Applying critical literacy theory to examine English Further Education and Training short story textbooks Adolph Sekgobela Student number: 674424 Protocol number: 2022ECE015M A research report submitted to the School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Education (with specialisation in Languages, Literacies and Literatures) Supervisor: Dr Naomi Nkealah August 2023 i Contents Declaration……………………………………………………………………………….v Dedication……………………………………………………………………………….vi Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….vii Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….viii Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background to the study……………………………………………………………1 1.2 Research problem…………………………………………………………………..4 1.3 Research aims………………………………………………………………………11 1.4 Research questions………………………………………………………………..12 1.5 Rationale of the study……………………………………………………………...13 1.6 Delimitations of the study………………………………………………………….14 1.7 Significance of the study…………………………………………………………..14 1.8 Organisation of the research report………………………………………………15 1.9 Chapter 1 summary………………………………………………………………..16 Chapter 2: Literature review 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………17 2.2 What are short stories?..................................................................................18 2.3 Importance of short story textbooks……………………………………………..19 2.4 Department of Basic Education criteria for textbook selection…………….….20 2.5 The role of the short story genre in developing learners’ critical literacy……22 2.6 Bloom’s Taxonomy and types of questions in textbooks……………………...26 ii 2.6.1 Low order questions vs High order questions………………………………..29 2.6.2 Divergent vs convergent questions……………………………………………30 2.6.3 Brainstorm questions……………………………………………………………31 2.6.4 Personalised questions…………………………………………………………32 2.6.5 Comparison questions…………………………………………………………..32 2.6.6 Funnel questions………………………………………………………………...33 2.6.7 Memory and recall questions…………………………………………………..34 2.6.8 Focal questions…………………………………………………………………..34 2.7 Problems with teacher training and pedagogies………………………………..35 2.8 Contribution of Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement in high school……39 2.9 Problems with high school literature textbooks…………………………………41 2.10 Summary of the literature reviewed……………………….……………………44 Chapter 3: Theoretical and conceptual framework 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………46 3.2 Critical literacy theory……………………………………………………………..46 3.3 Critique of critical literacy theory…………………………………………………54 3.4 Key concepts in critical literacy…………………………………………………..56 3.5 Conceptual framework…………………………………………………………….58 3.6 Chapter 3 summary………………………………………………………………..59 Chapter 4: Research Methodology 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………60 4.2 Research method………………………………………………………………….60 4.3 Research design……………………………………………………………….…..61 iii 4.4 Research paradigm……………………………………………………………….62 4.5 Data sampling……………………………………………………………………..65 4.6 Data collection……………………………………………………………………..70 4.7 Data analysis………………………………………………………………………71 4.8 Ethical considerations…………………………………………………………….71 4.9 Trustworthiness, Reliability and Objectivity…………………………………….72 4.9.1 Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………………72 4.9.2 Reliability…………………………………………………………………………73 4.9.3 Objectivity………………………………………………………………………..73 4.10 Chapter 4 summary..……………………………………………………………73 Chapter 5: Data presentation and analysis 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….……………...74 5.2 Short Stories from Fabulous (Grade 10).………………………………………..74 5.2.1 “The Park” by James Mathews………………………………………………….75 5.2.2 “The Late Bud” by Ama Ata Aidoo………………………………………………81 5.3 Short stories from the Short Story Anthology (Grade 11)………………………84 5.3.1 “Swimming partners” by Timwa Lipenga……………………………………….84 5.3.2 “Pink Bow Tie” by Paul Jennings………………………………………………..91 5.4 Short stories from Changes (Grade 12)…………………………………………..96 5.4.1 “Village people” by Bessie Head………………………………………………...96 5.4.2 “Transforming moments” by Gcina Mhlophe…………………………………..100 5.5 Chapter 5 summary………………………………………………………………...103 iv Chapter 6: Findings and discussion 6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………104 6.2 Discussion of findings in relation to literature reviewed…………………….104 6.2.1 Order of questioning in FET short stories………………………………….104 6.2.2 FET short story questions hinder learners’ creativity……..……………...107 6.2.3 CAPS contradiction…………………………………………………………..108 6.3 Discussion of findings in relation to critical literacy theory…………………109 6.3.1 Learners are not given a voice………………………………………………110 6.3.2 Absence of critical literacy skills in CAPS…………………………………..111 6.3.3 Learners not empowered to question embedded ideologies…………….112 6.4 Chapter 6 summary……………………………………………………………..113 Chapter 7: Conclusion and recommendations 7.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..114 7.2 Summary of findings…………………………………………………………...114 7.3 Contribution of the study to knowledge………………………………………116 7.4 Limitations of the study………………………………………………………...117 7.5 Recommendations……………………………………………………………..118 7.5.1 Recommendations for policy………………………………………………..118 7.5.2 Recommendations for practice……………………………………………..119 7.5.3 Recommendations for further research……………………………………120 References…………………………………………………………………………..122 Appendix 1: Ethics waiver certificate……………………………………………..133 v Declaration I, Adolph Sekgobela, declare that this research report, titled “Applying critical literacy theory to examine English Further Education and Training short story textbooks”, is my original work and has never been submitted before at any other university for any other qualification. Where reference is made to other people’s ideas, I acknowledged each instance by using references. This research was conducted following academic rules. Date: 20-08-2023 Signature: vi Dedication This research is dedicated to my beautiful wife, Pertunia, and my lovely children, Mukutsuri and Warona. vii Acknowledgements Finishing a project like this one made me realize that Motho ke motho ka batho! A person is indeed a person because of others. It would have been an extra challenging project if it were not for the guidance and support of my supervisor, Dr Naomi Nkealah. It was an absolutely challenging piece of work, but my supervisor’s support encouraged me to keep working. She challenged me to read more, to research more and it felt difficult in some instances, but it is exciting to realize that such challenges can also be interesting and enjoyable to do. I would like to thank the Wits Whitmore Bursary (2021, 2022 and 2023) and Post Graduate Bursary Support (2021) for their partial payments towards my coursework and research fees. I would like to thank my wife, Pertunia, for the support throughout. Lastly, I thank the loving awesome God for always giving me strength. viii Abstract Textbook authors have worked hard over the years to produce quality work. However, it has been a challenge in South African basic education to use these textbooks to train learners to be critical thinkers, which means that learners struggle to cope when they reach higher education. Basic education assesses basic knowledge, without learners themselves being challenged to engage creatively with content and interpret it through a critical lens. This study researched on three short story textbooks, namely Fabulous, Short Story Anthology and Changes using the qualitative method. These are short story textbooks used in public schools in South Africa, as part of English First Additional Language subject content. Purposive sampling was used to make selection of short stories. Within each book, the Department of Basic Education prescribed eight stories for learning. This study selected two of the eight prescribed stories from each book, making six short stories selected for the research. These stories were analysed with their activities against critical literacy theory. It was found that short story activities, especially those studied in Grade 11 and 12, do not assist learners to develop skills such as problem-solving, creative writing, and critical literacy, and that the Grade 10 stories do in some instances promote critical literacy skills development. On the whole, it was found that all short stories limit learners from being creative beings who are able to rewrite, rethink and reconstruct the world around them. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background to the study South Africa is a country whereby, in the past, during apartheid, higher education institutions marginalised certain groups, mostly Blacks (Heleta, 2018). Institutions for Black students did not offer intellectual and critical literacy skills (Heleta, 2018). Black students were taught technical skills which prepared them for work (Heleta, 2018). Even primary and high schools did not offer Black learners’ intellectual skills. There was an education system referred to as Bantu Education, which was aimed at creating inferior education for Black South African students, so that they could only work as unskilled labourers (Mhlauli & Mokotedi, 2015), while white students, in contrast, were offered intellectual education (Mhlauli & Mokotedi, 2015). The Bantu Education Act was in effect from 1954, until it was replaced with the Education and Training Act of 1979. Bantu Education had a negative impact on Black students in the past, and this impact is still evident today. Despite South Africa having moved from apartheid government to a democratic government for about 29 years, the country still feels the effects of some of the actions from the past, even educationally (Gallo, 2020). This has reduced Black South Africans’ quality of education and job opportunities, especially in the intellectual fields (Gallo, 2020). While this research is not necessarily focusing on racial issues, it needs to situate its problem statement against this background. 2 Around 1996, the South African Schools Act (SASA) was introduced, which aimed at bringing equal access to education without discrimination. Around the same year, in 1996, Outcomes Based Education (OBE), also known as Curriculum 2005, was introduced as a curriculum aimed at addressing educational problems stemming from the reach and influence of apartheid (Williams, 2014). It was named Curriculum 2005 because it was anticipated to be completely implemented by 2005. This implies that SASA influenced implementation of OBE, which was the curriculum that was supported by the post- apartheid leadership (Williams, 2014). It was seen as a policy that would emphasise and bring about democracy in education, as teachers would decide what they want the outcomes to be in the curriculum. OBE was focused on the theory side of knowledge, education structure, and approaches to practice. It was interested in what learners can do at the end of their learning (Sun & Lee, 2020). An example would be, if a lesson is about defining concepts, the outcome or objective might be that learners should know how to define concepts at the end of the lesson. So, OBE is limited to and interested in what is referred to as competency and standards (Tungpalan & Antalan, 2021). The skills focused on in the Outcomes-Based Curriculum are Life skills, Basic skills, Vocational skills, Intellectual skills and Interpersonal skills (Tungpalan & Antalan, 2021). The goal of OBE was to impart knowledge of a past generation to the new generation of learners (Alonzo et al., 2023). Part of the problems with OBE is that it did not pay attention to knowledge beyond the teacher in the classroom; furthermore, it was challenging to assess outcomes. For example, outcomes such as knowing that a learner respects themselves and others, and 3 that they take responsibility for their lives and actions, are things that are difficult to assess (Alonzo et al., 2023). Such outcomes are not observable and measurable. In the early 2000s, the development and progress that was expected from OBE curriculum was not seen. Around 2006, there were proposals to