ATTITUDES, BEHAVIOUR AND PRACTICES IN THE USE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING AND LEARNING by Mathomo M. Moila A thesis submitted to the Wits School of Education, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg, 2022 Supervisor: Dr Ephraim Mhlanga i Copyright Notice The copyright of this thesis vests in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in accordance with the University’s Intellectual Property Policy. No portion of the text may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including analogue and digital media, without prior written permission from the University. Extracts of or quotations from this thesis may, however, be made in terms of Sections 12 and 13 of the South African Copyright Act No. 98 of 1978 (as amended), for non-commercial or educational purposes. Full acknowledgement must be made to the author and the University. An electronic version of this thesis is available on the Library webpage (www.wits.ac.za/library) under “Research Resources”. For permission requests, please contact the University Legal Office or the University Research Office (www.wits.ac.za). http://www.wits.ac.za/library ii Abstract This study explored teachers’ and learners’ use of educational technology in mathematics teaching and learning environments. Mathematics is classified as one of the scarce skills subjects in South Africa. Any endeavour to try and improve the teaching and learning of mathematics is seen as a positive contribution towards mathematics education. Technologies are tools that offer possibilities for new approaches to teaching and learning as well as encouraging and sustaining learners’ attention in mathematics. The research focused on the influence of teachers’ pedagogical practices and competence in mathematics on their use of educational technology in their classrooms. The research further established factors that influence learners’ use of educational technology in mathematics. A mixed method research approach was conducted to understand teachers’ and learners’ attitudes, behaviour, and practices in the use of educational technology in mathematics. Two schools participated in the study. From school A, one teacher and 43 learners were involved in the study. The second teacher withdrew during the study. From school B, three teachers and 36 learners participated in the study. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, and class observations A Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework and social capital theory were used to help explain the influence of teachers’ pedagogical practices and competence in mathematics on their use of educational technology and the factors affecting learners’ use of educational technology in mathematics learning. The findings demonstrated that social capital, pedagogical practices, and the school’s socio-economic status contribute to teachers’ use of educational technology in mathematics. The teachers used desktop computers and laptops in mathematics mainly to present mathematics concepts and carry out the administrative tasks. The findings also showed that learners’ use of technology in mathematics is consistent with their teachers’ use of technology. Based on these findings it is suggested that teachers’ school-based professional development is key to fostering technology integration in the schools. Also, schools should develop guidelines that exert pressure on teachers to use technology in their classrooms. iii Acknowledgements The Lord, God Almighty for allowing me to undertake this journey from the beginning to the end. Dr Ephraim Mhlanga for guiding, supporting, and helping me in this course from the beginning to the end. The National Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS), in collaboration with the South African Humanities Deans Association (SAHUDA) for providing the financial assistance of studying towards this degree. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to NIHSS and SAHUDA. The educators and learners who were involved in this study. Paul, your support, help and understanding during this journey. You always stood by my side. Mampuni, you accommodated me in your home whenever I was in Johannesburg. Jerry, you took care of my place when I was away. Easy, your friendship and support during this journey. Thank you all. iv Dedications To my late father who was always proud of me. To my mother for being there for me. To the two men in my life, Larry and Seshoka. I am handing the baton over to you, my sons. v Declarations I declare that this thesis is my own original work. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other university. Mathomo M. Moila 09 June 2022 vi List of tables Table 1.1 Percentage of learners achieving at least 50% in mathematics marks in The Annual National Assessment Table 1.2 Percentage of grade 12 learners’ performance in mathematics: 2012 - 2014 Table 2.1 Computer penetrations into South African school, 2019 Table 3.1 Stages and descriptions of Stages of Concern Table 3.2 Stages and descriptions of Level of Use Table 5.1 Sources of evidence: Strengths and Weakness Table 5.2 TPACK questionnaire subscale description Table 6.1 Learner participants’ technology ownership of schools A and B combined Table 6.2 Learner participants’ technology ownership in school A Table 6.3 Learner participants’ technology ownership in school B Table 6.4 Percentage of learner participants’ use of technology in schools A and B combined. Table 6.5 The null hypothesis rejected by the chi square test of independence on smartphones ownership and smartphone use Table 6.6 The null hypothesis rejected by the chi square test of independence on calculator ownership and calculator use Table 6.7 Learner participants’ types of technological use outside the school in schools A and B combined Table 6.8 Learner participants’ regular use of technology within the school in schools A and B combined Table 6.9 Learner participants’ regular use of technology outside the school in schools A and B combined vii Table 6.10 Learner participants’ regular use of technology within the school space in school A Table 6.11 Learner participants’ regular use of technology within the school space in school B Table 6.12 Percentage of learner participants’ perception on the benefits of technology in mathematics learning in schools A and B combined Table 6.13 Learner participants’ technological competence in schools A and B combined Table 6.14 Learner participants’ technological competence according to smartphone ownership in schools A and B combined Table 6.15 Learner participants’ technological competence according to calculator ownership in schools A and B combined viii List of figures Figure 3.1 UNESCO ICT – CTF Figure 3.2 South African GTTPD – ICT Figure 4.1 TPACK framework Figure 4.2 Conceptual framework Figure 5.1 Research design Figure 5.2 Analytical framework Figure 6.1 A learner reading from the laptop Figure 6.2 Mr Phetole’s use of educational technologies in mathematics Figure 6.3 Mr Lehlokwa’s use of educational technology in mathematics Figure 6.4 Mr Tsebo’s algorithmic response to a learner question Figure 6.5 A learner working from the chalkboard space Figure 6.6 Mr Tsebo’s use of educational technology in mathematics Figure 6.7 Ms Makgona’s use of educational technology in mathematics Figure 6.8 A screen display of Vodacom Encarta and Secondary Content for schools based on Mr Phetole’s instructions Figure 6.9 A screen display of a different program from Mr Phetole’s instructions Figure 6.10 Learners who volunteered to respond to Mr Tsebo’s questions and the other learner who did not volunteer ix Abbreviations and acronyms ACE Advanced Certificate in Education ACOT Apple Classroom of Tomorrow AMESA Association for Mathematics Educators in South Africa ANA The Annual National Assessments CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement CAS Computer Algebra System CBAM Concerns Based Adoption Model CDE Centre for Development and Enterprise CERI Centre for Educational Research and Innovation CK Content Knowledge CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research CWOA Commonwealth of Australia DBE Department of Basic Education DGS Dynamic Geometry System DHET Department of Higher Education and Training DoE Department of Education EEA Employment of Educators’ Act ELRC Education Labour Relations Council FET Further Education and Training GDE Gauteng Department of Education GET General Education and Training GNP Gross National Product GTTPD–ICT Guidelines for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT HOD Head of Department ICT Information and Communication Technology x ICT-CFT ICT Competence Framework for Teachers ICT4RED ICT for Rural Education Development IDT Innovation and Diffusion Theory ISTE International Society for Technology in Education IT Information Technology LAN Local Area Network LoU Level of Use LPDoE Limpopo Provincial Department of Education MM Motivational Model MPCU Model of PC NCS National Curriculum Statement NEIMS National Education Infrastructure Management System OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PC Personal Computer PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge PIL Partnerships In Learning PK Pedagogical Knowledge RNCS Revised National Curriculum Statement SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation SACE South African Council for Educators SA-SAMS South African School and Administration Management System SCT Social Cognitive Theory SGB School Governing Body SITES Second Information Technology in Education Study SMT School Management Team SNSA Schoolnet South Africa SoC Stages of Concern xi SP Spreadsheet Programme SPTD Senior Primary Teacher’s Diploma TAM Technology Acceptance Model TCK Technological Content Knowledge TK Technical Knowledge TLI Teacher Laptop Initiative TPACK Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge TPB Theory of Planned Behaviour TPK Technological Pedagogical Knowledge TRA Theory of Reasoned Action UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation USA United States of America UTAUT Universal Technology Adoption and Use Theory xii Contents ATTITUDES, BEHAVIOUR AND PRACTICES IN THE USE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING AND LEARNING ................................................................................. 1 Copyright Notice ................................................................................................................................. i The copyright of this thesis vests in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, in accordance with the University’s Intellectual Property Policy. ...................... i Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... iii Dedications ....................................................................................................................................... iv Declarations ....................................................................................................................................... v List of tables ..................................................................................................................................... vii List of figures ................................................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations and acronyms ............................................................................................................ ix Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction and the study overview ................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Aim of the Study .......................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Rationale for the Study ................................