South African Archaeological Bulletin 78 (219): 113–118, 2023 113 Field and Technical Report THE FAUNA FROM RESCUE EXCAVATIONS AT THE LATE IRON AGE SITE OF HOEKFONTEIN IN THE NORTH WEST PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA SHAW BADENHORST*1 & UDO KÜSEL2 1Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Ave, Braamfontein, Johannesburg, 2000 South Africa (*Corresponding author. Email: shaw.badenhorst@wits.ac.za) 2African Heritage Consultants, P.O. Box 652, Magalieskruin, 0150 South Africa (Received June 2023. Revised September 2023) ABSTRACT Hoekfontein is a Late Iron Age settlement in the Central Bankenveld of South Africa. Rescue excavations were undertaken at the site in 2002. The fauna indicates that livestock and wild animals are present in the sample. Cattle is the dominant taxon. This is also the case at other Late Iron Age settlements in the region, including mega-sites. The presence of expedient bone tools and worked freshwater mussel is similar to those found at other Late Iron Age sites. Keywords: Batswana, cattle, caprines, Central Bankenveld, expedient bone tools. INTRODUCTION During the construction of a trench for a water pipeline and an adjacent 10 m-wide road on the farm Hoekfontein 432 JQ at the north-western part of the Swartkoppies Mountain near the town of Makau in the Brits District of North West Province, archaeological deposits were uncovered. This led to a rescue excavation of the deposits in 2002 (Küsel 2002), with human remains (Nienaber & Steyn 2005) and fauna recovered. We report the fauna in this article. Hoekfontein (24°44.12’S, 28° 12.10’E) consists of scalloped stone walls and stone-walled enclosures, with visible hut rubble, hut and living floors, broken grinding stones, iron slag and fragments of ceramics (Küsel 2002). Hoekfontein was occupied during the Late Iron Age. Radiocarbon dates from the human remains indicate two groups of dates: 40 ± 50 BP (Pta-8870), 40 ± 45 BP (Pta-8866) and 390 ± 50 BP (Pta-8864), with the rest of the dates falling between these. This may suggest two or more different occupa- tions, or continuous occupation (Nienaber & Steyn 2005). However, the more recent dates are beyond the lower limit for radiocarbon, and they are probably invalid. Prior to the rescue excavations, Van Schalkwyk et al. (2000) investigated archaeological sites at a nearby locality (25°35’S, 27°56’E). This study revealed Middle Stone Age lithic scatters over a large portion of the area, several Iron Age sites and rock art. Excavations were conducted on top of the nearby Swartkoppies Mountain range. Here, a Late Iron Age settle- ment was dated to between 290 ± 45 (Pta-7823) and 350 ± 60 BP (Pta-7824, Pta-7803). Fauna from these excavations yielded evidence of cattle, sheep/goat, kudu, rock hyrax, rodent, dog, bird and freshwater mussels (Van Schalkwyk et al. 2000). The relationship between the deposits excavated by Van Schalkwyk et al. (2000) and those discussed below is unclear, since a detailed survey of the area was never done (Küsel 2002). Hoekfontein is located in the Central Bankenveld, which stretches from Rustenburg in the west to Onderstepoort in the east. The stone-walled settlements in the Central Bankenveld represent the rise of Batswana chiefdoms during the Late Iron Age such as those of the Fokeng, the Kgatla, the Kwena of Mogôpa and the Pô (Pistorius 1996). These settlements have been referred to as the Mabjanamatshwana complex (Pistorius 1995a,b), first recognised by Mason (1968; 1986). The Central Bankenveld and adjacent areas host several Late Iron Age mega-sites, notably Olifantspoort (Mason 1974), Molokwane, Bôitsêmagano, Mabjanamatshwana (Pistorius 1994), Marothodi (Anderson 2009) and Kaditshwene (Boeyens 2000), which housed thousands of residents (Pistorius 1992). Several other settlements are also found in the Central Bankenveld areas during the Late Iron Age (Fig. 1), such as Mmatshetshele (Pistorius 2001), Kamakwe, Sun City (Mason et al. 1983), and the sites in the Pilanesberg Nature Reserve (L’Abbé et al. 2008). After various episodes of unrest, Mzilikazi, the former lieuten- ant of King Shaka of the Zulus, invaded the region by AD 1827 (Smit 1960; Horn 1996) bringing an end to the mega-settle- ments in the Central Bankenveld. The Bamakau, belonging