change the curriculum (Alonzo et al., 2023). Around 2012, Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) was introduced as the new curriculum and some of its objectives were to modify OBE by making education accessible (Department of Basic Education, 2011). However, scholars such as Gallo (2020) argue that access to education is still as limited for Black learners today as it was during apartheid, because even though children have access to education in theory, the poverty they experience means that many of them are still significantly deprived of quality education. An example is Black learners who drown during the rains when they have to cross flooded rivers on their way to school—this number is still high (Gallo, 2020). Gallo (2020) argues that even after apartheid ended, the lack of educational services to Black societies still remained. By comparing the past and today, Gallo (2020) is justifying his suggestion that even today, with CAPS, policies need to be amended. In other words, CAPS does not seem to address all of the societal problems in relation to education. I concur with this view based on my context. There are few White learners at the school I teach in. Therefore, as a teacher, I am aware of racial inequalities that persist. This indicates that CAPS does not solve educational issues to any kind of ‘critical’ extent. As the CAPS document indicates, English First Additional Language in Grade 10 to 12 is divided in three sections; paper 1, 2, and 3. Paper 1 covers language aspects such as parts of speech, and comprehension. Paper 2 is the literature section. In each grade, the 4 school or the teacher has a choice of choosing two types of literature texts out of four, which are the novel, short stories, drama and poetry (Department of Basic Education, 2011). For example, a teacher can choose to teach only poetry and the novel in Grade 10, as part of Paper 2. Paper 3 is about writing (Department of Basic Education, 2011). Learners are taught to write and are also expected to produce pieces of creative writing such as letters, diary entries and essays. Short stories, which this research focused on, are therefore part of Paper 2, which is the literature section. South African short stories evolved over the years; from the highly politicised stories in the 1970s and apartheid- based stories in the 1980s to more social-issue stories in the post-apartheid era, which address issues such as gender dynamics (Fasselt et al., 2020). Looking at most stories in the selected short story textbooks, most South African FET English stories were written and published in the the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, which means that learners barely read about current issues. Short story issues will be discussed in detail later, as literature findings and analysis unfold. Critical Theory is the theoretical framework of the study. Critical Theory and Critical Pedagogy and their relationship to CAPS will be discussed in later chapters of this study, but for now it is important to state that this study is concerned with Critical Literacy which is a key pedagogical approach in Critical Pedagogy. 1.2 Research problem There is disconnection between English education in basic education and higher education, and this is problematic because one would expect the two education systems to exist in a relationship of continuity rather than disconnection. The disconnection is 5 evident when public school English learners reach higher education institutions such as universities and find that they lack the basic skills needed for higher education English studies. These basic skills include critical literacy skills, which refer to one’s ability to write and rewrite the world around them, in a way that they would be able to design and redesign concepts (Janks, 2013). Once these students reach university, they are shocked at the kind of education provided there as it is wholly unfamiliar to them (Shalem et al., 2013). This means that lecturers and tutors must start from scratch, as though the students are not continuing with education but somehow only starting it. In other words, public high schools do not prepare learners enough with knowledge and skills which would help them at higher institution levels. Many first-year students, especially Black students, experience academic writing problems when they reach university, because, as stated earlier, there remain challenging inequalities in the educational system (Pineteh, 2013). Shalem et al. (2013) concur that first-year students at universities struggle with the basics of academic writing such as logical organisation of thought and referencing. As outlined in the background, there were inequalities in education in the past and there still are at present. Although student populations at higher education institutions are now diverse, with students coming from different racial, language and class backgrounds, epistemological access is still not evenly distributed as students from formerly marginalised populations come to university less prepared than those from formerly privileged populations (Meyer, 2012). This is because students from formerly marginalised groups attended largely public (government) schools where most of the teachers are a product of the same system that 6 trained Blacks to be labour workers (Mhlauli & Mokotedi, 2015). Thus, in South African basic education today, we still have learners who gain different kinds of knowledge and skills, as there are public (government) schools and private schools. Access to either type of school is determined by affordability which is in turn determined by class. There is a need therefore, to help those formerly marginalised learners from public schools so that they gain quality education which will help them tackle studies at higher education level. Meyer (2012) suggests that lecturers can close this gap. Already the likes of Fouche et al. (2021) have taken steps to design critical literacy assessments which allow students to also draw on their indigenous knowledge, hence being academically included. While supporting disadvantaged students might function as a bridge to close the gap for existing university students, there is also a need to close this gap from high school or basic education level. Learners have to be trained at these levels for higher education. The CAPS document states that “the main reason” learners learn literature is to “develop” understanding of “special use of language” (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 16). For example, this would mean understanding that figurative language is language that has indirect meaning, and that literal language has direct meaning. According to the CAPS document, it is not easy to teach literature (Department of Basic Education, 2011). The document suggests that it needs “honest interpretations and comments from the learners themselves” (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 16). This suggests that high schools would not acquire literary interpretation skills if learning activities do not give them opportunities to comment on the texts from their particular perspectives. 7 The CAPS document advises teachers to do away with interpreting literature for learners but to instead allow them to participate and reason. The document states that interpretation is more about what is meaningful to the reader than the focus on what is right or wrong (Department of Basic Education, 2011). The CAPS document also encourages class discussions, especially ones that lead to written work. It is emphasised that literature is not about right answers: “A whole text means something, not just bits and pieces of it; a good reading of a text incorporates the whole text in interpretative, creative, personal, and exploratory practices” (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 17). But what stands out is that most learners, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds and schools, are not trained to be academic writers in high school (Pineteh, 2013). Even proper books in South African public schools are not used to empower learners to be critical members of society who are aware of social issues. For example, most schools in South Africa used to have Animal Farm as a prescribed novel. Animal Farm is a satirical novel that uses human beings to represent the capitalists – the owners of the means of production – and uses animals to represent the working class (Barkhordar, 2017). Despite being published in 1945, the novel addresses contemporary issues: it speaks about issues of class and power. What is sad is that in the learning activities on this text learners were supposed to mostly recall the story. I downloaded the English First Additional Language Paper 2 Grade 12 November 2011 and 2015 question papers from the Department of Basic Education website, as these were the ones available at the time. It was evident from these papers that most questions asked learners about the literal meaning of the novel; for example, the animals’ hard work, their characters, their roles, 8 and their attitudes. But what about the actual societal issues that the novel addresses metaphorically? The assessments on the novel do not help learners to get the figurative meaning of the text. This becomes a problem when learners reach higher education, since there is a huge gap between high school education and higher education (Pineteh, 2013). In higher education, students are expected to critically think, answer questions in relation to societal skills and apply theories in their critical interpretation of texts. High school literary studies therefore do not prepare learners adequately for university literary studies. Academic writing is a skill applied in higher education, while in high school, learners still answer questions that test memory (Pineteh, 2013). Moreover, teachers are still applying traditional ways to teach prescribed literary texts. These ways include only teaching language basics, focusing on knowing characters and summarising the story (Seabi et al., 2020). However, the reality is that literature education takes quite a different direction at college and university level. There is a particular standard and curriculum that higher education applies (Meyer, 2012; Luckett, 2016) as lecturers teach students to question the realities around them. It is problematic how the higher education curriculum is so advanced, while high school FET education is very far from the advanced stage. Of course, education works in levels; this justifies why information offered in Grade 10 would not be the same as information offered in first-year university; but still, learners have to be trained for higher education literary studies. Learners at undergraduate level struggle to master academic writing, to conduct research and to develop proper academic arguments (Shalem et al., 2013). Freahat and Smadi (2014) found that several university 9 students battle with understanding texts at university, and this is caused by the gap between university and high school level of activities. The kind of activities learners do at schools do not prepare them to be literary students at university. They therefore struggle to answer questions that require analytical skills. This problem is caused by the prevalence of low order questions in high school textbooks. High school textbooks train learners to memorise rather than to apply critical literacy skills (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). A study by Pineteh (2013) proposes improving academic literacies through using multimodality and lecturer and specialists’ collaboration (Pineteh, 2013). Pineteh’s study also recommends workshops which can help students with academic reading and writing (Pineteh 2013). Nel et al. (2016) mention that students from disadvantaged high schools have bad academic experiences at universities. However, Nel et al. (2016) draw a clear connection between disadvantaged high schools and disadvantaged universities, in a sense that most Black students attend disadvantaged high schools, and also have