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Delimitation of the Study ............................................................................................................. 9 1.6 Structure of the Research Report .............................................................................................. 10 1.7 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................................... 12 South Africa’s ICT in Education Context .......................................................................................... 12 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 12 xiii 2.2 ICT Initiatives in South Africa ..................................................................................................... 15 2.2.1 Infrastructure Initiatives ………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 18 2.2.2 Teacher Professional Development and Training……………………………………………………………….22 2.2.3 Digital Content Initiatives ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27 2.3 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 29 Literature review ............................................................................................................................. 29 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 29 3.2 Information Communication Technologies (ICT) Adoption in Schools ...................................... 30 3.2.1 The Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) …………………………………………………………………. 31 3.2.2 The Technology Acceptance Model ………………………………………………………………………………….. 34 3.2.3 Universal Technology Adoption and Use ………………………………………………………………………..… 34 3.3 Competence as a Concept ......................................................................................................... 35 3.4 Use of Technology by Teachers and Learners ........................................................................... 42 3.4.1 Use of Technology by the Teachers ………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 3.4.2 Use of Technology by the Learners ………………………………………………………………………………..…. 53 3.5 Benefits of Using Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics ........................... 61 3.6 Factors that Influence Learners’ Use of Technology in Learning Mathematics ........................ 66 3.6.1 Contextual Factors ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 66 3.6.2 Personal Factors ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 66 3.7 Attitudes of Teachers and Learners Towards the Use of Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics ................................................................................................................. 67 3.7.1 Attitudes of Teachers …………………………………………………………………………………………..…………… 67 3.7.2 Attitudes of Learners ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70 3.8 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 71 Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 72 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................................... 72 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 72 xiv 4.2 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) .......................................................... 72 4.2.1 Content Knowledge …………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….. 73 4.2.2 Pedagogical Knowledge …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 74 4.2.3 Technological Knowledge ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75 4.2.4 Technological Content Knowledge …..…………………………………………………………………………….. 75 4.2.5 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge ..…………………………………………………………………………. 76 4.2.6 Pedagogical Content Knowledge ……………………………………………………………………………………. 76 4.2.7 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge ……………………………………………………………... 77 4.3 Theoretical Perspective ............................................................................................................. 79 4.4 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 84 Chapter 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 85 Research Design and Methods ........................................................................................................ 85 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 85 5.2 Research Paradigm .................................................................................................................... 86 5.2.1 Pragmatism Research Paradigm ………………………………………………………………………………………. 86 5.3 Research Methodology: Mixed Methods Study ........................................................................ 88 5.3.1 Quantitative Approach …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 88 5.3.2 Qualitative Approach ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89 5.3.3 Types of Mixed Methods ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89 5.4 Research Population and Sampling ........................................................................................... 91 5.5 Data Collection Methods ........................................................................................................... 92 5.5.1 Semi-structured Interviews …………………………………………………………………………………………….… 94 5.5.2 Observations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…. 95 5.5.3 Questionnaires ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 96 5.6 Data Collection Procedure ......................................................................................................... 99 5.6.1 Qualitative Data ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100 5.6.2 Quantitative Data …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 102 5.7 Reliability, Validity and Credibility ........................................................................................... 102 xv 5.7.1 Methodological Triangulation ……………………………………………………………………………………..… 103 5.7.2 Space Triangulation ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 104 5.7.3 Data Triangulation ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 104 5.8 Data Analysis Procedure .......................................................................................................... 104 5.8.1 Quantitative Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………………..… 104 5.8.2 Qualitative Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 105 5.9 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................. 108 5.10 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................. 108 Chapter 6 ....................................................................................................................................... 109 Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion .................................................................................. 109 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 109 6.2 Biodata of Participants ............................................................................................................. 109 6.2.1 Schools' Contexts …………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 109 6.2.2 Teacher Participants ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 115 6.2.3 Learner Participants ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 117 6.3 What Teachers and Learners Do with Technology in Mathematics. ....................................... 117 6.3.1 What Teachers Do with Technology in Mathematics ……………………………………………………... 118 6.3.2 What Learners Do with Technology in Mathematics ……………………………………………………... 173 6.4 Benefits of Using Technology in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics ......................... 184 6.4.1 Benefits of Technology for Teaching ………………………………………………………………………………. 185 6.4.2 Benefits of Technology for Learning …………………………………………………………………………….… 190 6.5 Factors that Influence Learners’ Use of Technology in Learning Mathematics ...................... 194 6.5.1 Learners' Competence in the Use of Technology ……………………………………………………………. 194 6.5.2 Teachers' Influence on Learners' Use of Technology ……………………………………………………... 197 6.5.3 Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 198 6.6 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 199 Chapter 7 ....................................................................................................................................... 200 xvi Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................ 200 7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 200 7.2 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 200 7.3 Implication for Practice ............................................................................................................ 203 7.4 Limitation of the Study ............................................................................................................ 204 7.5 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 205 References ..................................................................................................................................... 206 Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 233 Appendix A: Consent Letters ......................................................................................................... 233 Appendix B: Ethical clearance certificate ...................................................................................... 239 Appendix C: Permission letter from department of education in Limpopo Province ................... 240 Appendix D: Learners’ interview schedule .................................................................................... 243 Appendix E: Teachers’ interview schedule .................................................................................... 244 Appendix F: Mr Tsebo’s lesson plan .............................................................................................. 246 Appendix G: Rationale for teachers’ interview schedule .............................................................. 249 Appendix H: Rationale for learners’ interview schedule ............................................................... 255 Appendix I: Teachers’ questionnaire ............................................................................................. 257 Appendix J: Learners’ questionnaire ............................................................................................. 