to the Bahurutshe-Bakwena who gave rise to the Bakwena, Bahurutse and possibly the Bakgatla chiefdoms, still live in the area today (Pistorius 1992), although their exact affinity to the site of Hoekfontein has not been determined (Van Schalkwyk et al. 2000). MATERIAL AND METHODS The foothill on which Hoekfontein is located, is about three kilometres in length and two kilometres wide. The faunal remains were retrieved from a portion of the site containing hut floors overlying ashy deposits. Here, a 1 × 2 m block was excavated to a depth of 1.5 m (Fig. 2). The ash midden itself is about 6 m in length. The midden was excavated using 10 cm arbitrary layers. The deposits were sieved using a 1 mm mesh. The fauna was identified using the animal skeletal collection housed at the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History in Pretoria. The indeterminate bovid size classes follow Brain (1974). The age classes used for cattle and sheep/goat are those suggested by Voigt (1983: 47–48, 53). Measurements follow Von den Driesch (1976) and Peters (1986). All visible taphonomy was recorded (Lyman 1994; Fernández-Jalvo & Andrews 2016). The fauna was quantified using number of identified speci- mens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI), two common methods of quantification (e.g. Grayson 1984; Klein & Cruz-Uribe 1984). RESULTS The excavation yielded a total of 1107 specimens, of which 230 (21%) were identified (Table 1). The sample is small (cf. Badenhorst et al. 2022). Cattle is the most common taxon, with evidence for mongoose, indeterminate medium carni- vore, sheep, goat, scrub hare and freshwater mussel (Table 2). Most of the indeterminate Bovid III specimens are likely cattle. Similarly, the indeterminate Bovid II specimens are likely mailto:shaw.badenhorst@wits.ac.za caprines. Most layers contained both cattle and caprines. However, most of the identified (n = 176, 77%) and unidenti- fied (n = 629, 72%) specimens were retrieved from the top four layers. A total of 55 (5%) specimens was burnt (Table 3). The vast majority of specimens (n = 42, 76%) were from the top four layers. The remaining layers only yielded a few isolated burnt specimens. The various colours noted in the sample range from light brown, dark brown, black to grey-white, grey and white. Chop marks were visible on 37 (3%) specimens and cut marks on 27 (2%) specimens. Most of the butchered specimens are from the uppermost four layers (n = 49, 77%). Other modifica- tions include carnivore chew marks on 20 (2%) specimens, and rodent gnaw marks on three (<1% from layers 1 and 2) speci- mens. A total of 22 bone and shell fragments were polished or modified (Table 4). These were all recorded from the upper nine layers. Most of the modified bone remains are rib frag- ments, followed by bone flakes. These fragments were mostly polished convex at one end. 114 South African Archaeological Bulletin 78 (219): 113–118, 2023 FIG. 1. The location of Late Iron Age sites in the Central Bankenveld. TABLE 1. The Hoekfontein faunal sample. Specimens Total Identified specimens (NISP) 230 Enamel 3 Skull 55 Vertebra 34 Rib 144 Miscellaneous 435 Bone flake 188 Polished 18 Total unidentified specimens 877 Total sample 1107 Mass identified specimens (g) 4119.3 Mass unidentified specimens (g) 2660.5 Total mass (g) 6779.8 TABLE 2. Taxa present at Hoekfontein; NISP per layer. Taxa Common name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 NISP MNI Mass (g) Herpestidae mongoose 2 3 5 1 3.8 Carnivora medium 1 1 1 5.3 Bos taurus cattle 39 37 34 49 8 11 3 2 2 3 188 7 3966.6 Ovis aries sheep 1 1 2 2 20.4 Capra hircus goat 1 1 1 3.1 Ovis/Capra sheep/goat 1 4 1 4 6 5 21 – 80.7 Bovid I 1 1 2 1 12.5 Bovid II 1 1 – 2.4 Bovid III 1 1 1 1 1 5 – 22.0 Lepus saxatilis scrub hare 3 3 1 1.5 Unionidae freshwater mussel 1 1 1 1.0 Total 42 42 37 55 10 18 7 2 9 4 4 230 15 4119.3 South African Archaeological Bulletin 78 (219): 113–118, 2023 115 Both young and adult cattle and caprines are present (Table 5). Based on the postcrania of cattle, 26 (24%) fragments are from young animals (juvenile and subadults), and 81 (76%) fragments are from adult individuals. The dominance of adult cattle (and caprine) is also reflected in the teeth age classes. For the Bovid III, most skeletal parts