to attend disadvantaged universities. However, other studies make it clear that even advanced universities now face problems. For example, Fouche et al. (2021) complain about massification, even in institutions like Wits, whereby extra programmes have to be added to support students with academic writing. This makes it clear that there is a gap between high school and higher education. In other words, higher education offers the kind of education that students have not been trained for. 10 The problem therefore extends because in addressing issues such as the marginalisation of some groups, there comes the concept of decolonisation, which addresses issues such as the dominance of Eurocentric knowledge in subjugation of African education (Ndlovu- Gatsheni, 2013). The subject of decolonisation is popular and also researched in higher education levels. The decolonisation movement became popular in higher education in recent years, with the #RhodesMustFall and #FeesMustFall movements. The #RhodesMustFall movement, which started around March 2015, was against the statue of Cecil Rhodes, in the University of Cape Town. The protest gained global attention. It led to a movement called #FeesMustFall which emerged from the University of the Witwatersrand, around October 2015. These can be argued to be good movements for raising of consciousness as staff from most higher education institutions adopted it in their studies. However, it is problematic how first-year students would be expected to enter spaces of decolonisation while they were not taught how to criticise in high school. The problem is that higher education institutions have advanced curricula that require one to be a critical thinker, who has academic writing skills (Shalem et al., 2013). Much of the teaching that happens in English classrooms in high school is not underpinned by literary theories as teachers simply follow the academic teaching plan to teach the prescribed texts. In a decolonial era, one would expect teachers to draw on critical literacy when designing literature lessons and to apply it to help their learners understand what is at stake. In summary, the problem here is the disconnection between literary education at basic education level, especially high school, and higher education. 11 1.3 Research aims It is essential for English learners in public high school to be prepared for higher education studies in English. This can be done through introducing them to critical literacy, so that they can do basic constructions and reconstructions of knowledge to exercise their creativity and understanding of the world they live in (McKenzie & Jarvie, 2018). Hence critical literacy does not suggest changing the curriculum but enhancing it by allowing learners to have a voice, by including questions and activities that enhance participation as the CAPS document suggests. Critical literacy will be discussed in detail later. The aim of this research then is to see if prescribed short story textbooks and study editions at high school Further Education and Training (FET) level contain activities that promote critical literacy. This will be done by analysing both the story and its questions to see if this knowledge can help learners in preparation for them to tackle critical issues, like being analytical of politics in their country and having problem-solving skills in their communities. These critical literacy skills would also prepare those who wish to go to higher education institutions, so that they do not drop out due to academic challenges. What learners do in high school influences their expectations in higher education institutions. Pather and Dorasamy (2018) state that students have expectations as soon as they enrol for their first year at university. These expectations are social engagement, academic engagement and academic support. What they would expect academically would be led and influenced by what they already know from high school (Pather & Dorasamy, 2018). Hence, if their prior knowledge and what they find at university do not 12 match, dropping out becomes a possibility (Pather & Dorasamy, 2018). Maddock and Maroun (2018) state that under CAPS, most learners are not prepared for higher education as it does not offer a strong foundation and preparation. For instance, in English classes, learners are used to being asked questions that test memory, but when they reach higher education, they find English courses in which assessments asks questions that need deep engagement with texts. This puts students on the threshold between staying in university and dropping out. The CAPS document states that the main reason learners are taught English literature is to create understanding of the special use of language in literary texts (Department of Basic Education, 2011). While, it is considerate of CAPS to want to equip students with knowledge of the special use of language, this often does not translate to learners acquiring critical literacy skills which they would need at university. This research focuses on short stories and their activities because assessment is essential in determining the extent to which content limits or advances learners’ critical literacy. The research assesses short story textbooks in high school FET level and the focus is on short story textbooks in Grades 10, 11 and 12. The research focuses on short story textbooks which are prescribed in South African public schools. 1.4. Research questions To achieve the aims outlined above, this research is guided by three research questions: 1. What kinds of activities are provided for learners in prescribed English FET short story textbooks? 2. To what extent do these activities promote critical literacy in learners? 13 3. To what extent do these activities prepare learners for higher education? 1.5 Rationale for the study There is an educational deprivation in public schools. Learners are deprived of necessary information because teachers use traditional ways of teaching. These traditional ways include reproduction of information as it is, without critiquing it (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013). Traditional ways also include teaching basic knowledge like names of characters and the plot of stories instead of underlying critical meanings, which could be political, racial, or gender related (Ruuska, 2017). Teachers often find themselves reproducing what the curriculum says they must teach (Ruuska, 2017). It is important to investigate this problem to find out whether it is deliberate on the part of those who design the curriculum to deny learners critical literacy skills or not. This research focuses on English short story textbooks in public schools to see if the questions asked therein prepare learners for higher education in English education. All public school learners do English at school in South Africa, whether as Home Language (HL) or First Additional Language (FAL). English itself is the medium of instruction in most public schools and universities and is used for most lessons and assessments in both basic and higher education. In both English HL and English FAL, learners are taught short stories at FET level. It therefore becomes important to find out if these short stories allow learners to apply critical literacy skills as they tackle different issues which sometimes touch on other disciplines. This research focuses on public schools. As a teacher of English, I am vested in this project because understanding 14 whether short story textbooks promote learners’ critical literacy or not will enable me determine if I need to incorporate intervention strategies in my teaching or not, as well as decipher how best to do so if necessary. 1.6 Delimitations of the study The study is limited to South African public schools, with a focus on English as first additional language, foreign language or second language. There are public schools, like former Model C schools, whereby learners do English as their home language, while their home languages are not English. This study will use FAL and second language to refer to such situations too. This study looks at the short story textbooks used to teach English in South African public schools and it is also limited to analysing short story textbooks used at the FET phase in these schools. The reason for this is to keep the data small and manageable and personally for me to focus on a phase that is relevant to my practice as a teacher. 1.7 Significance of the study In this study, three English FET short story textbooks are examined in order to find out if they offer opportunities to train learners to have critical literacy skills, which would help them prepare for higher education. This study is significant since it interrogates the gap between high school and university knowledge in relation to English education. Pather and Dorasamy (2018) believe that this gap can be closed by higher education institutions’ 15 willingness to understand students’ expectations, so that they somehow can assess their prior or existing knowledge, in a way that would allow them to know where to start supporting them. This is critical since most groups that were marginalised in education before now have access to higher education (Meyer, 2012), but still experience challenges in academic literacy (Fouche et al., 2021). This study will remind curriculum designers and the Department of Basic Education to verify knowledge to ensure that it will train learners to develop deep-thinking, analytical minds which not only recall information but can also apply knowledge in different dimensions (Fouche et al., 2021). This will also remind authors and curriculum makers of the type of knowledge they can add to learners through assessment for learning. This study can also help the Department of Basic Education understand the significance of employing critical literacy theories in their curriculum. As a teacher of English, this study can help me realise the importance of allowing the classroom to be a literary space, whereby learners are not trained to be radical, but are trained to be objective about issues. 1.8 Organisation of the research report This research report comprises seven chapters, the first being the introduction, which outlines the research background, research problem, research aims, research questions, rationale for study, and significance of the study. In general, it outlines what the whole study aims to focus on: the problems and aims around English literature and CAPS in South Africa. The second chapter is the literature review, which looks at other studies that tackled the same and/or similar problems, to be able to identify gaps. The third chapter is 16 the theoretical framework, which tackles the theory for this study and other sub-concepts that emerge from the theory such as power and inequalities. The fourth chapter is the research methodology, which presents the methods followed to produce the results of the study. Chapter five is the analysis of the selected short stories where each story is analysed along with its activities. Chapter six presents the discussion of findings in relation to the literature reviewed and theoretical framework. Chapter seven is the closing and concluding chapter; it summarises the study and offers recommendations for further study. 1.9 Chapter 1 summary Chapter 1 looked at the research background, which outlines the curriculum that preceded CAPS and how CAPS came about. Secondly, the research problem, which is that of using literature to test mediocre skills that do not prepare learners for higher education literary education, was addressed. Thirdly, the research aims were explained, which are to find out if short story textbooks in Grade 10 to 12 public schools are used to teach critical literacy. Fourthly, the study outlined the research questions, drew borders for the study and justified the importance of the study. In general, this chapter aimed and managed to outline what the study is all about. 