266 1 Chapter 1 Introduction and the study overview 1.1 Introduction Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools are changing the world (Christie, 2008). These tools have a profound effect on how we live and work, creating what is referred to as a “knowledge–based society” (Anderson, 2008; Eftimie, 2012; Kozma, 2003; Punie, 2007). ICT tools enable us to collaborate in the creation of knowledge and to distribute and benefit from knowledge creation (Loveless & Dore, 2002; Tondeur, Cooper & Newhouse, 2010). Thus, it is important for teachers to have the knowledge and skills to facilitate in this kind of an environment. Teachers’ skills and knowledge are essential in ensuring that ICT tools are used in the classroom environment. Demetriadis et al. (2003) indicate that ICTs support educational reform by transforming learners into knowledge constructors. Thus, learners are enabled to take control of their learning. This has implications for pedagogy. A change in pedagogy effects the role of the teacher in the teaching and learning process. Depending on the teacher’s pedagogical orientation, these tools require the teacher to assume a facilitative role. Christie (2008), Selwyn (2004) and Wade (2002) see ICTs as a solution to developmental problems. ICT tools are not in themselves change agents for education, but when used as tools that are integrated with the curriculum, they could make a difference in education (Muir–Herzig, 2004). Schools are also trying to keep up with changes that are taking place globally so that they can develop citizens that can function in some knowledge–based society. Schools are part of the society; their operations thus reflect societal factors. Therefore, schools are meant to reproduce and uphold the culture of society (Christie, 2008). Schools fulfil these purposes by providing an environment where teaching and learning can take place, preparing people for the world of work beyond the school, fostering nation building and citizenship, teaching the values of society to children and young adults and developing a whole individual (Christie, 2008). To fulfil 2 these roles, schools need to be responsive to social demands and challenges, including the challenge of coping with a technology-driven global economy. Internationally most countries are employing ICTs in teaching and learning to improve the quality of education (Belland, 2009; Kozma, 2003; Player-Koro, 2012) and increase educational gains on the part of learners (Pelgrum & Voogt, 2009). This is because ICT tools have interactive capabilities, empowering learners to learn independently and enabling them to access more learning resources (Jourbert, 2013). Despite the mentioned benefits of these tools, there are difficult conditions that affect the successful integration of ICT into teaching and learning. Bingimlas (2009) called these conditions barriers. He grouped the barriers into the following categories: - Teacher level barriers, which include lack of confidence among teachers, lack of competence in ICTs, resistance to change and attitudes towards the use of ICTs. - School level barriers, which include lack of time, lack of effective training, lack of access and lack of technical support. Schools find themselves in a dilemma when preparing learners for the world of work. They need to choose between teaching in the old ways and imparting new skills and competences to the learners. To impart new skills and competences, schools can provide learning opportunities that incorporate ICT for their learners. On the other hand, the use of ICT continues to create pedagogical and didactical challenges for teachers in schools worldwide (Hodgkinson-Williams, 2005, as cited in Naicker, 2010). Challenges include the development of effective teaching and learning strategies that incorporate the use of ICT in teaching and learning by teachers (Hartley, Treagust & Ogunniyi, 2008). Hartley et al. (2008) indicate that it is important for teachers to understand the different ways in which ICT tools could facilitate learning and the types of learning these tools support. This will enable schools to consider their contexts and ensure that skills and competences are developed based on these contexts (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010). South Africa has its own fair share of challenges in the use of technology in its schooling system. Despite having had a democratic government for more than two decades, the schooling socio-economic inequalities of the previous dispensation are 3 still clearly visible. These inequalities have implications for the availability and accessibility of technological resources. However, the South African government has made a commitment to improve the ICT skills of its people and bridge the digital divide by targeting previously disadvantaged groups (Department of Education (DoE), 2004). This is done by providing technological tools to schools in these groups. It is therefore important to understand the impact these tools will have and whether they will afford an effective teaching and learning environment. Despite countries’ endeavours to try to use ICTs in teaching and learning, usage is still low, particularly in Africa (Hennessy, Harrison & Wamakote, 2010). This is largely attributed to factors such as lack of technology and software in schools, limited expertise on the part of teachers regarding ICT usage, and teachers’ beliefs and knowledge about how to use ICT tools in teaching and learning (Bingimlas, 2009; Ertmer, 2005; Hennessy et al., 2010). Belland (2009) indicates that with the ubiquity of ICT tools and the intensity of teachers’ trainings in the United States of America (USA), Europe and a few Asian countries, educational technology usage in teaching and learning should have had an impact on how teaching and learning is taking place in those contexts. The most important single factor contributing to change of practice where ICTs are utilised is the teacher (Belland, 2009). Thus, for effective technology usage, the teacher plays a significant role in ensuring that technological tools are implemented effectively. Drijvers, Doorman, Boon, Reed and Gravemeijer (2010) emphasise the importance of the role of the teacher in effective technology usage in a mathematics learning environment. They argue that technology cannot and never will be a substitute for the teacher. Therefore, there is a need to investigate how teachers can better use technologies in their classrooms. (Shulman, 1986, as cited in Koehler et al., 2014) proposed a special type of knowledge for effective teaching, which he called Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). This is explained as an understanding of the subject matter together with the development of appropriate instructional strategies and skills appropriate for teaching and learning. Mishra and Koehler (2006) extended PCK to Technological Pedagogic Content Knowledge (TPACK). This extension considers the role that technology knowledge can play in effective teaching and learning. In this study, TPACK was used to establish the relationship 4 between teachers’ pedagogical practices and their use of technology in mathematics teaching. In most South African high schools ICT resources are acquired through donations or government and private sector partnerships (Isaacs, 2007; SNSA,2015). Not many studies have been conducted on how these tools are used in mathematics teaching and learning in low a socio-economic context. A study by Moila (2007) found that the availability of ICT tools did not lead to abundant use of these tools in the mathematics teaching and learning environment. The study was conducted in one rural school in Limpopo province. A rural area in this context is explained in terms of communal land tenure, villages, or scattered groups of dwellings, typically located in one of the former homelands, with the presence of one or two small towns in the area (Palmer & Sender, 2006, as cited in Atkinson, 2014). In this kind of settlement there are very few economic activities. A similar study was conducted by Mogodi (2013) in another rural school in Limpopo province. Mogodi (2013) found that mathematics teachers were using laptops loaded with mathematics software programs. These two studies revealed that in instances where ICT tools were used, they were used by the teachers and for low level learning. In both schools the ICT resources had been acquired through donations. Knowledge of how ICT resources are used in mathematics could assist schools that are using these tools with strategies on how to use ICT effectively to enhance mathematics teaching and learning. This study investigated the influence of teachers’ pedagogical practices and mathematics competence on their use of educational technology in mathematics teaching and learning, and the factors that affect learners’ use of technology in mathematics. Competence and pedagogical practices are important in understanding the reasons for use or non-use of technologies by both teachers and learners, the ways in which they are used and their effect on the teaching and learning of mathematics. 1.2 Aim of the Study Educational technology tools were found to contribute towards the social and economic development of countries like China, Malaysia, and Singapore (Kozma, 2008). The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of teachers’ pedagogical 5 practices and mathematics competence on their use of educational technology in a mathematics teaching and learning environment, and the factors affecting learners’ use of technology in mathematics in two secondary schools in Mopani District in the Limpopo Province in South Africa. This study therefore sought to gain a deeper understanding of the relationship among ICT usage, competence, and practices in mathematics. This understanding helped to explain the influence of attitudes, behaviour, and practices in the use of ICT on mathematics teaching and learning in the investigated schools; it also helped in developing pragmatic solutions to challenges related to attitudes, behaviour, and practices in the use of ICT in mathematics. 1.3 Rationale for and contribution of the study In most South African schools, teachers and learners have little or no say in the acquisition of educational technology resources. Usually, the responsibility for purchasing these resources lies with the School Governing Bodies (SGBs) and the School Management Teams (SMTs). Owing to this limited involvement of teachers, or lack thereof, they do not have a sense of ownership of these tools. Furthermore, decisions taken regarding the acquisition of technology are rarely based on any research findings on technology integration into the teaching and learning environment (Baylor & Richie, 2002). The success of any educational reform is measured by the extent to which it is adopted by teachers (Yusuf et al., 2012). The South African government has made commitments to the use of technology in teaching and learning. This investigation has helped shed light on factors that enhance and constrain teachers’ adoption and use of technology in teaching mathematics at secondary school level. The main contribution of this study is that it sheds light on how best teachers steeped in the traditional teacher–centred pedagogy could improve their use of technology in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Traditional pedagogy does not promote creativity, problem solving and collaboration, which are prominent skills required for meaningful mathematics learning. The study generated useful insights into teacher training programmes. The findings will act as a guideline to the responsible South African officials to take appropriate actions that will enhance the use of technology in mathematics. 6 Most studies conducted in disadvantaged South African schools have focused on the general use of ICT tools (Beyers & Hlala, 2015; Hodgkinson-Williams, Siebӧrger & Terzoli, 2007; Madida, Naidoo & Rugbeer, 2019; Makgato, 2014; Mathevula & Uwizeyimana, 2014). A few studies focused on mathematics teaching and learning targeted at using a specific ICT tool in teaching mathematics (Mokotjo & Makgalwa, 2021; Roberts & Vänskä, 2011; Tachie, 2019). These studies showed that the use of ICT in mathematics remains a challenge in South African schools. This study has made several significant contributions to the existing body of knowledge on the appropriate use of technology in mathematics teaching and learning in secondary schools. Also, the study made a theoretical contribution by showing that learners’ use of educational technology is influenced by teacher attributes and classroom practices. Most studies focused on factors such as gender, attitudes, resources, and contextual factors. Learners’ competence in the use of technology is important, as they need technological competence to navigate their studies in higher education. Lastly, the study enhances the literature regarding the application of the TPACK framework in an empirical study by investigating the use of technology in mathematics teaching in secondary schools. TPACK context is described from the schools’ physical location. However, this study has shown that physical location together with social trust, access to expertise and social pressure can enhance the use of TPACK framework in empirical research. 