RADIO THEATRE: THE MORAL PLAY AND ITS MEDIATION OF SOCIO-CULTURAL REALITIES IN KENYA Dina Adhiambo Ligaga A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2008. ii Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted for any other degree or examination in any other university. ___________________________________ Dina Adhiambo Ligaga _______ February, 2008. iii ABSTRACT This study examines the social and political relevance of the genre of radio drama. The study focuses on the production of the programme Radio Theatre that features one-act plays, which air every week for the state broadcaster, Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC). The study engages with the tension created by the programme?s production in a state broadcaster, and the fact that Radio Theatre plays draw their themes from everyday life. This tension has enabled us to question the validity of cultural productions such as Radio Theatre, which, although informed by ?official? discourse, can be read in the realm of popular cultural productions. Using the theory of the moral story, the study has attempted to look at the various ways in which Radio Theatre addresses its perceived audiences. The first chapter engages with the theoretical framework and literature review concerned with radio drama, broadcasting and the context of Radio Theatre?s production. The second chapter explores the history of radio drama?s production in Kenya in more detail. As such, it engages with the politics that informed radio broadcasting in Kenya, from the colonial era up to the postcolonial period. The third chapter looks at how Radio Theatre plays have been used to promote the state?s agenda of national unity in Kenya. Looking at a play that uses marriage as its dominant narrative, the chapter explores the ways in which Radio Theatre fulfils its role as an educational drama. However, a detailed reading of the play in question reveals several gaps that offer spaces for counter-reading for the imagined audiences. The fourth chapter is an exploration of Radio Theatre?s engagement with sexual morality. The chapter draws from the Kenyan social context, which defines sexual morality using traditional and Christian structures. As such, the chapter engages with the melodramatic presentations of four plays which deal with issues of marriage and infidelity. The last chapter looks at Radio Theatre?s exploration of developmental themes, a fact that points towards collaborations that KBC has made with NGO organizations interested in similar agendas. The chapter analyzes five plays that look into themes of HIV/AIDS, forced marriages and infertility. Arguing that such plays seek to encourage self-development, the chapter looks at theories that have been used to analyze the developmental values of soap operas in developing countries. The concluding iv chapter offers a summary of the study, and possible ways in which a study such as this could be expanded. v DEDICATION To my family members who were not able to see me reach the finish line: My grandparents, Dina and Simeon Ligaga, Ruth Adega, my uncle Shadrack Odhiambo and my stepmother, Carolyn Anyango Ligaga. To the memory of my father, Emmanuel Ligaga, who will always be part of my successes. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Wits has been a journey for me, one that involved many people, some who inspired me, and others who pushed my boundaries in more ways than one, and forced me to recognize my potential. To my supervisor, Prof. Isabel Hofmeyr, who never once discouraged my ambitious adventure into the world of broadcasting, and who made me realize I had so much more to offer the academic world. To Prof. James Ogude, a constant inspiration throughout my stay at Wits; who made me realize the value of hard work, and who taught me how to be a good researcher. For all your support, ero kamano! To Prof. Bheki Peterson, for always reminding me not to lose direction. To Daktari Dan Ojwang, who is a very wise man. You inspire me in many ways. Thank you for allowing me to pick your brain and for always giving a different perspective to ideas I thought could never mutate. I would also like to extend my gratitude to a number of people who helped me with my research in many ways. Prof. Liz Gunner encouraged my interest in radio right from the beginning. Prof. Tawana Kupe?s support of my work has also been invaluable. Dr. Dumisani Moyo, and Prof. Nixon Kareithi, thank you for indulging my interest in media studies. To Dr. Joyce Nyairo, who was always generous with ideas and who made my journey to South Africa possible. Thank you also to Mrs. Merle Gorvind, for helping me to discover the power of calmness amidst the chaos of Wits. To Nzau Kalulu, former producer of Radio Theatre, who allowed me several interviews that provided me with invaluable information, and who always made himself available whenever I needed clarification about issues around KBC?s history. To Dr. Robert Muponde, whose advice I always take seriously. And Dr. Meg Samuelson, whose belief in me overwhelms me sometimes. Thank you for giving me a chance. A number of people helped with the editing of this work, at various stages, including providing me with translations. Thanks to Dr.Maina wa Mutonya, a great friend, who is always ready to help. Thank you for helping me to make sense of Mzee Gikonyo. To Jacinta Ndambuki, who helped me understand the under-currents of the Akamba culture, and who also gave me useful translations. I would like to also thank Dr. Margot von Beck who proofread the thesis with care and precision. To CJ Odhiambo, who helped me understand the difference between tero buru and tero and who introduced me to TFD and Zakes Mda?s work. To Jacob Akech, without whom I would have been lost. He provided me with useful insights into Kenyan historiography, and alerted me to the intricacies of both the Moi and Kenyatta regime, which helped me understand the politics of broadcasting better. Thanks to Flo Sipalla and Grace Musila, in their capacities, not as my friends, but my ?editors?, who helped me straighten out difficult ideas. And to Frederick Ogenga, who helped me understand the concept of developmental soap operas. And to the ?Naija? crowd, Senayon, Jendele, Ezeliora and Agatha, for moral support. Thank you all. vii To my friendships, long, winded, exciting; a constant inspiration through the hard times and the good ones. To my girlfriends: Grace, thanks for sticking with me throughout, in spite. Flo, thank you for always letting me know I could count on you. Esther Ndosi, you are a rock! Dorcas Wangare, thanks for the laughter you brought into my life. Sharlene Khan, you are a breath of fresh air. Thank you for always being the sensible one. Mary Odongo, you are a calm reminder that the world is still full of beautiful people. And to Jen Musangi, your present journey will end beautifully. To the rest of my girls, for unwavering support: Evelyn Ochwal, Phyllis Nyambura, Evelyn Isigi, Gathoni Njenga, and Bessie V. Atieno. To my jamaa buddies: Engineer Tony Chitavi (AMC), JP Misago (Jeips), who taught me so much about patience, Jacob Akech, Kennedy Aduda, the new addition to ?The Family?, Dr. Collins Miruka, who inspires me still and Dr. Geodffrey Chesang. Ray Amimo, Koko Eno Bassey, Gee Were, Fred Mbogo, Chris Ouma, Terah Ambala, Thomas Kimaru, Edmond Wakachunga, Joseck W, Mutahi Waruhiu?what can I say guys? You are the best. To my former lecturers at Moi University who kept in touch and helped me think through many hazy ideas, Prof. Peter Amuka, Prof. C.J Odhiambo, T. Michael Mboya, Prof. Tirop Simatei, Tobias Otieno, Basil Okong?o and Solomon Waliaula. When I first arrived at Wits, I received invaluable help from a number of people without whom I would have been totally lost. I would like to acknowledge their contribution to what I have become today. Dr. Godwin Siundu, Dr. Tom Odhiambo, Dr. Colomba Muriungi, Dr. Agnes Odhiambo and Dr. George Ogola, thank you. Last, but not least, I would like to thank my mother, Alice, who generously supported me throughout my many school years, my brother William, sisters Margaret, Petty and Olga, my cousins Oscar, Sam and Goro and my dear nieces, Chris, Em and Linda. To my father, Emmanuel Ligaga, who unfortunately was unable to see the product of his efforts. This project would not have taken off without the financial assistance I received from Wits University. The Andrew Mellon Mentoring Scholarship facilitated my research both in South Africa and in Kenya. The Postgraduate Merit Award, Harold and Doris Tothill Prestigious Scholarship and University Council Scholarship Fund enabled me to take care of my student expenses. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration Abstract Dedication Acknowledgements Chapter 1 ?Bringing Radio Drama Home?: An Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Locating the gaps in radio drama studies in Africa 6 1.3 ?Paramoia?: the politics of censorship in Kenya, and the production of Radio Theatre 10 1.3.1 Background 10 1.3.2 Theatre: an obvious trouble spot 13 1.3.3 KBC, censorship and Radio Theatre 15 1.4 Radio Theatre: The one-act play 19 1.4.1 The selection of plays 21 1.4.2 The plots of Radio Theatre plays 23 1.5 Theoretical constructs 26 1.5.1 The theory of the moral story 26 1.5.2 The Imagined audiences of Radio Theatre 34 1.5.3 Theorizing sound and mediating meaning in radio drama 39 1.6 Methodology 43 1.7 Chapter breakdown 47 ix Chapter 2 The State, Broadcasting and the Cultural Policy in Kenya 2.1 Introduction 50 2.2 The State, VOK and KBC: The development of broadcasting policies in Kenya 51 2.3 Censorship, self-censorship and the rule of fear in Kenya 58 2.4 The Media environment in Kenya: The Moi Years 64 2.5 A Product of censorship? 71 2.5.1 The production of Radio Theatre 76 2.5.2 The Radio Theatre audience 77 2.6 Conclusion 81 Chapter 3 ?Teaching in a Clever Way?: The Moral Play and the Educational Function of Radio Theatre 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 Education and broadcasting in Kenya 84 3.3 Jamhuri Day Special and the re-writing of Kenyan history 92 3.4 The presentation of Jamhuri Day Special as a moral play 94 3.5 Applying the moral lessons: The educative narrative of national unity 102 3.6 Ambiguous lessons, alternative readings: recognizing the narrative of Independence struggle 108 3.7 Conclusion 114 x Chapter 4 Radio Theatre, KBC and the Representation of Sexual Morality in Romantic and Marital Plays 4.1 Introduction 116 4.2 Sexual moral economies in Kenya and the framing of a moral ideology in KBC 117 4.3 Exploring the successful romantic narrative 122 4.3.1 The social realities that define 3 Times a Lady as a romantic narrative 129 4.4 The narratives of failed romances and marriages 136 4.4.1 Whatever it Takes 136 4.4.1.1 The social realities of Whatever it Takes 140 4.4.2 Nothing at Last and In the Name of the Holy Spirit 143 4.4.2.1 Economic and social realities that define Nothing at Last and In the Name of the Holy Spirit beyond the moral structure 150 4.5 Conclusion 152 Chapter 5 HIV/AIDS, Infertility and Forced Marriage: Narrativizing Development in Radio Theatre 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Community radio and Theatre for Development (TfD): contextualizing radio drama for development 155 5.2.1 Entertainment-Education (E-E) and the educational value of soap operas 159 xi 5.3 Immoral Network, Bottoms Up and the representation of HIV/AIDS in radio drama 162 5.3.1 Immoral Network 162 5.3.2 Bottoms Up 176 5.4 Curse or a cure? Infertility and My Aunty Weds 183 5.4.1 Infertility 183 5.4.2 My Aunty Weds 189 5.5 The practice of forced marriage in Not Now. 194 5.6 Conclusion 202 Chapter 6 Conclusion 204 Bibliography 212 Appendix I