17 Chapter 2: Literature review 2.1. Introduction The previous chapter outlined what this study is interested in, namely, the teaching of English literature in schools using prescribed textbooks. Literature is important to teach in high school as it plays a big role in shaping learners’ minds and thinking. Through literature, learners can start to have a certain picture about the world. In this chapter, different scholars will be referred to, to explore issues around teaching of literature – short stories to be precise – since that is the kind of literature this study is specifically assessing. In this chapter, there will be a focus on several sub-topics. Firstly, the meaning of short stories will be explored. Secondly, this chapter will look at the importance of short story textbooks. Thirdly, the Department of Basic Education criteria for textbook selection will be discussed. Fourthly, the role of the short story genre in developing learners’ critical literacy will be discussed. The fifth subsection will discuss Bloom’s Taxonomy and types of questions in textbooks, from lower order to higher order questions. The sixth subsection will discuss problems with teacher training and pedagogies. The seventh subsection will discuss the contribution of the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement to the teaching of literature in high school. The last subsection will discuss problems with high school literature textbooks. 18 2.2 What are short stories? Dlamini (2016) defines a short story as a “brief tale” which mostly focuses on one or two themes. Short stories contain elements such as characters, plots, settings, and themes (Dlamini, 2016). Usually, a single aspect is explored. Short stories consist of a beginning, a middle which comprises the conflict or rising action, and the end which comprises the climax, falling action or resolution (Krone & Mattson, 2015). In short, short stories are brief pieces of fiction which explore “major conflict in a limited setting” (Krone & Mattson, 2015, p. 1). Short stories contain a few characters. Walter (2015) defines a short story as a brief piece of fiction in which, in the beginning, the character has a desire, and from the desire they encounter challenges; from the challenges they reach a turning point, and a resolution is made. A short story can also be defined as a piece of short literature, which can be written in different formats. Its usual features are a few characters, with a focus on a single incident (Walter, 2015). For Barkhuizen (2016), short stories are selections of data taken out from a bigger set of data such as written narratives and interviews and multimodal stories. They tell experiences of the past or imagined future following a single plot (Barkhuizen, 2016). Fasselt et al. (2020) argue that South African short stories have had several shifts, from the highly politicised stories in the 1970s and apartheid-based stories in the 1980s to more social-issue stories in the post-apartheid era. They argue that continuous criticism on apartheid influenced this shift in short stories (Fasselt et al., 2020). Currently, the stories written are more modern, and they tackle subjects such as current socioeconomic 19 issues (Fasselt et al., 2020). Contemporary short stories also stretch to a number of subgenres like crime fiction, speculative fiction, erotic fiction, flash fiction, micro-fiction, and postcard fiction. These modern or current short stories also address issues such as sexuality and gender (Fasselt et al., 2020). Through short stories, students gradually learn how to think, and how to view the world and their place in it. It is then important to pick relevant short stories which relate to learners’ realities, especially stories on adolescence and stories on students’ history. Activities which learners do after reading short stories are important too because they emphasise what is important in the stories; the reason activities are important is that they enhance learning. They have an influence on learners’ responses and imagination. 2.3. Importance of short story textbooks This study is about short stories, but of course, it speaks about short stories found in textbooks, since the analysis that will be done is not only of the short stories but of the textbooks they are found in as well. Textbooks are advantageous as they are easily accessible, and in some instances, they are affordable and reusable without extra cost. So learners accessing their short stories in textbooks makes life easy for them. Textbooks are important resources in a classroom for curriculum delivery and curriculum sustainability (Okeeffe, 2013). The ideologies that compilers or authors of these textbooks promote are important aspects to look at. Textbooks in public schools complement annual teaching plans and lesson plans and function as curriculum pacers. When it comes to language teaching, they prove to be very significant (Weninger, 2018). One of the reasons 20 is that language has to do with texts and textbooks contain different types of text, from images to symbols and words (Weninger, 2018). Textbooks contain different aspects of focus, including culture, gender and others that keep learners engaged. 2.4 Department of Basic Education criteria for textbook selection There is a general criteria that the Department of Basic Education (DBE) uses to select books for all subjects. According to Siebörger (2015), it has been quite a while since the DBE revised its criteria for selecting textbooks. The selection criteria used currently is interested in content, learning activities, design, and teacher guides. If the criteria were to be revisited, it would be advisable for the DBE to not limit prescriptions to written texts but to open room for other modes such as visual texts. This would help learners realize their multiple potentials and would also enhance creativity in the classroom. Firstly, under content, outcomes should be clear (Siebörger, 2015). This means that it should be stated what learners are expected to know at the end of lessons. Furthermore, content should be appropriately scaffolded, and it should be diverse in such a way that it shows different cultures, religions, genders and more. Textbooks should contain different meaningful activities for learners to work on individually and in groups (Siebörger, 2015). This would allow learners to have a skill to work individually and to work with others. Lastly, language and vocabulary should be appropriate for the grade; for example, key concepts should be clearly defined and simplified where necessary. The second criterion is learning activities. Firstly, it states that activities should be derived from learning outcomes. This means that activities should be part of learning, such that as learners do the activities they are also 21 fulfilling the outcomes. Secondly, they should be appropriate for the subject; for example, there should be scaffolding where necessary, so that learners build up their knowledge with necessary support. Also, if the subject is English, the activities should not deviate from outcomes and contents of the English subject. The third criterion is layout, design, and overall quality. The text should be structured with the help of headings and subheadings, which would make it clear and easy to read. Where there are illustrations, they should be clear and relevant. The paper used should be of good quality and the textbook must be bound strongly. The textbook should also have a table of contents. This criterion applies to all textbooks selected by Department of Basic Education, not necessarily only English textbooks (Siebörger, 2015). The fourth requirement is the teacher guide. The guide should include clear guidance on how to use the textbook. It should contain examples of a work schedule; it ought to have an assessment plan and ideally should contain memorandum, checklist, rubric and other assessment tools that match the activity (Siebörger, 2015). Looking at the textbooks selected for this research, they do contain several features from the criteria above. The short story textbooks meet the criteria under teacher guide, layout, and overall design. The content is also age appropriate. However, what is evident is that, of all the stories compiled, none of them is contemporary. It is the same content explained by Fasselt et al. (2020), which is either apartheid influenced, or set in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, meaning that the contemporary genres stipulated by Fasselt et al. (2020) are 22 not learnt in public schools. Under learning activities there is barely any group work, yet the criteria states that there should be group work. Moreover, activities are not variant to a satisfactory level: there are similar types of questions in all the stories. Other important aspects that are not mentioned in the criteria are visual aids or multimodality. The short story textbooks selected for this study have limited pictures. Fabulous, which is used in Grade 10, has no pictures at all. Short Story Anthology, used in Grade 11, has a drawing of a short story plot in the introduction. It also has pictures of authors for each story. Changes, used in Grade 12, has a picture of a short story plot. It also has a demonstration of a plot in the form of a cartoon in four frames, whereby the first frame is the beginning, the middle frames are the challenges, and the last frame is the resolution. The only image all of them have in common is the cover design, which is basic. There is nowhere in the textbooks where the textbook compilers refer learners to the internet or to another mode of learning. Siebörger (2015) states that if the criteria were to be reviewed, the Department of Basic Education should consider the inclusion of multimodality. 2.5. The role of the short story genre in developing learners’ critical literacy There are quite a number of benefits to be gained from reading short stories. According to Saka (2014), they can teach learners different literary features, for example, ambiguity, irony, exposition and others. Learners therefore become aware of language use. When ambiguity takes place in a newspaper, for example, or when learners see ambiguity on the television, they would be able to recognise it. Learners would also learn basic language skills, which would help them with everyday teaching and learning (Saka, 2014). 23 Short stories have evolved over the years. As it was stated, Fasselt et al. (2020) found that there are new genres; as such, short stories should raise consciousness of contemporary local and world issues, so that learners are not stuck in the past. This is not to say stories set in the past have nothing to offer, but it would be preferable if there could be a balance, not a situation where all stories, for instance are set in the 1980s. As stories teach language, which also evolves, it would be beneficial for learners to be part of the evolution by interacting with contemporary problems written about in contemporary language. According to Saka (2014), short stories have to be chosen according to interests and needs of learners. The activities should be interesting and allow them to develop their critical reasoning. They should boost learners’ ability to reason. Saka (2014) discovered that as much as literature is good for advancing learners’ language, learners are resistant to it as they believe that it is difficult. Saka (2014) advises that it is possible to help learners enjoy literature, by choosing material that they relate to and which contains or prompts activities they enjoy. Essa and Mendelowitz (2022) state that short stories challenge and encourage learners to be creative in their process of learning language. Considering these factors, they suggest that, to make these stories interesting, learners should get to use their social resources to learn or tell a story. In this way, short story teaching and learning values diverse resources which learners bring to class. It also evokes learners’ interests in learning short stories, as they know that after reading a short story, they may 24 be allowed to also write theirs, either as a reflection of the learnt story or a new project. It is also important to interpret stories in relation to sociocultural contexts, as this would allow learners to understand their own situatedness and will help lay the groundwork for them to start writing their own pieces (Essa & Mendelowitz, 2022). As learners interpret in relation to sociocultural contexts in class, they also get to know about different cultures. Stories are written in different eras; many are set in the past. This teaches learners what happened in the past (Saka, 2014). They can learn cultures and traditions of the past (Saka, 2014). For example, the short stories they do in high school are written by different authors, from different places; in this study, there are writers from South Africa, Ghana and Botswana. Some are mixed-race, some are Black and some are White. Some are male, some are female. Some wrote while they were young, some wrote while they were old. This gives learners a chance to learn from diverse authors, which is a distinct advantages as compared to novels where often only one or two novels may be prescribed for a particular grade. When learners study short stories, they finish them quickly and in that way learn from many authors in a short space of time. As the CAPS document states, reading short stories is about the entire work, for learners to reflect on and interpret the whole work, rather than to focus only on parts of it (Department of Basic Education, 2011). They are therefore able to finish quickly and start discussing and interpreting, applying their minds and imaginations. 