1.4 Statement of the Problem Mathematics teaching plays an important role in the curriculum. It is through mathematics that higher order thinking skills are developed for the achievement of relevant pedagogical outcomes (Gonzalez & Herbst, 2009). These pedagogical outcomes include, among others, conceptualisation, abstraction, generalisation, problem solving and information processing (Niewoudt & Golightly, 2006, as cited in Leendertz et al., 2013). In South Africa, mathematics is classified as one of the scarce skills subjects. Scarce skills subjects are those subjects that open a plethora of opportunities for the learners but do not have enough human resources within the country for teaching. In most instances, foreign nationals are used in our schools to teach these subjects. Mathematics is also used more than any other subject to filter 7 career options. South Africa is still significantly underperforming in mathematics education (The Centre for Development and Enterprise (CDE), 2013). Schools are faced with the daunting task of trying to get more learners to register for pure mathematics in grade 10 and thus, very few learners register for pure mathematics in grade 12. Mathematics is not compulsory in grades 10, 11 and 12. Learners have a choice between pure mathematics, and mathematics and mathematical literacy. Many learners opt for mathematics and mathematical literacy. Furthermore, most of the learners who register for mathematics do not perform well in the subject. This poor performance was seen in the analysis of mathematics results in the Annual National Assessment (ANA) tests in grades 3, 6, and 9 and the grade 12 final year results. In 2011 when ANA was introduced, the national average scores of learners in grades 3 and 6 were 28% and 30% respectively (Department of Basic Education (DBE), 2011a). In 2012 ANA was also introduced in grade 9. Table 1.1 below shows the performance of learners who achieved at least 50% in the ANA tests in grades 3, 6 and 9 in 2012, 2013 and 2014 (DBE, 2014). Table 1.1: Percentage of learners achieving at least 50% in mathematics in the ANA tests Grade Percentage of learners achieving 50% or more 2012 2013 2014 3 36 59 65 6 11 27 35 9 2 2 3 Source: Department of Basic Education, 2014, p. 10 From Table 1.1 it is evident that the results of grade 3 learners are better than those of grades 6 and 9, and grade 6 learners perform better than those in grade 9. To address this problem, concerted efforts to improve the situation need to be made, and strategies to remediate the situation must be developed. However, the ANA tests have since been suspended owing to dissatisfaction from the teachers’ unions. 8 Looking at Grade 12 national mathematics results for the same period as above, table 1. 2 below gives a picture of learners’ performance. Table 1.2: Grade 12 learners’ performance in mathematics: 2012 - 2014 2012 2013 2014 No. Wrote Achieved at 30% & above % achieved No. Wrote Achieved at 30% & above % achieved No. Wrote Achieved at 30% & above % achieved 225874 121970 54 241501 142666 59.1 225458 120523 53.5 Source: Department of Basic Education, 2015, p.7 Tables 1.1 and 1.2 paint a picture of mathematics performance in primary and secondary schools. Performance in mathematics remains generally poor in the schooling system. As a mathematics teacher I am eager to explore different strategies that could assist in improving learners’ performance in mathematics. Technologies are tools that offer possibilities for new approaches to teaching and learning as well as encouraging and sustaining learners’ attention in mathematics. In mathematics, technologies provide learners with opportunities to simulate various complex scenarios, processes, and phenomena; generate visualisation and explorations of mathematical content; and connect dynamic notations, link representations and operations with symbols (Baya’a & Daher, 2013; Thorvaldsen, Vavik & Salomon, 2012). Technologies also have the potential to allow students to explore and reach an understanding of mathematics concepts (Ittison & Zewe, 2003, in Agyei & Voogt, 2011). Noor-Ul-Amin (2013) further indicated that the appropriate use of technologies in teaching and learning of mathematics supports conceptual development in mathematics, enables mathematical investigations by learners and teachers, influences how mathematics is taught and enables interaction of teachers with learners, parents, peers, colleagues, and the global society. These approaches promote higher order thinking skills, and better problem-solving strategies, which are the skills needed in mathematics teaching and learning. These benefits are only realisable if teachers can appreciate that the meaningful use of technology requires new competencies and appropriate approaches to pedagogy. Thus, teachers’ competencies in the use of technologies and their effective use of 9 technologies in teaching and learning, are some of the important factors that shape technology-mediated teaching and learning. Technology-mediated teaching is related to teachers’ technological knowledge, content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. These three knowledge domains are what Mishra and Koehler (2006) developed into the TPACK framework. TPACK is the knowledge that teachers need in order to use technology effectively in their classrooms. The TPACK framework is discussed in Chapter 3 of this study. However, TPACK is not the only technology framework model that can be used. Other models and their inappropriateness for this study are explained in Chapter 3 of this study. This study sought to establish the role the above-mentioned factors played in the use of educational technology in the teaching and learning of mathematics in grades 10 to 12 at two schools in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The following key research questions were addressed in the study: How do teachers’ pedagogical practices and competence in mathematics influence their use of educational technologies in mathematics teaching and learning? What factors influence learners’ use of educational technology in mathematics learning? The following sub-questions formed part of the main question: 1. What do teachers and learners do with technology in mathematics instruction? 2. What benefits do teachers and learners appreciate in using educational technology in mathematics? 3. What are teachers’ and learners’ attitudes towards the use of educational technology in mathematics? 4. How does teachers’ pedagogy affect their use of educational technology? 1.5 Delimitation of the Study In this study, two secondary schools in Mopani District of Limpopo Province were chosen. The study used a mixed methods approach with a questionnaire, lesson observations, and both individual and focus group interviews to gain a deeper understanding of teachers’ and learners’ uses of educational technologies in 10 mathematics teaching and learning environment. The schools are referred to as school A and school B. In school A, one mathematics teacher and 43 learners participated in the study. In school B, three mathematics educators and 36 learners participated in the study. The field work was conducted during the first term of the 2018 school calendar year. Questionnaires were distributed outside the normal school hours. Interviews were also conducted outside the normal school hours. 1.6 Structure of the Research Report Chapter 1 gives an outline of the study. It describes the aim of the study, the purpose of the study, the statement problem and the delimitations of the study. Chapter 2 locates the study in the South African context. The significance of e- education is discussed together with its implementation in South African schools. The chapter gives the context in which educational technologies in the South African education system are used and the challenges that are faced in their usage. This helped in contextualising the data analysis and interpretation presented later in the study. Chapter 3 provides a review of literature on competence as a concept and its role in mathematics and technology adoption. Different technology adoption models are discussed, and their strengths and weaknesses highlighted. The chapter further discusses ICT and pedagogical practices considering the technology adoption models. Gaps that need to be addressed by this study are also outlined. Chapter 4 gives a framework of the philosophical considerations that form the lens through which my study was conducted. The chapter focuses on the TPACK framework and social learning theories, specifically social capital theory. Chapter 5 outlines the research methodology adopted in the study. In this chapter I argue that a mixed method approach was the most appropriate design for this study. I also justify the selection of the data collection strategies adopted and data analysis procedures followed by considering the challenges in mixed method research, specifically reliability and validity, credibility as ‘communicative validity’ and ‘trustworthiness’, generalisability, and the issue of coding, a process of data analysis. Chapter 6 provides an analysis and discussion of the two schools. The chapter reports on teachers’ competence in mathematics and the use of educational 11 technology in mathematics teaching. The chapter further describes teachers’ pedagogical practices. The chapter continues by detailing learners’ use of educational technology in mathematics learning and the influence of teachers on learners’ use of educational technology in mathematics learning. Chapter 7 presents a summary and conclusion of the entire study. The chapter also outlines some implications and recommendations for further research and closes with a final reflection on the study. 1.7 Chapter Summary This chapter provided the framework of this study. The chapter included the aim of the study, the rationale, the purpose of the study, a statement of the problem, and the limitations of the study. The chapter also included an account of the structure of the thesis by briefly describing the contents of each chapter. In the next chapter, I provide a background of ICT in education in the South African context. 12 Chapter 2 South Africa’s ICT in Education Context 2.1 Introduction South Africa, like any other country, wants to stay competitive and continue to develop socially and economically. Education is seen as one of the factors that will contribute to the country’s social and economic competitiveness. Countries that have moved from being developing countries to emerging economies have done so through transforming their education systems. China, Singapore, and Taiwan are examples of such countries (Kozma, 2008). Education has helped them to break the cycle of poverty and has contributed to their economic and social development (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 2004). One of the drivers of educational transformation is the use of ICT in teaching and learning, as these tools have the potential to deliver education to learners across space and time, enable collaboration and cooperation among stakeholders in education and share resources among themselves (Kozma, 2005; Kozma, 2008). The South African landscape changed after 1994. Post-1994, all sectors of government started advocating for transformation to address the imbalances of the past. Policies were put in place to address these injustices (Christie, 2008) and a new curriculum was introduced. This happened at the time of emerging globalisation (Christie, 2008). To keep up with the rest of the world, the South African government, in partnership with the private sector, made a significant investment in educational technology resources. However, this investment has done very little to address the imbalances of the past. This is evident from the National Education Infrastructure Management System (NEIMS) report on availability of computer centres in South African government schools (Department of Basic Education (DBE), 2019). The report showed the uneven spread of ICT infrastructure across provinces. Indeed, the legacy of the apartheid era still lingers and the gap between the rich and poor is ever widening. The spread of computers into South African schools is illustrated in table 2.1. 