy 7. Innovations, readiness for changes, efficiency 8. Ecology Table 2: Rural social infrastructure management principles Adapted from Segaloviciene (2012) Page | 53 Key principles; 1. Bottom-up approach – This approach is one which prioritises the involvement of the community as the main stakeholder in the decision-making process. Local authorities simply guide, supervise, inform, consult and sponsor the public interest 2. Satisfaction of social needs and local needs – In order to satisfy social needs of residents, communities have to actively engage in the innovation process in order to improve the quality of SI initiatives. 3. Partnership and division of responsibility – Partnerships of local development entities is essential for the success of local SI projects, this mainly involves Public- Private Partnerships (PPP), joint ventures of private entities and NGOs. Division of responsibility relates to assigning tasks to internal clients, as a way to ensure the longevity of implemented projects. 4. Decentralisation of decision-making process – This involves public participation methods which seek to understand the needs of the community, and this is taken into consideration in deliberation process during project conception. 5. Continuous study and stimulation self-esteem – Informed communities are able to effectively communicate ideas to service providers, while also taking responsibility that comes with certain projects. 6. Ecology – sustainability and green infrastructure should always inform infrastructure projects, preservation of the natural environment, landscape and protected areas should be taken into consideration at all times in the process. Summary The provision of social infrastructure in South African metroplitan areas is a pressing issue which has an increasing demand as the city is rapidly expanding and developing. The need for adequate social infrastructue in every community is without doubt, a crucial aspect essential for people’s general wellbeing. As a result, the infrastructure must be responsive to people’s needs and desires, targeted to all age groups of society, with a greater focus on children and young adults. The challenge arises when offcials have to determine the needs of each community and meet this need without depleting resources needed for other Page | 54 communities. The use of standards at this point becomes useful in determining the threshold which each community should have according to its size, population density, etc. Approaches to social infrastructure need to be cognisant of other related infrastructure, as a way to ensure integration and sustainability, thus giving way to stronger community interventions. The literature discussed in this chapter helps to contextualise the topic in a theoretical framework of social infrastructure and general provision of infrastructure. In uncovering the complexities surrounding social infrastructrure, this literature review section Page | 55 Chapter 4: Case Study, Westbury Brief background The township of Westbury is located South of Sophiatown, west of Mayfair and west of the inner city of Johannesburg. Commonly known as the Western Areas and comprising of Sophiatown, Martindale, Newclare, and the Western Native township (now known as Westbury). Sophiatown was initially established as a whites-only suburb but stands sold slowly due to their close proximity to the municipal sewerage works. After a previous blanket-restriction on black people owning land in new suburbs was lifted, black occupation grew rapidly and by 1913 there were 700 mostly black families living there(IYER 2014) The area was then developed by the City of Johannesburg around the 1920s, as an African township, and was the only place in Johannesburg exempt from the 1913 Native Urban Areas Act. As a result, there was a massive flock to Sophiatown, since Africans could own property, and also became notorious as a place of resistance, where the policies of the times governing African behaviours and actions where challenged. At that time, Sophiatown was characterised by overcrowding, rapid urbanisation, rent racketeering, sanitation concerns and gangs (IYER 2014). The Western areas of Johannesburg and Sophiatown became notorious for its gangs, intense violence and brutality and radical politics. The Western areas comprised of Newclare, Sophiatown and Western Native Township (WNT), commonly known as Westbury. The township came into existence in 1919, although formally established in the 1960s. The population explosion in 1930/40s came with an increasing in the number of churches and schools, predominantly in Sophiatown and Westbury. Along with the population increase, was a rapid flow of migrants in search of employment opportunities and a better life (IYER 2014). “The late 1920s and early 1930s saw increased concern over violence in the Western Areas, yet officials could still refer to W.N.T. as a 'model' location as late as 1930-1. Thereafter criminality seems to have increased markedly, but it was only in the middle of the decade that the Western Areas became noted for crime, particularly violence and theft.”Goodhew (1990:14). Beginning in the 1930s the Johannesburg City Council began attempts to expropriate the land to get better control of the situation.