25 Literature influences learners’ creativity as it stimulates their imagination. This advances their critical thinking abilities (Saka, 2014). Studying language through stories allows learners to be creative through relating issues of the past, present and future, and it enables them to rethink and to reimagine the future (Essa & Mendelowitz, 2022). Some learners may be encouraged to write their own pieces, as stories enrich their personal knowledge by teaching them from other people’s fictional experiences (Saka, 2014). Learners are able to apply personal interpretations according to their personal views, experiences and feelings (Saka, 2014). Essa and Mendelowitz (2022) argue that learning language in the 21st century should be a creative process which employs different methods. To enhance this creativity, there should be a need to apply the imagination and interpretation to other modes. All of the textbooks that were analysed in this study barely have visual aids. They are text-based. Essa and Mendelowitz (2022) argue that language should apply multiple modes, so that learners are not limited to print-based material but are also exposed to performance-based story-reading and story-telling. Through performance-based storytelling, learners are able to decode the stories they are doing and translate them into enactments. Applying multiple modes in short story reading gives a voice to learners. They are able to use “facial expressions”, “gestures”, “eye contact” and “interaction” to connect the story with the rest of the class (Essa & Mendelowitz, 2022). In this way, learners are able to build and realise their identities in the process, so that they come away with a better understanding of their inner and outer selves (Essa & Mendelowitz, 2022). 26 2.6 Bloom’s Taxonomy and types of questions in textbooks Questions are one of the most effective methods used by teachers and textbooks to teach learners (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). So, questions are used to teach. Therefore, for proper understanding, good questions are advised as they help learners to arrange knowledge. The CAPS curriculum applies Bloom’s Taxonomy, which categorises questions in different levels, starting from low order questions to high order questions. The taxonomy contains “Knowledge: Recalling specifications; Comprehension: Describing in one’s words; Application: Applying information to produce results” (Freahat & Smadi, 2014, p. 1804). All the three terminologies, which are knowledge, comprehension and application, are low order questions. Higher order questions are Analysis, which refers to subdividing information to indicate how it was put up together; Synthesis, which refers to “creating a unique product”; and Evaluation, which refers to weighing a situation in order to come up with conclusions or decisions about it (Freahat & Smadi, 2014, p. 1804). Bloom’s Taxonomy is the most used method in teaching and learning as it emphasises a variety of types of questions (Ulum, 2016). Questions are not only used to evaluate learners academically. These questions can be used to help learners develop certain skills as a result of exploring and answering them (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Different cognitive levels of questions should be applied as they influence interaction between learners and text (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Questions which are well-designed lead to new perceptions, trigger discussions, and develop understanding of the subject matter (Tofade et al., 2013). Questions include various levels 27 of ability, so that learners can be able to interact (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Freahat and Smadi (2014) argue that it is important to analyse the kind of questions in textbooks in order to realise the level to which they develop learners’ thinking. Poor questions can hinder learning and limit learners’ critical thinking (Tofade et al., 2013). There are several scholars who have revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. The primary authors to revise it are Anderson and Krathwohl (Wilson, 2016). The revised taxonomy terminologies are as follows: Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory; Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarising, inferring, comparing and explaining; Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing. (Forehand, 2010, p. 3) These substituted the first three terminologies from the previous Bloom’s Taxonomy which used to be lower level questions. Looking at these new concepts, they position a learner in a way that the learner is the active individual who critically interacts with information. What is evident is that these terminologies were changed from nouns to verbs. For example, knowledge to remembering, comprehension to understanding, and application to applying. This could be to emphasize the active role that the learner plays when working with texts. 28 Terminologies which used to be higher order questions were substituted by the following: Analysing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organising, and attributing; Evaluating: Making judgements based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing; Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing. (Forehand, 2010, p. 3) What is evident with the last three terminologies is that Analysis became Analysing, Synthesis was substituted entirely by Evaluating, while Evaluation was entirely substituted by Creating. In other words, one terminology in the taxonomy, which is Synthesis was entirely removed, while a new terminology being Creating was introduced. The order also changed, as evaluation which used to be the last, became the second last, substituting the removed Synthesis (Wilson, 2016). To make the explanation understandable, below is a model which clarifies and summarizes what was revised: 29 Old Bloom’s Taxonomy model New Bloom’s Taxonomy model Figure 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy models 2.6.1 Lower-order questions vs higher-order questions There are two levels of questions, which are high-level and low-level questions, also called lower-order and higher-order questions. The revised Bloom’s Taxonomy does not use this category. This could be because it finds both categories significant as they serve different purposes (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). However, I will briefly discuss lower-order and higher-order questions, so that their functions and different purposes are made clear. Lower-order questions encourage learners to recall names, processes, settings, etc. Teachers generally tend to ask lower-order questions (Tofade et al., 2013). English textbooks also tend to promote lower-order questions which rely on learners’ opinions or their recalling of the work they are studying, and prior knowledge. Higher-order questions are advanced. They need learners to have knowledge of the subject, so that they engage Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating 30 in deeper thinking and interaction of the context they are busy with (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Tofade et al. (2013) argue for higher-order questions which would promote deep thinking, allowing learners to analyse and evaluate concepts. Some research has shown contradicting facts about using different questioning levels, to the point that the authors suggested the use of both lower- and higher-level questions (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). This is because both types serve different purposes: lower- order questions are used to assess basic skills, while higher-order questions develop critical thinking skills (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Research has found out that authors use a lot of lower-order questions and this hampers learners’ ability to develop critical thinking skills; learners are trained to memorise, but not to be critical thinkers (Freahat & Smadi, 2014). Freire (1972) sees education as an action to bring freedom, not to memorise. 2.6.2 Divergent vs convergent questions Divergent questions have many options to respond from; they allow for diverse responses. They also encourage dialogue (Tofade et al., 2013). Agustianingsih and Mahmudi (2019) argue that it is only open-ended questions which can inspire learners to develop higher-order thinking skills. Faroh et al. (2022) argue that questions which are open-ended increase high-level thinking abilities. Open-ended questions help learners to decode and interpret problems and evaluate information in order to come to proper decisions. These kinds of questions help learners be able to create statements or arguments, and this helps them to be creative (Wulandari & Ekawati, 2022). Textbooks 31 normally have closed-ended questions, and that makes it difficult to develop higher-order questions (Agustianingsih & Mahmudi, 2019). Closed-ended questions, also referred to as convergent questions, are kinds of question that do not offer a lot of choices (Tofade et al., 2013). This means they are questions whose answer is there in the textbook and is somehow fixed. 2.6.3 Brainstorm questions These kinds of questions are used to allow learners to come up with a list of ideas. Through brainstorming ideas, learners would be encouraged to be creative (Berger, 2016). However, if learners are also given a chance to brainstorm questions, instead of only answers, Berger (2016) argues that they would be smarter, as they will dig deep into a problem, and also aim to solve it. In other words, in order to spark creativity, a teacher may allow learners to brainstorm both ideas or questions, either at different times or simultaneously. Brainstorm questioning helps learners to be creative and innovative. Brainstorming is an organised technique, which is an example of the divergent question, and it sparks creativity (Kalargiros & Manning, 2015). In other words, brainstorming is an example of an open-ended question itself, as Kalargiros and Manning (2015) associate it with divergent questioning and thinking. 32 2.6.4 Personalised questions Personalised questions and activities have to align to each learner’s needs and what they prefer. There has to be a model used, in order to identify each student’s needs. In personalised activities, learners are allowed to finish in their own time, as they do different activities or activities modified differently. Such personalisations might range from making content for the specific age of learners, e.g. customising for age-appropriate content (Kucirkova et al., 2021). FitzGerald et al. (2018) state that personalisation of content or activities is seen as positive but it is not clear how the system would be implemented effectively in educational technology, although personalised education is often associated with technology (FitzGerald et al., 2018). They propose creation of personalised technology-enhanced learning (FitzGerald et al., 2018). 