13 Table 2.1: Computer Penetration into South African Schools, 2019 Province Name Number of Schools With Computer Centre % With Computer Centre Without Computer Centre % Without Computer Centre Eastern Cape 4234 528 12.47 3691 87.18 Free State 852 420 49.3 432 50.7 Gauteng 1975 1597 80.86 378 19.14 Kwazulu Natal 5031 1837 36.51 3194 63.49 Limpopo 3390 549 16.19 2841 83.81 Mpumalan ga 1518 653 43.02 865 56.98 North West 1204 589 48.92 615 51.08 Northern Cape 415 255 61.45 160 38.55 Western Cape 1203 792 65.84 411 34.16 Source: DBE, 2019, p. 4 Table 2.1 shows that provinces do not have equal resources. The reason for this is that the National Department of Education assigned the implementation of the e- education White Paper to individual provinces (DoE, 2004). Provinces are not equally resourced because of the legacy of the past. Provinces that fell largely within the former homeland system are the ones with least resources. They must first address the problems of the shortage of classrooms and toilets before they can contemplate equipping the schools with technology. Despite these provincial challenges, it remains the responsibility of the Department of Basic Education (DBE) to address the social and economic disparities across the provinces and provide 14 access to educational technology tools to all schools in terms of educational technology professional development and infrastructure. However, private sector partnerships with the provinces provide some relief for provincial budgets as most of their technologies are sourced through public-private sector partnership initiatives (Isaacs, 2007). Usually, secondary schools are given donations based on their final grade 12 performance, whereas in other schools governing bodies work hard to raise funds for the purpose of equipping schools with technology infrastructure. Furthermore, within the same provinces, schools show disparities in terms of infrastructure and teacher development. Independent and former model C schools are better resourced than schools that served the marginalised communities prior to 1994. Table 2.1 shows that Gauteng, Western Cape, and Northern Cape are the leading provinces in terms of the number of computers for teaching and learning. This is because they incorporated only a small area of the former homeland system. They have fewer socio-economic problems than other provinces. Gauteng is the economic hub of South Africa and can thus afford to provide technology access to all its schools in the province. However, even though these provinces have relatively good access to technology, usage nevertheless remains low (Chigona, Chigona, Kayango & Kausa, 2010; Howie & Blignaut, 2009; Madida, Naidoo & Rugbeer, 2019; Makgato, 2014). The above discussion illustrates how the South African government responded in relation to ICT in teaching and learning. The discussion shows a significant experience of more than two decades of the use of ICT in teaching and learning (Isaacs, 2007; Lundall & Howell, 2000). However, despite this experience, many schools in disadvantaged communities have yet to fully experience the use of ICT in teaching and learning. A study conducted by Lundall, and Howell (2000) showed that in the 1990s, primary school computer usage focused mainly on computer literacy, emphasising basic computer principles and word processing, while most high schools focused on computer literacy, computer studies and advanced skills such spreadsheet, file management, database management and computer programming. However, the picture is now changing as more experience is gained in the use of ICT in teaching and learning (Howie & Blignaut, 2009). In this chapter, I chart the path 15 that South Africa has followed in the use of ICT in teaching and learning. Government, private sector, and nongovernmental initiatives are discussed, together with their role in trying to improve teachers’ instructional practices for economic and social development of our country, South Africa. 2.2 ICT Initiatives in South Africa The South African government published the e-education policy as one of the initiatives to promote the use of educational technology in teaching and learning (DoE, 2004). The policy envisaged enhancing teaching and learning with the use of ICT. In addition to the e–education policy, there are other initiatives in place to ensure the employment of educational technologies in teaching and learning. However, some of them do not align to the e–education policy while others have fallen by the wayside (Howie & Blignaut, 2009; Isaacs, 2007). In developing countries, ICT initiatives often focus on creating an ICT presence in schools, while others target capacity building of both learners and teachers (Howie & Blignaut, 2009). ICT initiatives in South Africa focus on different aspects of ICT use. Some focus on the provision of access to infrastructure, others on professional development and training of teachers, content development, or a combination of the above factors. These initiatives involve public-private sector collaboration. A discussion of the different initiatives according to their focus area(s) follows later in this chapter. South Africa is an unequal society; most of the population live in poverty while a small portion are wealthy. These disparities influence access to ICT in the classroom, presenting the country with a further challenge. Class sizes are greater in rural and peri–urban schools than in urban schools. This has resulted in overcrowding and limited availability of teaching and learning resources in rural and peri-urban schools. Even though the proportion of schools with computers increased from 18 percent in 1998 to 38 percent in 2006 (Pelgrum, 2008, cited in Blignaut et al., 2010), many rural schools still experience electricity and network coverage problems. Thus, in ensuring access to ICT infrastructure, the government is considering digital equity in addressing the country’s disparities to bridge the digital divide (DoE, 2004). In the next paragraph, the concepts ‘digital divide’ and ‘digital equity’ are discussed. 16 The digital divide debate has been going on amongst countries and within individual countries for some time and a great deal has been written about it (Light, 2001; Selwyn, 2004; Singh, 2004; Wade, 2002). The digital divide is sometimes understood from the perspective of the uneven distribution of resources, which results in inequality (Light, 2001; Singh, 2004; Wade, 2002). However, Selwyn (2004) suggests that the digital divide incorporates four prominent aspects: - The meaning of ICTs: These are a range of heterogeneous technologies, types of information and resources which are not necessarily analogous to each other. - The meaning of access: Access as it refers to making ICTs available to all is ill defined. The definition tends to obscure subtle disparities in the context of ICT access. ICT should be defined in terms of time, cost, quality of technology and the environment in which it is used, as well as more qualitative concerns of privacy and ease of use. In addition, access needs to be defined from an individual’s perspective, that is, whether people have access at all and the hierarchy of access amongst those that do. Similarly, access to material without the required knowledge, skills, and support to use the technology is useless. - The relationship between access to ICTs and use of ICTs: Technological determinism asserts that access to ICTs will lead to ICT usage. Even if the ICTs are used, there is no guarantee that they will be used for meaningful engagement. Engagement with ICTs is concerned about how people develop relationships with ICTs and how they can make use of social resources, which make access useable. - Consequences of engagement with ICTs: Outcome, impact, and consequences of accessing and using ICTs are very important. Access to information cannot be uniformly available to all. Specialised information needs specialists to engage with it meaningfully. Consequences of meaningful engagement with ICT are seen in terms of the effects on an individual’s and on communities’ quality of life, that is, the extent to which technology use enables individuals to participate in and be part of society. 17 On the other hand, Howie and Blignaut (2009) showed that digital equity comprises five components: - Access to hardware, software, and connectivity to internet; - Access to content in local language; - Access to create, share and exchange digital content; - Access to educators who know how to use tools and knowledge and - Access to research on the application of technology for leaning. However, access in Howie and Blignaut’s (2009) context referred to making resources available. This is what Selwyn (2004) called the limited explanation of access. Looking at digital equity composition, it is evident that it drives ICT initiatives in South Africa. Initiatives are focusing on changing the status quo and particularly benefiting the disadvantaged groups to increase their access and use. However, in South Africa, the best ICT infrastructure is available in several urban schools, while rural and peri–urban areas have inadequate and primitive ICT infrastructure (Howie & Blignaut, 2009). Howie and Blignaut (2009), referring to the Second Information Technology in Education (SITES) 2006 secondary study, pointed out that essential conditions necessary to use ICT effectively in mathematics and science in grade 8 were not yet in place in most South African schools. These conditions included access to hardware and software, availability of technology, obstacles to pedagogical goals, location of ICT, provision of staffing and channels for teachers to acquire skills and technology. Looking at these conditions, it is evident that most of them are associated with ICT infrastructure. Howie and Blignaut (2009) indicated further that, in cases where hardware and software were in place, the location of ICT in schools required a great deal of attention. They recommended placing ICTs in classrooms rather than in a computer laboratory, as learners have easier access to classrooms than a computer laboratory. The problem with placing ICTs in a computer laboratory is scheduling to accommodate everybody in the school. However, nothing has changed, as indicated in table 1.2. ICT infrastructure is still reported in terms of computer laboratories that the schools have. Schools might have computer laboratories with computers that are not in operation. 