are present (Fig. 3). The more common elements of the Bovid III class are dense elements such as teeth and metapodia. In addition, there are elements such as skulls which often fragment into numerous specimens that remain identifiable. Little is known about the size and stature of domestic animals during the Iron Age of southern Africa, with few published studies (Plug 1996). The size of the cattle from Hoekfontein overlaps with the small-statured cattle from Mutokolwe B (Table 6), a Late Iron Age settlement occupied by early Venda-speakers in the Soutpansberg region (Magoma 2014; Badenhorst & Magoma 2019). The goat from Hoekfontein falls within the variation of this taxon established for Iron Age settlements in southern Africa (Badenhorst & Plug 2003), albeit at the lower end of the scale (Table 7). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The major economic, sociopolitical and ritual importance of cattle among recent Bantu-speaking people is well estab- lished (e.g. Schapera 1953; Bruwer 1956; Krige 1957; Mönnig 1967; Van Zyl 1972; Schapera 1984), and this pattern is reflected in the faunal remains from Hoekfontein. The dominance of cattle over caprines at Hoekfontein is similar to other Late Iron Age sites in the Central Bankenveld (Table 8) and the interior of southern Africa (summaries in Plug & Badenhorst 2001; Badenhorst 2010, 2011; Fraser & Badenhorst 2014). The Cattle Index, which measures the ratio between cattle and caprines in samples, is calculated using the NISP (Badenhorst 2011). However, only the MNI were reported for Kamakwe, Sun City and Olifantspoort. Nevertheless, MNIs can provide similar results using the Cattle Index (Fraser & Badenhorst 2014). Indigenous cattle kept by the Batswana were big-horned with long limbs, yet small in stature (Curson 1936; Van Zyl 1972). Similarly, sheep and goats were hardy and smaller than modern improved breeds (Van Zyl 1972; Badenhorst & Magoma 2022). While the slaughtering of cattle was historically reserved for ceremonial occasions, caprines had no major social role and they were more readily slaughtered for meat (Van Zyl 1972). Hunted animals are present at many other Late Iron Age sites (Plug & Badenhorst 2001) including those in the Central Bankenveld and adjacent areas (Mason et al. 1983; Badenhorst & Plug 2001; Plug & Badenhorst 2006; Boeyens & Plug 2011). The small diversity of hunted animals at Hoekfontein is likely owing to the small sample size. Late Iron Age sites, including the mega-sites, have yielded evidence of a variety of wild carni- vores (Plug & Badenhorst 2006; Boeyens & Plug 2011). This is also the case at Hoekfontein where remains of mongoose were found. Today, various species of mongooses are found in the area of Hoekfontein, including the yellow (Cynictis penicillata), slender (Galerella sanguinea), white-tailed (Ichneumia albicauda), marsh (Atilax paludinosus), banded (Mungos mungo), and dwarf (Helogale parvula) mongoose (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Wild carnivores such as mongooses may have been obtained for ritual uses (Mönnig 1967; Plug 1988), pelts (Brown 1926: 51), or they could have been included in the diet (Grivetti 1981). The scrub hare from Hoekfontein would have been trapped and eaten (Van Zyl 1952; also Boeyens & Plug 2011). In historical times, hares had a special significance to the Batswana, and these animals were revered for their cleverness. Many tales are told of the hare, and the foot of a hare was often worn as a charm (Willoughby 1905). At Bôitsêmagano, a hare metatarsal was perforated on the proximal side and worn as FIG. 2. Site plan of Hoekfontein (redrawn from Nienaber & Steyn 2005: 2). The rescue excavations were conducted west of the road close to HKF/1–3 and HKF/10. TABLE 3. Taphonomy of the sample (indicating counts). Layers Burnt specimens Cut marks Chop marks Carnivore chew marks 1 12 2 7 2 2 4 7 7 3 3 12 2 7 5 4 14 10 7 5 5 1 2 3 2 6 1 1 3 2 7 3 2 1 1 8 3 – – – 9 2 – 2 – 10 3 – – – 12 – 1 – – Total 55 27 37 20 decoration (Plug & Badenhorst 2006) seemingly supporting this historical account. The freshwater mussels at Hoekfontein were likely consumed. These shells were often used for tasks such as smoothing clay objects (Voigt 1983) and other purposes. Find- ing that these shells were