2.6.5 Comparison questions These questions can be both lower-order questions and higher-order questions (Tofade et al., 2013). They can require the learner to evaluate and analyse issues around text and can also ask for lower-order comparison like tabulating differences and similarities of characters or text (Tofade et al., 2013). Learners normally compare and contrast concepts or ideas within a text. They also examine and differentiate (Tofade et al., 2013). When answering a comparison question as a higher-order question, learners focus on subdividing content to show how it is put up together. In so doing, they are interacting with text and are opening up possibilities to gain more knowledge through comparing the context given and also using their prior knowledge to make judgements. Learners get to 33 organise information using the data they analysed and therefore make inferences about the information. This allows them to choose what they think is most appropriate in a given context (Tofade et al., 2013). Compare and contrast questions allow learners to have autonomy over their response or discussion and give them a choice to take a side if they prefer. 2.6.6 Funnel questions These are multiple questions which start as broad and become more narrowed (Tofade et al., 2013). These kinds of questions move from general information to specific information (Troyer, 2022). As a teacher of English, I use this method during class discussions and debates, to focus the conversation on narrower aspects. These are called funnel questions because they are like a real funnel, which holds a lot of liquid on top, but the liquid narrows as it goes down. These questions can even be asked as interview or interrogative questions. For example, after a learner gives their understanding of a story, the teacher may funnel down the ideas to get a deeper understanding of the concept. Troyer (2022) argues that the teacher may use the funnel method in a way that directs the learner to the teacher’s understanding of ideas. The idea is to have a detailed and clearer response. This type of question sounds like a higher- order type of question as it challenges learners to dissect the concept into finer critical aspects. 34 2.6.7 Memory and recall questions Memory and recall questions are types of questions which need learners to only recall incidents that they might have memorised during learning or studying (Persky & Fuller 2021). Through memorisation, learners decode information and then encode it in the storage area of the brain from where they later retrieve it (Vander Beken et al., 2018). It is seen as a good sign to be able to memorise, as memory is an important tool in a human’s mind and intelligence (Vander Beken et al., 2018). In terms of short stories, memory questions would help learners remember characters, plot and incidents that took place. These are lower-order kinds of questions. They become memory and recall when the actual extract with answers is absent. Learners usually recall these details during an exam. 2.6.8 Focal questions These are questions where learners have to choose an option or justify it (Tofade et al., 2013). These are normally questions which require a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response, then in some instances, learners give reasons for their answers. This type of question is typically used in textbooks (Tofade et al., 2013). This is a lower-order type of question as the learner is usually given direction by the question (contained in the question itself) and all they have to do is agree or disagree. 35 2.7. Problems with teacher training and pedagogies Most teachers just reproduce the textbook and follow the annual teaching plan, and in so doing they limit learners’ critical literacy skills, and they also reproduce a circle of passiveness, in a way that learners are trained to agree to what is given (Comber, 2015). What children learn in class depends on the teacher who offers them the subject (Taylor, 2008). Taylor (2008) argues that learners from disadvantaged backgrounds suffer the most because when they leave school, they have fewer resources at their homes to enhance and advance their knowledge. It is therefore important that teachers be trained to teach and offer fair education that gives learners platforms to exercise their own agency, which is the capacity and freedom to act (Ahearn, 2010). Learners have to be able to use their own voices (Ahearn, 2010). Thus, education should contain thinking skills, to avoid producing passive learners. In a certain SACMEQ (Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality) programme, teacher knowledge was tested (Taylor, 2008) in which there were 14 unnamed African countries participating. Taylor (2008) makes it clear that, in this programme, South African teachers refused to participate. It would have been good, however, if the participating countries were mentioned by name rather than only stating the one that did not participate. Of the countries involved, 46 teachers participated, and these were Grades 1-3 teachers. The lowest mark of their assessment was 58%, while the highest mark was 94%; the average result was 75%. According to Taylor (2008), this suggests that the teachers study less or do not study from the textbooks they use. 36 Taylor (2008) therefore concludes that teachers are exhibiting a passive culture (Taylor 2008). The reason teachers seem passive in this instance is that the curriculum and annual teaching plan are specific with what teachers ought to teach, hence it might be difficult to teach the way they would want to (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). They just teach for the sake of fulfilling the annual teaching plan. Taylor (2008) notes that these same characteristics are also seen in high school teachers. Taylor (2008) argues that it is especially South African learners who receive education of poor quality compared to other neighbouring countries. He suggests that improving what teachers do in classrooms is significant to better learning. This implies that the other counties that participated are our neighbouring countries. This is because, in his conclusion, Taylor (2008) mentions that “South African children receive schooling of a significantly poorer quality than pupils in many of our much poorer neighbouring countries” (Taylor, 2008, p. 21). This study investigates the gap between high school English and university English studies through analysing English short stories to determine if high school prepares learners fairly or not for higher education. The problem with critical literacy is that there is less information and guidance on how it can be applied to schools (Borsheim-Black et al., 2014). This means there are less trainings and intentions for basic education to turn learners into active beings who exercise their voices. Borsheim-Black et al. (2014) advise teachers to use the critical literacy approach in their teaching, but it still needs teachers to be trained in it. 37 There is no single strategy to bring change in high school education but if theory is explored together with practice, there can be change (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). There are challenges in South African education and these challenges include poor performance, and undertrained teachers (Singh, 2015). This leads to learners not coping with university, and dropping out as a result (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). The study by Maddock and Maroun (2018) established that CAPS has not managed to address OBE problems. Maddock and Maroun (2018) state that teachers receive training from less knowledgeable trainers, which is sometimes inadequate and does not offer enough practical knowledge; the same applies with teaching workshops. These are usually run by trainers who do not even know answers to certain questions themselves. Maddock and Maroun (2018) found that most teachers show love and commitment to their work and they believe that if the Department of Basic Education can improve its systems and methods, the problems that exist with literacy can be solved. Maddock and Maroun (2018) found that one of the teachers in their study was worried about the state of learners who lack respect and also display an attitude of disinterest in education. One of the teachers mentioned the department making teachers do unnecessary things like paperwork which takes time, thus compromising teaching and learning as teachers run around to get their paperwork done (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). Another thing that is problematic is the fact that the Department of Basic Education creates workshops aimed at improving teachers’ skills, while the trainers themselves are not necessarily subject experts, but just subject teachers. This was made evident by teachers’ perceptions when it comes to training, through the feedbacks they give 38 (Bantwini, 2012). It would benefit education and the curriculum if the Department of Basic Education hired trainers and subject advisors who are experts in their relevant fields. When officials like curriculum advisors visit schools, they ignore actual teaching and learning problems and how to address them, and seem preoccupied instead with the state of teachers’ files. According to Mayda (2015), it is crucial that learners are provided with adequate resources so that they can better interact with language. This supports the idea of multimodality: with different resources, learners would interact better with language. One of the problems which is evident when looking at the CAPS document and textbooks is that there are no adequate modes used and prescribed beyond text. Sowell (2017) states that being able to offer good instruction to learners is an essential skill needed from teachers and is often overlooked in educators’ training programmes. Sowell (2017) argues that significant topics are sometimes compromised and fail to deliver adequate results in the classroom because of poor instruction. As mentioned earlier, powerful literary pieces are prescribed for schools but mostly not used to touch on critical issues affecting contemporary South Africa. For example, the novel Animal Farm was used for learners to memorise incidents, instead of using it in the classroom as a means of tackling actual societal issues such as oppression, exploitation and tyranny. This is a skill that can be learnt, so teachers who lead workshops and training sessions should emphasise this skill and learn to impart it properly. Beyond this, most problems arise from the curriculum itself, the CAPS curriculum. 39 2.8 Contribution of Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement in high school The CAPS document outlines several aims of the curriculum: The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 gives expression to the knowledge, skills and values worth learning in South African schools. This curriculum aims to ensure that children acquire and apply knowledge and skills in ways that are meaningful to their own lives. In this regard, the curriculum promotes knowledge in local contexts, while being sensitive to global imperatives. (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 4). CAPS aims, as stated in the CAPS document, indicate that it is a curriculum with several advantages. Despite Gallo (2020) still emphasising that the impact of apartheid is still visible, which is true, nowadays CAPS helps most Black learners to access university. The document states: The National Curriculum Statement Grades R-12 serves the purposes of: equipping learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background, race, gender, physical ability or intellectual ability, with the knowledge, skills and values necessary for self-fulfilment, and meaningful participation in society as citizens of a free country; • providing access to higher education; facilitating the transition of learners from education institutions to the workplace; and providing employers with a sufficient profile of a learner’s competences. (Department of Basic Education, 2011, p. 4) 40 As mentioned in Chapter 1, CAPS came to replace OBE (Wilmot & Merino, 2015). This new curriculum was intended to help learners access higher education institutions so that they would be equipped with skills for the workplace (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). CAPS aims to help learners have a profile of competencies so that they can confidently present them to employers (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). Maddock and Maroun (2018), in their study, interviewed teachers about CAPS. Notably, one teacher stated that CAPS was introduced too quickly and its content is too sophisticated for South Africa (Maddock & Maroun, 2018). In addition, all respondents repeated the gravity of the shortage of excellent educators; the escalating number of experienced, expert educators leaving the profession; an unwieldy and rigid CAPS system introduced without adequate research and testing, and low standards which do not reach the 50 per cent pass rate in English and Maths prescribed. (Maddock & Maroun, 2018, p. 207) Based on this quotation, the CAPS curriculum has been found to be problematic. The first problem with CAPS is that it claims to bring creativity and critical literacy in the classroom but that is not evident in CAPS prescribed books and exam papers (Hove & Maruma, 2014). Hove and Maruma (2014) argue that the CAPS curriculum opposes its stated mission by not practically promoting critical literacy skills, and problem-solving skills in schools. Hove and Maruma (2014) further note that the aim of teaching learners is to open their minds and enable them to be aware of misconceptions, and to enhance their ability to reason and question. Unfortunately, that is not seen in schools. Instead, learners read to memorise. Freire (1972) argues that education should be a tool to allow learners to critique issues associated with what they are learning, and not to memorise. Hove and 41 Maruma (2014) make reference to Freirean theory, which is actually a critical literacy theory, and they state that according to this theory, learners should have a voice. CAPS instead treat learners as passive human beings with nothing to say. The only thing learners would be doing throughout the year would be to reproduce what authors said, and that does not necessarily come with understanding, as it is memorised. Hove and Maruma (2014) claim that CAPS is similar to Curriculum 2005 because it is a curriculum that lacks creative pedagogies to education, and in particular language education. 2.9. Problems with high school literature textbooks It is necessary to realise that schools do study literature, which helps learners learn from characters’ experiences, which may help them with their social lives. It also helps them with language skills and more. Seabi et al. (2020) did a study in which they were exploring “innovative methods of teaching English Literature in South African Secondary Schools” (Seabi et al., 2020, p. 120). They focused on Limpopo schools, based in Mankweng Circuit. What they found was that the lessons aimed at conveying and assessing language skills. Seabi et al. (2020) highlight that CAPS in literature is aimed at conveying “cultural knowledge and advanced English language skills to the learners” (Seabi et al., 2020: 120). What is problematic here is that schools use literature to assess learners’ reading and writing skills but not to enhance critical literacy skills and that also denies learners’ skills that would enable them to be independent thinkers with a voice. In that way, learners’ ability to solve problems, including contemporary issues, would be limited. 42 Blöch (2016), in her thesis, analysed “three selected contemporary South African short stories from the Apartheid era, each written by a different author, and each located in a different social and regional background” (Blöch, 2016, p. 117). She did so by examining a lesson plan for each short story. The first lesson plan was on Six Feet of the Country by Nadine Gordimer: The first aim of the story according to the lesson plan was that learners “familiarise themselves with the storyline” (Blöch, 2016, p. 96) so that they could summarise the plot. Secondly, learners had to study the characters in detail so that they could “improve their speaking and presentation skills” (Blöch, 2016, p. 96). Lastly, they had to understand more about setting: the story didn’t “necessarily have to be set in South Africa” (Blöch, 2016, p. 96). The skills assessed in this lesson plan are writing, speaking and presenting. None of the skills are part of the skills questioned in this study which include critical literacy skills. Short stories have to be selected according to interests and needs of learners. The activities should be interesting and allow learners to develop their critical reasoning (Saka, 2014). According to the lesson plan for Six Feet of the Country, learners are limited only to language skills, which confirms what Seabi et al. (2020) found, that literature is used to assess language only. The second lesson plan was on “The Park” by James Matthews. The first objective of the story according to the lesson plan was “to improve [learners’] writing skills, moreover, [to] proofread their classmates’ texts which is a great way to improve their own writing skills” (Blöch, 2016, p. 102). Secondly, learners were supposed to have a discussion which would help them work on “their speaking skills” (Bloch, 2016, p. 102). This story also assesses writing and speaking skills. It is problematic how the same skills were assessed. 43 Teachers should be allowed to assess multiple skills, not only language skills (Seabi et al., 2020). “The Park” was also selected in this study for analysis. It will be discussed with its activity later in the findings. The third lesson plan was on “Mrs Plum” by Es’kia Mphahlele. The first focus of the story according to the lesson plan was “on the students’ speaking skills” (Blöch, 2016, p. 107). Secondly, the lesson was used “as revision of the text and to ensure that every student has understood the text” (Blöch, 2016, p. 107). Thirdly, on the second part of the lesson plan, “students are asked to create posters for the characters. This task evokes their creativity, but it simultaneously emphasises the main characters of the short story” (Blöch, 2016, p. 107). The third story too focuses on speaking skills. However, at least another element was added here, in that learners were also allowed to be creative, by creating posters. Looking at all the lesson plans, it is clear that in the school, or rather the classes, which Blöch (2016) did research on, there was barely critical reasoning and application. The focus was only on learners being able to read, comprehend and write. According to the Department of Basic Education textbook selection criteria, there should be a variety of activities in textbooks (Siebörger, 2015). If the lesson plans researched by Blöch (2016) all focus on language, it implies that the curriculum encourages those kinds of activities, as lesson plans are derived from the annual teaching plan. It also implies that the textbooks contain only activities interested in assessing language. 44 2.10 Summary of the literature reviewed This chapter managed to expose a number of important issues. This subsection will give a brief summary of the information that stood out. Firstly, short stories were explained: they are pieces of literary work with a short storyline and plot, featuring a few characters. Secondly, it was discovered that textbooks are important for curriculum pacing. They are also affordable and easy to access. Thirdly, the Department of Basic Education uses a set of criteria to select textbooks. What is problematic is that textbooks that are evaluated in this study only have certain features outlined in the selection criteria. This suggests that the Department has a challenge following its own selection criteria. Fourthly, the role of the short story genre in developing learners’ critical literacy was discussed; what stood out is that multimodality should be utilised when teaching and learning short stories, to enhance creativity. Under the fifth subsection, Bloom’s Taxonomy and types of questions in textbooks were discussed; it stood out that higher-order questions influence critical literacy, while lower-order questions do not, but in the end both types of questions are important. Under the sixth subsection what stood out is that there are problems with teacher training and pedagogies; there are teachers who are not well equipped when it comes to critical literacy. Under the seventh subsection, it was discovered that CAPS aims to produce learners who have the power to interpret text, yet the questions found in CAPS textbooks are mediocre and they assess lower-order thinking (Hove & Maruma, 2014). The last subsection discussed problems with high school literature textbooks. It was discovered that these textbooks test lower-order knowledge, which is assessed as language skills and comprehension. Looking at this summary, it appears that there are 45 problems that emerge. These will be discussed later in the analysis and discussion sections. 46 Chapter 3: Theoretical and conceptual framework 3.1 Introduction The previous chapter reviewed the literature on literacies and curriculum innovation. It looked at works of different scholars and managed to sieve out what can be referred to as gaps. These are issues that were found to be either problematic or that need continuous attention. One issue that was found problematic and requiring further attention is the contradiction between what CAPS outlines as useful learning activities in textbooks and what textbooks actually contain as learning activities for short stories. By analysing prescribed short story textbooks and their activities, this study will contribute in shedding light on that contradiction. The analysis employs critical literacy theory. This chapter thus explains the theoretical and conceptual framework for the study. It will focus on critical literacy and concepts around critical literacy. It will also look at criticisms of critical literacy theory and key concepts which arise out of it. 3.2 Critical literacy theory As mentioned in Chapter 1, critical literacy is a product of critical theory, which is an approach originally rooted in sociology, founded by the Frankfurt School of Thought. This is a social theory with interests in society and culture (How, 2003). It is aimed at creating awareness of power structures and developing means to critique and challenge them. This theory argues that social problems in society arise from social structures, and not 47 necessarily from individuals. Ideology is the main problem that hinders freedom (How, 2003). According to McLaren (1989), ideology is related to hegemony, as he states that hegemony is permitted by ideology (McLaren 1989). Hegemony is dominant knowledge which is passed through different structures like the school, church and family (McLaren, 1989). From critical theory came critical pedagogy, which is a theory of social change. Critical pedagogy is interested in giving freedom from oppression by applying critical consciousness, which motivates individuals to strive for change in the world by challenging dominant ideologies (Giroux, 1989). Critical pedagogy was founded by Paulo Freire, a Brazilian philosopher (Giroux, 1989). Supporters of the theory found a way to use critical pedagogy to address issues such as racism and class oppression (Giroux, 1989). The theoretical framework for this study is critical literacy. According to Janks (2013), critical literacy is aimed at giving people the ability to understand the world. It also enables them to understand power relations, their identities and access to knowledge (Janks, 2013). Critical literacy gives students the ability to write and rewrite the world around them; in this way, they would be able to design and redesign concepts (Janks, 2013). Since this study aims at determining whether short stories and their assessments allow learners to be critical thinkers who are prepared for higher education and who understand issues around them, this is the most appropriate theory. Social critical theorists developed the concept of critical literacy (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Their concern was power structures, social injustice and inequalities (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). They were also 48 interested in the role education plays in inequalities: in how it either reduces or reproduces inequalities (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Critical literacy is rooted in critical social theory which is a wide neo-Marxist approach that is interested in social change. This is an interdisciplinary approach that emerged from the Frankfurt School. Critical social theory argues for knowledge to be constructed. As critical literacy is a product of the social theory, it aims at promoting engagement with text, which encourages reading and producing text with understanding, and a voice (Borsheim-Black et al., 2014). Freire used and supported critical pedagogy theory and is often regarded as the founder of critical literacy (Comber, 2015). For Freire (1972), critical literacy was a tool to assist employees to question issues around their workplaces. Freire views language and culture as tools that carry multiple values, voices, and realities (McLaren, 1989). His interests are the society and the multiple realities that exist in society, which include inequalities such as systematic silencing of the oppressed (Freire 1972). To address the inequalities, he introduced concepts such as consciousness, which would enable people to become aware of societal struggles (McLaren, 1989). For Freire, education should be an action to bring freedom, a way for people to know, not to memorise (Freire, 1972). Inequalities in society create a tradition of silence which aims to see the oppressed being passive and suppressed (Freire, 1972). Education should then allow learners to have critical consciousness so that they criticise what needs to be criticised and applaud what needs to be applauded, as a culture of silence is meant to oppress (Freire, 1973). Having a culture of silence results in oppressed learners not 49 having the means to critically respond to unfairness, hence acting passively (Freire, 1973). Bobkina and Stefanova (2016) make it evident that the application of critical literacy allows for critical thinking skills. They mention that the integration of literature in English classrooms is meant for critical awareness. Literature was meant for learning basic language skills, grammar and comprehension. Bobkina and Stefanova (2016) make it clear that in recent years, different scholars mention the possibility of literature being used as a tool to allow learners to have skills to interact across different disciplines. In this way, learners would communicate their interpretations of literary works. In so doing, learners develop critical literacy skills; hence their critical reasoning is stimulated (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). There should be a relationship between language and social change. For Freire (1972), incorporating critical literacy skills in literature would mean bringing social justice. As the theory is developed by critical social theorists, it advocates for learners to read texts in a way that they interpret and reflect, in order to understand issues of power, justice and inequalities among them (Comber, 2015). Critical literacy skills allow learners to interpret various texts applying a critical lens to do so (Giroux, 1989). To incorporate critical literacy, teachers should play a formative and creative role. Teachers would have to outline and provide proper conditions in order to allow learners to be active agents of their own transformation (Giroux, 1989). Teachers should also help learners to communicate effectively, especially during discussions, and to be able to learn from one another (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). 50 For critical literacy method, teachers are responsible for making learning in the class meaningful through appropriate lesson design. They plan the lesson and also bring it to practice (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Critical literacy approach in English language is directed at adding critical quality to existing work. In other words, critical literacy is not meant to make learners rebel against existing education, but to have the ability to interpret any work in front of them through applying critical literacy (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Critical literacy helps learners interpret texts in a way to challenge certain beliefs and social structures of power (Freire, 1973); this approach allows learners to develop a critical awareness of how language is used in social settings. Critical literacy enables learners to interpret and analyse work instead of reading to memorise. As learners interpret texts, they are able to compare it to their realities. As they reflect on their experiences, they are able to question social injustices. At the end of the day, they develop problem-solving skills and reasoning skills (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Through critical literacy, learners develop critical reading skills, which are skills encouraged by CAPS. As they read, they interact with the text, they interpret and they reflect; they become aware of other cultures and they are encouraged to respect them; they become able to form arguments (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Therefore, critical literacy and critical reading teach learners critical thinking skills. Borsheim-Black et al. (2014) argue that critical literacy is a method to question power. There are texts that perpetuate dominant ideologies, which include “Whiteness, 51 masculinity, heterosexuality, Christianity, and physical and mental ability” (Borsheim- Black et al., 2014, p. 124). Approaches normally used for literature do not challenge these issues, hence they continue marginalising certain groups in favour of others. Borsheim- Black et al. (2014) advocate for critical literacy, as it intends to examine and question issues of power, inequality and what is viewed as normal. Critical literacy pedagogy equips learners with skills which allow them to read against texts, understanding that language is not neutral. Borsheim-Black et al. (2014) argue that critical literacy does not only contain academic literacies but enhances learners to have a critical mind even after school, when watching content in the media, for example. Critical literacy is interested in teaching how a text is weaved, so that learners understand what that text aims to do in the world, hence challenging learners into a position of agency, while also equipping them with skills to reconstruct text to fit into their own realities (Borsheim-Black et al., 2014). Critical literacy aims at allowing learners to decode ideologies in the text in order to critique them. In so doing, critical literacy adds more quality to the work than simply to criticise it (Borsheim-Black et al., 2014). Critical literacy is a product of critical social theory. Therefore, Comber (2015) argues that critical literacy promotes social justice by allowing students to be researchers of language, by respecting their resistance, exploring diverse cultures, and critiquing classroom and public text. Comber (2015) believes that we must question issues of poverty and inequality even in education, by applying critical literacy. Janks (2012) argues that critical literacy is a skill needed across all schools. This is mainly because we live in a world where information has become multiple as we have internet, social media platforms, etc., which produce 52 knowledge, and when some of the knowledge or information opposes another, critical literacy is needed. Janks (2012) argues that critical literacy would be needed in any place, whether in a privileged rich society or a poor society, because there would always be binaries everywhere; for example, of what is good and bad, what is evil and holy. Janks et al. (2014) discuss critical literacy as a living practice in the classrooms. They do so by providing examples of activities and focusing on whose interests, values, benefits are being served by these. They also look into inclusion and exclusion: whom and what a text includes and excludes. When text is written, there is choice in it, whether to write it in the present or in the past, or to include more describing words or doing words; this implies that texts can be deconstructed (Janks et al., 2014). According to Vasquez (2019), there has to be new ways to teach critical literacy which would accommodate new multimodalities. These modes might include the internet and social media. McKenzie and Jarvie (2018) refer to critical literacy as the ability for learners to apply resistant reading, which is reading against the text to realise to what extent texts contain ideologies of power and inequalities. This study focuses on short stories and their activities, to see if these activities give learners the agency to be critical thinkers who are prepared for higher literary education and to critique different societal issues. Critical literacy theory helps in answering the research questions for this study which are: 1. What kinds of activities are provided for learners in prescribed English FET short story textbooks? 53 2. To what extent do these activities promote critical literacy in learners? 3. To what extent do these activities prepare learners for higher education? Critical literacy theory also helps in providing a framework for evaluating different levels of questioning – lower-order, middle-order and high-order questioning – to see if these activities can prepare learners to be critical reasoners and interpreters. Critical literacy is considered a useful tool for English First Additional Language learners or English Second Language learners as it gives them the opportunity to develop critical awareness of the use and role of language, making them aware of the culture that might be rooted in the English stories, the power structures, gender, identity and class (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016). Critical literacy theory is important because, as people, we are not free. We live in “asymmetries of power and privilege” (McLaren, 1989). Theories, according to McLaren, help people realise societal problems as not individual problems but societal problems (McLaren, 1989). Education should address inequalities (Giroux, 1989). Therefore, curriculum advisors must examine the conditions of school knowledge in terms of how it is produced and what particular interests it might serve (Giroux, 1989). This implies that education is capable of producing certain forms of life. Critical literacy encourages learners to critique “dominant forms of knowledge”, thus giving learners a voice and identity as they evaluate their own experiences in the process (Giroux, 1989). In an attempt to highlight the critical literacy of teachers of English, Justice and Tenore (2018) include in their book several voices of critical teachers who tell their stories. In chapter 15 of the book, Pabon (2018) tells her 54 story. Her critical literacy is closely linked to identity, and when she assesses unfairness, she looks more on the systemic inequality side (Pabon, 2018). She clarifies that there are existing systems in society which are unfair, for example, Black boys in US schools always being suspended and punished as they were associated with ones