18 Despite these challenges relating to ICT integration in teaching and learning, table 1.2 indicates a slight improvement in the availability of computer laboratories compared to the year 2009 (DBE, 2009a; DBE, 2019). However, when Howie and Blignaut (2009) compared South Africa’ s progress in terms of the use of ICT in teaching to that of countries with similar developing conditions which have a lower gross national product (GNP) per capita but spend a smaller percentage of their budget on education, they concluded that South Africa’s progress is slow. This confirms the view that the digital divide cannot always be explained in terms of the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’. For South Africa to achieve digital equity, it should review its norms and standards for funding to resolve its financial challenges posed by the costs of providing access to ICT infrastructure, technical support, maintenance, upgrades, and repairs of ICT infrastructure (Howie & Blignaut, 2009). In addition, public-private sector partnerships are important in this regard to relieve government of some of the cost burden. The section below gives a detailed description of how the South African government is trying to address the digital divide through infrastructure rollout. 2.2.1 Infrastructure Initiatives ICT infrastructure in this study refers to computer hardware, software, internet access, mobile technology and broadcasting technology that are used in teaching and learning. Different stakeholders provide different types of technological equipment in their endeavour to promote the use of ICT in teaching and learning. One cannot overemphasise the importance of ICT infrastructure in providing an enabling environment for the use of ICT in teaching and learning. Access to ICT infrastructure is one of the key elements supported by the e–education policy framework for the use of ICT in teaching and learning (DoE, 2004). ICT infrastructure plays a crucial role in technology adoption, which contributes to the culture of technology usage in teaching and learning. The extent to which a country can participate and benefit from ICTs depends on the country’s digital divide as well as availability of ICT infrastructure and technical know-how in the country (UNESCO, 2004). ICT infrastructure gives a true picture of the specific operational environment in institutions. A review study conducted by Basak and Govender (2015) found that ICT infrastructure was among the major factors contributing to 19 technology adoption in teaching and learning. The review involved a Google, Google Scholar and Durban University of Technology library database search using the search terms “enhancing adoption in teaching and learning” and “enhancing ICT implementation for teachers”. The aim of their study was to develop a conceptual framework regarding the factors inhibiting teachers’ successful adoption and implementation of ICT in teaching and learning. The ICT infrastructural problems that were identified were: limited resources, the high costs of ICT resources, lack of access to a reliable energy source, and corruption where huge budgets are passed to buy peripherals to improve teaching and learning but little improvement is seen because of corruption (Basak & Govender, 2015). Mulwa and Kyalo (2011) conducted a survey in Kitui district in Kenya. The survey investigated the influence of ICT infrastructure on readiness to adopt e–learning in secondary schools. They found that ICT infrastructure had a positive and significant influence on schools’ readiness to adopt e–learning. However, they further indicated that ICT infrastructure is dependent on the availability of a reliable source of energy. As indicated in table 2.1 above DBE is also trying its best to supply the relevant hardware to support e-education. However, the table does not indicate the number of computers stocked per computer laboratory. In addition, the information does not indicate learner-computer ratio. The table indicates the number of schools with computers per province. Schools are also not equal in size. In big schools where the learner population is 800 and above, the model will result in a very high learner- computer ratio that will have implications for access in terms of school timetabling. Also, the model does not consider initiatives that emerged recently like the Gauteng paperless classroom which is explained below. The National Department of Basic Education also tried to encourage schools to perform better in mathematics and sciences. This was done in secondary schools that include grade 12. Well-performing schools were rewarded by being placed in a category called Dinaledi schools (Taylor, 2007). All Dinaledi schools were equipped with ICT infrastructure and other resources that would enable them to perform at their best in mathematics and science subjects (Taylor, 2007). Despite the provision of this ICT infrastructure, schools are supposed to find funds to maintain and sustain the ICT infrastructure. In addition, not all schools have access to electricity. 20 According to a National Education Infrastructure Management System (NEIMS) report, seven percent of schools have no access to electricity supply, while three percent have an unreliable electricity supply (DBE, 2019). This model has the potential to create a digital divide in this kind of society. In addition to supporting schools, there was also an initiative to support educators with ICT infrastructure, called the teacher laptop initiative (TLI) project. This project was an agreement that was reached between the Education Labour Relations Council (ELRC) and teachers’ unions (DBE, 2009b). Every school-based educator employed in terms of the Employment of Educators’ Act (EEA) and occupying a permanent teaching post, was eligible to participate in this initiative. It involved providing a subsidy for teachers on their laptop purchase, including a subscription to internet access. This project started in July 2009. However, to date, there is no written evidence of the number of teachers who benefited from this project and whether the project was ever kick-started. At the provincial level, Gauteng province has its own ICT infrastructure initiatives. This can be seen in table 2.1. Gauteng province has the highest number of computer centres. The Gauteng Online project, which was managed by Gauteng province, involved establishing a computer laboratory with 25 workstations and, internet and e- mail access, to be used for curriculum delivery by all Gauteng schools. In 2010, Gauteng online had 1 665 schools with fully functional computer laboratories (Mpehle, 2011). According to Isaacs (2007), Gauteng Online goals were to: - Contribute towards building the human resources capacity of the province and the country through the provision of quality education; - Contribute towards stimulating positive economic activity in the country through the creation of a strong local ICT industry that has a capacity for ICT development and innovation; - Enhance the efficacy of government for improved service delivery and a better life for all; - Position the province at the cutting edge of change through technological innovation and - Bridge the digital divide. 21 To achieve these goals, the Gauteng Department of Education (GDE) sought private partnership collaboration that designed, built, and ran end-to-end solutions for a range of Gauteng schools (DoE, 2006). However, the project dwindled along the way. More recently there has been a tablet initiative project, ‘paperless classrooms’, initiated by the Education Member of the Executive Council in the same province (Gauteng Province, 2015). As it is still in its initial stage, there is not much research about it. Another provincial ICT initiative that provided infrastructure was the Khanya project in the Western Cape. Khanya, which means light, started in 2001 and was intended to make education shine in the Western Cape, especially in previously disadvantaged schools. Its aim was to have every educator in every school of the Western Cape empowered to use appropriate and available ICT to deliver curriculum to every learner by 2012 based on the following objectives (Khanya, 2008): - Increase educator capacity and effectiveness by means of technology; - Harness the power of technology to deliver the curriculum; - Enhance the quality of the learning experience in the classroom, providing an opportunity for students to benefit from a variety of learning styles; - Integrate appropriate and available technology into the curriculum delivery process as different technologies mature; - Use technology to assist all disabled students to maximise learning; - Improve Senior Certificate and Further Education and Training (FET) results, as well as student outcomes in all grades, in terms of number of passes and quality of results; - Increase the number of students taking mathematics and science at the higher grade and those coping successfully; - Increase the number of students qualified and competent to enter tertiary education institutions after obtaining their Senior Certificates and - Improve numeracy and literacy in lower grades to build a stronger foundation for future grade 12s. At the end of 2008, the Khanya report indicated that 1 007 schools had been provided with technology facilities, typically computer laboratories, consisting of between 25 and 40 computers per school (local area network (LAN) and Internet 22 linked). The report further indicated that approximately 39 022 PCs had been deployed in the above schools and a total of 21 500 educators had received basic IT training. This has resulted in benefitting approximately 750 000 learners from using the technology daily. The report also indicated the financial commitment towards the project. The expenditure for 2008/2009 was R93 million and a further R98 million was budgeted for 2009/2010 by the Western Cape Province (Khanya, 2011). The required infrastructure was being prepared at a further 150 schools. The Khanya project won a few awards for its successful achievement (Khanya, 2011). The awards include among others the Silver Award at the Western Cape Premier Services Excellence Awards in 2005 and 2006, the Technology Top 100 (TT100) Leader in Empowerment Award in 2006 and a Gold Award from the Impumelelo Innovation Award Trust in 2007. As indicated above, the project ended in 2012 as planned and achieved almost all its objectives. Despite winning the mentioned awards, schools in disadvantaged communities had encountered challenges and had thus made limited use of ICT in their teaching (Chigona et al., 2010) Despite the above-mentioned infrastructure initiatives, there is a dearth of studies on the role played by infrastructure in the use of educational technology in mathematics in Limpopo province schools. Furthermore, most of the literature is limited to reports of how technological tools were distributed in the different schooling communities (Beyers & Hlala, 2015; Mathevula & Uwizeyimana, 2014). The next section provides a detailed explanation of professional development category initiatives. 2.2.2 Teacher Professional Development and Training Teacher professional development and training are extremely important to the success of educational technology within teaching and learning. Teachers’ ability to use the technology affect their willingness to integrate them in their classroom. If teachers do not have the knowledge and skills to use the technology in teaching and learning, the likelihood is that they will not use them. However, some teachers, even though they have undergone ICT professional development, still do not use ICT in teaching and learning. Mouza (2011) attributed this to the shortage of high–quality professional development programmes, while Nkula and Krauss (2014) indicated that teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning contribute to their use or non-use of educational technology in teaching and learning. 