used as tools is common (Badenhorst & Plug 2002; Badenhorst & Plug 2004/2005; Plug & Badenhorst 2006; Boeyens & Plug 2011). The upper four layers yielded the most specimens, and the most evidence for burning and butchery. This may suggest the 116 South African Archaeological Bulletin 78 (219): 113–118, 2023 TABLE 4. Hoekfontein modified bone and shell specimens. The tools are no longer available for study, and no photographs were taken at the time. Layer Length (mm) Element Complete Description 1 46 Rib No One end polished convex 1 131 Rib No One end polished into a point 2 65 Flake No One end polished into a point 3 49 Flake No Both ends polished 3 43 Rib No One end polished 3 101 Rib No One end polished convex 4 85 Rib No One end polished convex 4 103 Rib No One end polished convex 4 82 Flake No Both ends polished convex 4 77 Cattle metacarpal shaft No One end polished convex 4 125 Cattle femur shaft No One end polished convex 4 117 Cattle metatarsal shaft No Both ends polished convex 6 80 Flake No Both ends polished convex 6 32 Rib No One end polished convex 6 53 Rib No One end polished 7 35 Rib No One end polished 7 33 Flake No One end polished convex 7 155 Rib No Both sides polished 7 23 Freshwater mussel No Surface and rim polished 8 29 Rib No One end polished 9 38 Flake No One end polished convex 9 158 Rib No Both ends, sides and surface polished FIG. 3. Hoekfontein bovid skeletal part representation (NISP). TABLE 5. Hoekfontein age classes for cattle and sheep/goat per NISP. Age class Cattle Cattle age Sheep/Goat Sheep/Goat age II 2 6–15 months – – III 3 15–18 months 2 10–16 months V – – 7 30–60 months VI 1 Older than 42 months – – VIII 17 Mature – – IX 3 Aged – – South African Archaeological Bulletin 78 (219): 113–118, 2023 117 earlier occupation was less intense in duration or represented a smaller population size, or changes over time in the use of areas at the settlement. The burnt specimens from the sample displayed a range of colour variations. These variations are related to the proximity of the heat source in relation to the bone remains, the time of exposure and the presence, absence or amount of flesh on the bone (Buikstra & Swegle 1989; Marshall 1989; Shipman 1989). The cut and chop marks were inflicted during butchery. Iron Age people kept dogs (Plug & Voigt 1985), and the carnivore gnaw marks were probably caused by these animals. The modified bone fragments from the sample are similar to those classified by Voigt (1983: 109) as informal bone tools. Such expedient tools consist of minimally modified bones which were used resulting in a polished or worn surface (Plug & Voigt 1985; Antonites et al. 2016). The tools from Hoekfontein were not subjected to use-trace analyses to determine their function(s). Their function could have varied and included tasks such as scraping and softening hides (Voigt 1983; Badenhorst 2009; Antonites et al. 2016) and working plant materials (Moifatswane 1990). Such tools are common in Late Iron Age sites (Badenhorst & Plug 2001; Badenhorst & Plug 2004/2005; Plug & Badenhorst 2006). Just as at K2 and Mapungubwe (Antonites et al. 2016), and several Late Iron Age sites (e.g. Plug & Badenhorst 2006), the expedient tools from Hoekfontein were made using mostly ribs and bone flakes. At Kaditshwene, these tools were found in the kgotla (Campbell 1815: 183; Boeyens & Plug 2011). However, considering their possible multifunctional use and that they are often found in varied contexts (Antonites et al. 2016), these informal tools cannot yet be linked to any gender-specific tasks. This study on the fauna from Hoekfontein adds to the growing research on the Batswana and their way of life in the past in the Central Bankenveld. The fauna from the Late Iron Age of Hoekfontein shows that cattle were central to the economic, social and political life of the community. REFERENCES Anderson, M.S. 2009. Marothodi: the Historical Archaeology of an African Capital. Woodford: Atikkam Media. Antonites, A.R., Bradfield, J. & Forssman, T. 2016. Technological, func- tional and contextual aspects of the K2 and Mapungubwe worked bone industries. African Archaeological Review 33(4): 437–463. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44988701 Badenhorst, S. 2009. An ethnographic and historical overview of hide processing in southern Africa. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 46: 37–43. Badenhorst, S. 2010. Descent of Iron Age farmers in southern Africa during the last 2000 years. African Archaeological Review 27(2): 87–106. Badenhorst, S. 2011. Measuring change: cattle and caprines from Iron Age farming sites in southern Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 66(194): 167–172. Badenhorst, S. & Magoma, M. 2019. The size of indigenous Venda cattle during the Late Iron Age in South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 24: 231–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019. 01.013 Badenhorst, S. & Magoma, M. 2022. Sheep (Ovis aries) of Venda speak- ers during the second millennium AD in South Africa. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 32(4): 944–950. Badenhorst, S., Mthombothi, N., Van Niekerk, K.L. & Henshilwood, C.S. 2022. An initial assessment of zooarchaeological assemblage sizes from South Africa. Revue de Paléobiologie 41(1): 1–10. Badenhorst, S. & Plug, I. 2001. The faunal remains from Mmatshet- shele, a Late Iron Age site in the Rustenburg District. South African Archaeological Bulletin 56(173–174): 55–56. Badenhorst S. & Plug, 1. 2002. Appendix: Animal remains from recent excavations at a Late Iron Age site, Simunye, Swaziland. Southern African Humanities 14: 45–50. Badenhorst, S. & Plug, I. 2003. The archaeozoology of goats, Capra hircus (Linnaeus 1758): their size variation in southern Africa during the last two millennia (Mammalia: Artiodactyla: Caprini). Annals of the Transvaal Museum 40: 91–121. Badenhorst, S. & Plug, I. 2004/2005. Boleu: faunal analysis from a 19th century site in the Groblersdal area, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Southern African Field Archaeology 13&14: 13–18. Boeyens, J.C.A. 2000. In search of Kaditshwene. South African Archaeo- logical Bulletin 55(171): 3–17. Boeyens, J.C.A. & Plug, I. 2011. ‘A chief is like an ash-heap on which is gathered all the refuse’: the faunal remains from the central court TABLE 7. Goat measurements from Hoekfontein and Iron Age sites from southern Africa (Badenhorst & Plug 2003). All measurements in mm. Element Measurement Hoekfontein Iron Age sites. ` Average measurement (range) Radius Bp 26.4 30.6 (26.0–35.3) BFp 25.3 28.9 (25.0–33.1) Dp 14.0 16.2 (13.4–18.3) TABLE 8. Cattle usage at Late Iron Age sites in the Central Bankenveld. Settlement Cattle Index Reference (Badenhorst 2011) Hoekfontein 0.89 Table 2 Mmatshetshele 0.55 Badenhorst & Plug 2001 Kamakwe 0.65 Mason et al. 1983 Sun City 0.59 Mason et al. 1983 Mabjanamathswana 0.79 Plug & Badenhorst 2006 Olifantspoort 20/71 0.74 Mason et al. 1983 Bôitsêmagano 0.75 Plug & Badenhorst 2006 Molokwane 0.80 Plug & Badenhorst 2006 Kaditshwene 0.78 Boeyens & Plug 2011 TABLE 6. Cattle postcranial measurements from Hoekfontein and Mutokolwe B (Magoma 2014). All measurements in mm. Element Measurement Hoekfontein Mutokolwe B: Average or single measurement (range) Humerus Bd 82.8 (est) 76.33 (71.41–79.48) BT 74.2 73.23 Dmd 83.4 72.83 (70.36–75.30) Radius Bp 74.8 75.28 (73.0–75.85) BFp 71.1 67.01 Dp 38.4 37.86 (36.36–39.36) Intermediate carpal GD 44.5 40.57 (38.30–42.60) GH 26.8 27.02 (26.61–27.55) Radial carpal GH 27.3; 29.4 27.36 (26.07–28.65) GD 39.0; 42.1 40.0 (36.16–42.03) BFd 22.0; 25.5 22.67 (21.10–24.23) Ulnar carpal GL 36.5 41.67 BFp 14.6 21.73 Metacarpal Bd 53.5 54.26 (51.11–62.46) Dd 29.4 30.09 (28.90–31.48) Femur DC 46.5 – Tibia Bd 69.0 60.26 Dd 45.4 44.64 Lateral malleolus GD 33.2 – Calcaneum GB 38.8; 45.7 – DS 39.2; 47.4 – Dd 45.8; 53.9 – Metatarsal Bd 50.1; 52.8 52.20 (48.61–56.08) Dd 28.4; 32.7 29.18 (26.81–30.64) http://www.jstor.org/stable/44988701 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.01.013 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.01.013 midden at Kaditshwene. Annals of the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History 1: 1–22. Brain, C.K. 1974. Some suggested procedures in the analysis of bone accumulations from southern African Quaternary sites. Annals of the Transvaal Museum 29: 1–8. Brown, J.T. 1926. Among the Bantu Nomads. London: Seeley, Service & Co. Bruwer, J. 1956. Die Bantoe van Suid-Afrika. Johannesburg: Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel. Buikstra, J.E. & Swegle, M. 1989. Bone modification due to burning: experimental evidence. In: Bonnichsen, R. & Sorg, M.H. (eds) Bone Modification: 247–258. Orono, ME: Center for the Study of the First Americans, Institute of Quaternary Studies, University of Maine. Campbell, J. 1815. Travels in South Africa. London: Black, Parry & Co. Curson, H.H. 1936. Studies in native animal husbandry. The native cattle types of Africa, with particular reference to South Africa. Jour- nal of the South African Veterinary Association 7(1): 11–19. Fernández-Jalvo, Y. & Andrews, P. 2016. Atlas of Taphonomic Identifica- tions. 