23 One of the priority goals for the DBE is to improve the professionalism, teaching skills, subject knowledge, and computer literacy of teachers throughout South Africa (DBE, 2011b). However, teachers do not have time for professional development to ensure the achievement of this priority goal. This is because professional development programmes take place after normal working hours. Teachers have commitments and usually do not attend these programmes. To meet these in-service training challenges, government envisages much greater use of distance education, particularly e-education (DBE, 2011b). In addition, the DBE wanted to create an enabling environment for the formation of local learning communities of practice as part of in-service programmes. According to the DBE (2011b), in many countries more than 30 percent of teachers make use of communities of practices and these have positive effects on teaching and learning. In addition to the challenges of professional development that South Africa is facing, there is also a dearth of information on the implementation of the e–education policy. Thus, teachers’ professional development and training on ICT integration cannot be neglected. To this effect, a Guideline for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT (GTTPD–ICT) was published (DoE, 2007). It is important that professional development should consider teachers’ knowledge of their subject matter, teachers’ ability to select appropriate educational technology, and knowledge about how learners learn (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Higher education institutions are part of government’s initiative to provide professional development for both pre-service and in-service teachers. The programmes differ according to institutions, especially undergraduate programmes. For example, some universities are making use of the Intel® Teach programme to support their pre-service offering, even though the course was designed for in- service teachers (Butcher, 2008; Isaacs, 2007). Isaacs (2007) further indicated that Intel® Teach is one of the official professional development programmes of the South African Council for Educators (SACE). Intel® Teach is in partnership with Schoolnet South Africa (SNSA) and will therefore be discussed under SNSA initiatives that follow in the next section. Most universities offer postgraduate degrees in educational technology in teaching and learning up to doctoral level. 24 SNSA SNSA is a non-profit section (21) company which has a record of accomplishment in developing and administering teachers’ professional development programmes on the use of ICT in teaching (SNSA, 2015). Its vision is to promote a community of teachers and learners through the effective use of technology (SNSA, 2015). SNSA (2015) indicated that its vision will be realised by: - Promoting good quality teaching and learning through the effective use of technology that considers the needs of learners and teachers; - Harnessing the power of technologies to support and enhance the acquisition of knowledge and skills in children, youths, and young adults. To realise its vision SNSA seeks partnership collaborations with the public and private sectors as well as non-profit organisations (SNSA, 2015). This was done to reduce duplication, promote efficiency and share lessons learnt in working with governments, schools, teachers, and learners. SNSA is not involved in technological solution or software platforms; their professional development is tailored according to their clients’ available resources. According to SNSA (2015) professional development comprises of numerous activities like attending meetings and conferences and being exposed to new ideas, but they exclude improving an individual’s qualifications. SNSA believes that professional development should engage teachers and school administrators as learners themselves and support them along the way to improve teaching and learning quality. SNSA is offering free professional development to teachers. This is done through webinars on many interesting topics for teachers. Below follows a brief discussion on each of the partners that collaborate with SNSA. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) – ICT for Rural Education Development (ICT4RED) This project was initiated by the Department of Science and Technology in collaboration with the DBE, the Eastern Cape Department of Education and the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform. The project involved only 26 schools out of 7406 schools in the Eastern Cape province (Herselman & Botha, 2014). The project’s aim was to improve rural education via technology-led 25 innovation in the district of Cofimvaba (Herselman & Botha, 2014). SNSA was responsible for managing the professional development of teachers. This included the development of learning materials and the preparation and monitoring of facilitators (SNSA, 2015). The technologies were provided by the CSIR. The technologies comprised a teacher’s Android tablet, a school server housing volume of Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) related content, a projector, and mobikits and tablets for all learners in each school in the district (Herselman & Botha, 2014). However, SNSA’s partnership with the project ended in 2014 when the project came to an end. SNSA trained 160 educators who were awarded their certificates at a graduation ceremony (SNSA, 2015). Although the project was a success, concerns were raised about the sustainability of the project. The concerns included, among others, provincial commitment to maintaining the tablets, failure to allocate budgets for upgrading of the technology and the context of poverty where parents do not always have the means to buy new tablets for their children (Herselman & Botha, 2014). Vodacom Foundation’s ICT Resource Centres and Vodacom Business The aim of this project was to improve the quality of instruction in all subjects, with the emphasis on mathematics, mathematics literacy and physical science in grades 10 to 12. Vodacom Foundation provided laptops to schools in the form of donations. Encarta, Microsoft Office, and software for all the school subjects for the South African curriculum were installed on the laptops. The project also established ICT resource centres. These centres were used to train staff members appointed to manage them and teachers and principals of the schools that received the laptops. SNSA was involved to assist in capacity building in the use of laptops for teaching. SNSA was responsible for developing workshops for centre managers, principals, teachers, and trainers in all nine centres in South Africa, with each province having one ICT resource centre. The centre manager was responsible for developing courses for the local community as well as running workshops for teachers in their respective provinces. However, SNSA conducted training for one year only. Training is now provided by the centre managers and provincial trainers in their respective provinces. The centres have also increased from 9 to 92. No study has been conducted to establish whether the project was a success or not. 26 Intel® Teach SNSA was the regional training agency for all Intel® Teach program. The program trained teachers in how to incorporate technology effectively in the classroom. The aim of the program was thus to develop teachers to integrate technology into their classrooms. The assumption was that technology integration would promote problem solving, critical thinking and collaboration skills among the learners (SNSA, 2015). The Intel® Teach curriculum has been adapted by SNSA for local interpretations. Teacher training was funded by individual schools or the various provincial departments of education. The main challenge experienced by SNSA in training teachers was the DBE’s inability to confirm training dates. SNSA then conducted classroom visits to provide teachers with practical tips for using educational technologies in classroom activities (SNSA,2015). About 400 educators benefited from this program (SNSA,2015). However, to date there is no study conducted to establish whether the Intel® Teach program was successful or not. Microsoft Partners in Learning This project involved teacher development and support programmes. It offered training programmes that included basic ICT skills and ICT integration, peer coaching for teachers, and ICT leadership for education managers. SNSA was responsible for quality assuring courseware as well as managing of the Partnerships in Learning (PIL) teachers’ forum and PIL network. Microsoft was experimenting with the use of White Space for connectivity in schools in Limpopo province. Training workshops were conducted using Microsoft tablets and a sustained professional development programme for teachers. However, this initiative was implemented in one district only in Limpopo province. DG Murray Trust – Learning Gains from Play This project started in 2014. Ten schools in two provinces were encouraged to use Android tablets and Xbox Kinect technology. Learning gains were evaluated following a developmental approach where the project was tracked and documented. The evaluators worked closely with the project team to interpret data as the project progressed. The targeted literacies were visual, oral (English acquisition), and fine 27 and gross motor coordination. Lessons learnt from this project in its second year of implementation included the following: - There was a close correlation between frequency of use and improved learner performance. - More learning gains were recorded in schools where teachers support each other and are also supported by management teams, and where 100% attendance was recorded at both cluster and school–based workshops. - The rigid structure of the curriculum puts pressure on teachers because teachers must cover the curriculum within a specified time and there is thus little time for play. This initiative has the potential to benefit many rural schools in Limpopo province based on the lessons learnt. The next section gives a detailed description of the last category which is provision of content. 2.2.3 Digital Content Initiatives Isaacs (2007) indicated that there were a limited number of local projects focusing on digital content development. She further indicated that the model of digital content development was often from an imported curriculum which had been localised and adapted for the South African context. However, there is the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) learning channel which focuses on the South African secondary schools’ curriculum using, satellite broadcasting. The DBE in collaboration with provincial departments of education and other stakeholders has also developed a National Education Portal called “Thutong”. The aim of the DBE in developing the portal was to provide access to a wide range of curriculum and support materials that are contextually relevant to South African learners, teachers, and education. All SNSA partner projects that have been discussed have their own digital content. Book publishers are also developing digital content that is relevant to the South African context. Most of the infrastructure and teacher development initiatives discussed above were limited to one or two provinces. It is only the Resource centres and Vodacom Business and Intel® Teach programs that were implemented in all the provinces. 28 Although digital content can be accessed by most schools in South Africa, there is a dearth of research on how rural schools use this content in their classrooms. 2.3 Chapter Summary In this chapter I have discussed initiatives that have been put into place to support South Africa in its endeavour to integrate ICT in teaching and learning. The initiatives were categorised into three categories: initiatives that provide infrastructure; those that provide professional development for teachers; and those that provide content development. However, these initiatives are not spread evenly among the provinces. Provinces like Gauteng and the Western Cape enjoy an oversaturation of these initiatives, whereas provinces like Limpopo and Mpumalanga are struggling to attract them. Unfortunately, little is being done by either the provincial or national departments of basic education to remedy the situation. The next chapter gives a review of the literature to this study. 29 Chapter 3 Literature review 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, a review of the relevant literature is presented and discussed. This is done to identify the gaps in the literature and to address the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical practices, their competence in mathematics and their use of technologies in mathematics, and the factors that contribute to learners’ use of educational technologies in mathematics learning. This review is informed by the two main research questions of the study which were: - How do teachers’ pedagogical practices and competence in mathematics influence their use of educational technology in mathematics teaching and learning? - What factors influence learners’ use of educational technologies in mathematics learning? Developing appropriate mathematics teaching strategies remains a daunting task for South African public schools. This is seen in the low number of learners who are leaving our schools with a pass in mathematics. This in turn has an impact on the number of future mathematics teachers that our country will have. Thus, any strategy to deal with this problem should broaden participation and ensure measurable quality outcomes in mathematics. Educational technologies can offer learners opportunities to engage constructively and critically with mathematical ideas (Goos, Galbraith, Renshaw & Geiger, 2003). However, equipping our schools with technological tools does not guarantee full exploitation of these opportunities. Different factors contribute to the ability to exploit these opportunities. Teachers’ competence in the use of educational technologies in mathematics is important for an understanding of their approach to teaching with such technologies. Understanding the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical practices, competence in mathematics and their use of technology in teaching and learning can contribute towards fully exploiting these opportunities. In addition, 30 understanding how teachers’ use of technological tools in their classrooms affect learners’ use of educational technologies in mathematics can also contribute to learners fully exploiting these opportunities. The review is organised into eight main sections. Section 3.1 is the introduction of the chapter. Section 3.2 gives a detailed discussion of ICT adoption in schools. Section 3.3 focuses on competence as a concept. Section 3.4 gives details of use of technology by teachers and learners. Section 3.5 discusses the benefits of using technology in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Section 3.6 deals with factors which influence learners’ use of technology in learning mathematics. Section 3.7 gives a detailed discussion of attitudes of teachers and learners towards the use of technology in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Section 3.8 provides a summary of the chapter. 3.2 Information Communication Technologies (ICT) Adoption in Schools Studies have been conducted to establish the potential of educational technologies for teachers who choose to adopt these tools in their classroom practices (Dwyer, 1994; Shambare & Shambare, 2016; Stols, 2007; Tunk & Welle, 2009; Wong, Teo & Russo, 2013). In these studies, different models were used to investigate the extent to which ICT was adopted in the classroom. This has paved the way for countries to invest in educational technology tools with the hope that these tools will help to improve classroom practices. In the South African context, the e-education policy and the GTTPD–ICT guide and direct schooling systems on how educational technologies should be used to improve classroom practice. Despite these efforts by different countries, studies have shown that teachers’ adoption of educational technologies is very slow or has not yet started (Belland, 2009; Ertmer, 2005; Hennessy, Harrison & Wamakote, 2010; Hew & Brush, 2007). That is, ICT resources are used mostly for low level activities like drill and practice, and tutorials (Cuban, 2001). Other studies have found that teachers’ adoption of educational technologies takes time and develop through different stages (Dwyer, Ringstaff & Sandholtz, 1991), moving from a lower level to a higher level. Thus, the extent to which educational technologies are used depend on teachers’ adoption level. Most of the above-mentioned studies used technology adoption models. These models place ICT in a conceptual framework that helps to explain where ICT fits into 31 the educational context. The models include the concerns-based adoption model (CBAM), the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the universal technology adoption and use theory (UTAUT). TAM and UTAUT originated from a computer science context but were later applied to an educational context. A discussion of each of the models follows below. The discussion helped to shed light on the causes, levels and/or lack of technology adoption by the teachers. 3.2.1 The Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) The CBAM shows how an individual’s concerns influence their integration of innovation (Straub, 2009). The CBAM was developed by (Hall, 1976, as cited in Straub, 2009) and was based on Fuller’s work on teacher change and the classification of teachers’ concerns from a developmental perspective (Fuller, 1969; Hall, 1976, as cited in Straub, 2009). CBAM was developed to address teachers’ needs when going through change so that change would be more easily facilitated (Hall, 1976, as cited in Straub, 2009). CBAM was developed based on the following six assumptions: - Change is a process, not an event; - Change is accomplished by individuals; - Change is a highly personal experience; - Change involves developmental growth; - Change is best understood in operational terms and - The focus of facilitation should be on individuals, innovations, and context. These assumptions form the basis of the two components of the CBAM, namely: stages of concern (SoC) and level of use (LoU). These components are discussed below. Stages of Concern (SoC) The SoCs describe the concerns teachers have as they progress through the adoption process. In the early stages, concerns revolve around teachers’ personal issues. As those concerns are met, they are replaced by concerns about their learners and implementation. Each stage represents a possible necessary developmental progression. Teachers will also show concerns about all stages at any given point during the process. Lastly, progression is not hierarchical, as when 32 teachers move out of one stage, they may still have concerns consistent with previous stages. Table 3.1 shows the SoC. Table 3.1 Stages and descriptions of SoC Stage Name Description of concerns 0 Awareness Teachers have awareness of or concerns about a specific innovation. The innovation is seen not to affect them at this stage. 1 Informational Teachers have a general or vague awareness of an innovation. Teachers may begin seeking additional knowledge about the innovation. 2 Personal Teachers’ concerns are about the personal costs of implementing an innovation–how a specific innovation will change the demands of or conflict with existing understanding of what they currently do. 3 Management Teachers’ concerns will focus around how to integrate the logistics of an individual innovation into their daily jobs. 4 Consequence Teachers’ concerns are primarily on the impact of the innovation on their learners. 5 Collaboration Teachers begin to have concerns about how they compare to their peers and how they can work with their fellow teachers on an innovation. 6 Refocusing Teachers’ concerns are about how to better implement an innovation. Source: Straub, 2009, p. 635 Level of Use (LoU) The LoU provides a framework for understanding how teachers behave when implementing an innovation. It breaks down the actions of teachers into categories, indicating how a teacher acts within these categories, starting from the lowest behavioural implementation that shows teachers not using the innovation, to the 33 highest which indicates teachers transforming and extending the innovation. Table 3.2 shows LoU. Table 3.2 Stages and description of LoU Level Name Description of use 0 Non-use A teacher does not use or has no intention of using an innovation. 1 Orientation A teacher is seeking additional information about an innovation but has not determined whether they will implement it. 2 Preparation A teacher gets ready to include an innovation (but has not yet implemented it). 3 Mechanical A teacher begins implementation but generally struggles with the logistics of the innovation. 4A Routine A teacher successfully integrates the innovation. 4B Refinement A teacher changes the innovation to suit their needs. 5 Integration A teacher goes beyond their own classroom to share their implementation of an innovation with peers. 6 Renewal A teacher extends an innovation, transforming the innovation. Source: Straub, 2009, p. 636 In the literature that uses CBAM as a theoretical framework, the SoC is mostly used to examine teachers’ choices associated with pedagogical adoption of technologies (Straub, 2009). Teachers’ educational technology usage patterns assist to explain their level of use. However, the levels of use do not consider the schools’ contextual factors and the role played by different subjects when educational technology are used in the classroom. Thus, it becomes difficult to understand teachers’ competences in the use of technology in the classroom. 34 3.2.2 The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) TAM was adapted from the theory of reasoned action (TRA) proposed by (Fishbein and Azjen 1975, as cited in Davis, 1993). Davis (1993) showed how an individual’s perceptions of a technology innovation affected the eventual use of that technology. Davis (1993) identified two perceived characteristics of a technology that predicted its usage. The characteristics were firstly, the perceived ease of use, explained as the degree to which an individual believed that using a specific technological tool would be of minimal effort; and secondly, perceived usefulness, explained as the degree to which an individual believed that using a specific technology would enhance their job performance. Perceived usefulness has been found to be a consistent influence on future individual use of technology (Akinde & Adetimirin, 2017; Hart & Laher, 2015; Straub, 2009). It was also found that perceived usefulness may be linked to how innovative an individual may be (Venkatraman, 1991, as cited in Straub, 2009). Despite TAM being used in many educational settings to explain the acceptance of technology (Akinde & Adetimirin, 2017; Pan, Gunter, Sivo & Cornell, 2005; Hart & Laher, 2015; Stols, 2007), it does not address the pedagogy involved in the use of ICT in the classroom. In disregarding the pedagogy, it falls short of explaining teachers’ professional practices. 3.2.3 Universal Technology Adoption and Use (UTAUT) UTAUT came about