1001+ Images of Fossil and Recent Mammal Bone Modification. Dordrecht: Springer. Fraser, L. & Badenhorst, S. 2014. Livestock use in the Limpopo Valley of southern Africa during the Iron Age. South African Archaeological Bulletin 69(200): 192–198. Grayson, D.K. 1984. Quantitative Zooarchaeology. Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. London: Academic Press. Grivetti, L.E. 1981. Dietary resources and social aspects for food use in a Tswana tribe. Unpublished PhD thesis. Ann Arbor: University of California, University Microfilms International. Horn, A.C. 1996. Okkupasie van die Bankeveld voor 1840 n.C.: ’n sintese. South African Journal of Ethnology 19(l): 17–27. Klein, R.G. & Cruz-Uribe, K. 1984. The Analysis of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Prehistoric Archaeology and Ecology Series. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Krige, E.J. 1957. The Social System of the Zulus. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter. Küsel, U. 2002. Oskraal water supply project. Cultural heritage resources. Archaeological investigation of Hoekfontein 432JQ. Unpublished report. Pretoria: Ditsong National Museum of Cultural History. L’Abbé, E.N., Coetzee, F.P. & Loots, M. 2008. A description of Iron Age skeletons from the Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 63(187): 28–36. Lyman, R.L. 1994. Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press. Magoma, M. 2014. The Archaeofauna of Late Iron Age sites in north- eastern South Africa and southeastern Botswana. Unpublished MA dissertation. Pretoria: University of Pretoria. Marshall, L.G. 1989. Bone modification and ‘the laws of burial’ . In: Bonnichsen, R. & Sorg, M.H. (eds) Bone Modification: 7–24. Orono, ME: Center for the Study of the First Americans, Institute of Quater- nary Studies, University of Maine. Mason, R.I. 1968. Iron Age settlement in the Transvaal and Natal revealed by aerial photography and excavation. African Studies 27(4): 1–14. Mason, R.J. 1974. Background to the Transvaal Iron Age – new discov- eries at Olifantspoort and Broederstroom. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 74: 211–216. Mason, R.J. 1986. Origins of Black People of Johannesburg and the Southern Western Central Transvaal AD 350–1880. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand. Mason, R.J., Brown, A.J.V., Fatti, L.P. & Beardall, G.M. 1983. Cluster and correspondence analysis of Iron Age faunal assemblages from south- ern, western and eastern Transvaal. South African Journal of Science 79: 189–203. Moifatswane, S. 1990. Die gebruik van marula in Noord-Transvaal deur die Sotho. Museum Memo 18(3): 31–36. Mönnig, H.O. 1967. The Pedi. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik Limited. Nienaber, W.E. & Steyn, M. 2005. The rescue excavation and analysis of human remains from Hoekfontein, North West Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 60(181): 1–9. Peters, J. 1986. Bijdrage tot de archeozoölogie van Soedan en Egypte. Unpublished PhD thesis. Gent: Rijksuniversiteit Gent. Pistorius, J.C.C. 1992. Molokwane an Iron Age Bakwena Village – Early Tswana Settlement in the Western Transvaal. Johannesburg: Perskor. Pistorius, J.C.C. 1994. Molokwane, a seventeenth century Tswana village. South African Journal of Ethnology 17(2): 38–53. Pistorius, J.C.C. 1995a. Rathateng and Mabyanamatshwaana: cradles of the Kwena and Kgatla. South African Journal of Ethnology 18(2): 49–64. Pistorius, J.C.C. 1995b. Radio-carbon dates from the Mabyanama- tshwaana complex. South African Journal of Ethnology 18(3): 123–127. Pistorius, J.C.C. 1996. Spatial expressions in the kgosing of Molokwane. South African Journal of Ethnology 19(4): 143–164. Pistorius, J.C.C. 2001. Late Iron Age sites on Mmatshetshele Mountain in the Central Bankeveld of the North West Province, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 56(173&174): 46–56. Plug, I. 1988. Hunters and herders: an archaeozoology study of some prehistoric communities in the Kruger National Park. Unpublished DPhil thesis. Pretoria: University of Pretoria. Plug, I. 1996. Domestic animals during the Early Iron Age in southern Africa. In: Pwiti, G. & Soper, R. (eds) Aspects of African Archaeology: 515–520. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Press. Plug, I. & Voigt, E.A. 1985. Archaeozoological studies of Iron Age com- munities in southern Africa. Advances in World Archaeology 4: 189–238. Plug, I. & Badenhorst, S. 2001. The Distribution of Macromammals in Southern Africa Over the Past 30 000 Years as Reflected in Animal Remains from Archaeological Sites. Transvaal Museum Monograph no. 12. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum. Plug, I. & Badenhorst, S. 2006. Notes on the fauna from three Late Iron Age mega-sites, Boitsemagano, Molokwane and Mabjanama- tshwana, North West Province, South Africa. South African Archaeolog- ical Bulletin 61(183): 57–67. Schapera, I. (ed.) 1953. The Bantu-Speaking Tribes of South Africa. An Ethnographical Survey. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Schapera, I. 1984. The Tswana. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Shipman, P. 1989. Altered bones from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania: tech- niques, problems, and implications for their recognition. In: Bonnichsen, R. & Sorg, M.H. (eds.) Bone Modification: 317–334. Orono, ME: Center for the Study of the First Americans, Institute of Quater- nary Studies, University of Maine. Skinner, J.D. & Chimimba, C.T. 2005. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smit, J.J. 1960. Silkaats, die stigter van die Matebelestam. Historia 5(4): 266–270. Van Schalkwyk, J.A., Pelser, A.J. & Teichert, F. 2000. Archaeological investigation of a Late Iron Age Tswana settlement on the farm Hoekfontein 432JQ, ODI 1 district, North West Province. Research by the National Cultural History Museum 9: 58–64. Van Zyl, H.J. 1952. ’n Volkekundige studie van die ekonomiese lewe en posisie van die Bakgatla Bagamosêtlha. Unpublished PhD thesis. Pretoria: University of Pretoria. Van Zyl, H.J. 1972. Die landbou en veeteelt by die Bakgatla van Mosêtlha. In: Eloff, J.F. & Coertze, R.D. (eds) Etnografiese Studies in Suidelike Afrika: 68–95. Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik. Voigt, E.A. 1983. Mapungubwe: an Archaeozoological Interpretation of an Iron Age Community. Transvaal Museum Monograph no. 1. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum. Von den Driesch, A. 1976. A Guide to the Measurement of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin no. 1. Harvard: Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Willoughby, W.C. 1905. Notes on the totemism of the Becwana. South African Journal of Science 3(1): 263–293. 118 South African Archaeological Bulletin 78 (219): 113–118, 2023 << /ASCII85EncodePages false /AllowTransparency false /AutoPositionEPSFiles true /AutoRotatePages /None /Binding /Left /CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20%) /CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CalCMYKProfile (U.S. Web Coated \050SWOP\051 v2) /sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-2.1) /CannotEmbedFontPolicy /Warning /CompatibilityLevel 1.4 /CompressObjects /Tags /CompressPages true /ConvertImagesToIndexed true /PassThroughJPEGImages true /CreateJobTicket false /DefaultRenderingIntent /Default /DetectBlends true /DetectCurves 0.0000 /ColorConversionStrategy /LeaveColorUnchanged /DoThumbnails false /EmbedAllFonts true /EmbedOpenType false /ParseICCProfilesInComments true /EmbedJobOptions true /DSCReportingLevel 0 /EmitDSCWarnings false /EndPage -1 /ImageMemory 1048576 /LockDistillerParams false /MaxSubsetPct 100 /Optimize true /OPM 1 /ParseDSCComments true /ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true /PreserveCopyPage true /PreserveDICMYKValues true /PreserveEPSInfo true /PreserveFlatness true /PreserveHalftoneInfo false /PreserveOPIComments false /PreserveOverprintSettings true /StartPage 1 /SubsetFonts false /TransferFunctionInfo /Apply /UCRandBGInfo /Preserve /UsePrologue false /ColorSettingsFile () /AlwaysEmbed [ true ] /NeverEmbed [ true ] /AntiAliasColorImages false /CropColorImages true /ColorImageMinResolution 300 /ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleColorImages true /ColorImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /ColorImageResolution 300 /ColorImageDepth -1 /ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 /ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 1.00000 /EncodeColorImages true /ColorImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterColorImages false /ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /ColorACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /ColorImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000ColorImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasGrayImages false /CropGrayImages true /GrayImageMinResolution 300 /GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleGrayImages true /GrayImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /GrayImageResolution 300 /GrayImageDepth -1 /GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2 /GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 1.06667 /EncodeGrayImages true /GrayImageFilter /DCTEncode /AutoFilterGrayImages false /GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy /JPEG /GrayACSImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /GrayImageDict << /QFactor 0.15 /HSamples [1 1 1 1] /VSamples [1 1 1 1] >> /JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /JPEG2000GrayImageDict << /TileWidth 256 /TileHeight 256 /Quality 30 >> /AntiAliasMonoImages false /CropMonoImages true /MonoImageMinResolution 1200 /MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy /OK /DownsampleMonoImages true /MonoImageDownsampleType /Bicubic /MonoImageResolution 1200 /MonoImageDepth -1 /MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 1.50000 /EncodeMonoImages true /MonoImageFilter /CCITTFaxEncode /MonoImageDict << /K 0 >> /AllowPSXObjects false /CheckCompliance [ /None ] /PDFX1aCheck false /PDFX3Check false /PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false /PDFXNoTrimBoxError true /PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true /PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfile () /PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier () /PDFXOutputCondition () /PDFXRegistryName () /PDFXTrapped /False /CreateJDFFile false /Description << /ARA /BGR /CHS /CHT /CZE /DAN /DEU /ESP /ETI /FRA /GRE /HEB /HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 5.0 i kasnijim verzijama.) /HUN /ITA /JPN /KOR /LTH /LVI /NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.) /NOR /POL /PTB /RUM /RUS /SKY /SLV /SUO /SVE /TUR /UKR /ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.) >> /Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (1.0) ] /OtherNamespaces [ << /AsReaderSpreads false /CropImagesToFrames true /ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue /FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false /IncludeGuidesGrids false /IncludeNonPrinting false /IncludeSlug false /Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (4.0) ] /OmitPlacedBitmaps false /OmitPlacedEPS false /OmitPlacedPDF false /SimulateOverprint /Legacy >> << /AddBleedMarks false /AddColorBars false /AddCropMarks false /AddPageInfo false /AddRegMarks false /ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK /DestinationProfileName () /DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK /Downsample16BitImages true /FlattenerPreset << /PresetSelector /MediumResolution >> /FormElements false /GenerateStructure false /IncludeBookmarks false /IncludeHyperlinks false /IncludeInteractive false /IncludeLayers false /IncludeProfiles false /MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings /Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (2.0) ] /PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK /PreserveEditing true /UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged /UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile /UseDocumentBleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [1200 1200] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice