http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access Bothalia - African Biodiversity & Conservation ISSN: (Online) 2311-9284, (Print) 0006-8241 Page 1 of 10 Original Research Read online: Scan this QR code with your smart phone or mobile device to read online. Author: Debbie Jewitt1,2 Affiliations: 1Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Biodiversity Research and Assessment, South Africa 2School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Corresponding author: Debbie Jewitt, debbie.jewitt@kznwildlife.com Dates: Received: 21 Aug. 2017 Accepted: 03 Mar. 2018 Published: 09 May 2018 How to cite this article: Jewitt, D., 2018, ‘Vegetation type conservation targets, status and level of protection in KwaZulu-Natal in 2016’, Bothalia 48(1), a2294. https://doi.org/10.4102/ abc.v48i1.2294 Copyright: © 2018. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License. Introduction Systematic conservation planning is used globally to identify priorities for biodiversity conservation and inform policy and legislation to facilitate the long-term conservation of biodiversity (Pressey et al. 2007). Conservation planning requires planning for whole landscapes, ensuring both representivity and persistence of species, habitat types, ecosystems and the processes that maintain and create diversity (Margules & Pressey 2000). A critical component of the planning process is to set quantitative targets for biodiversity features or conservation goals. Targets reflect the conservation value of existing protected areas, inform the selection of additional areas to meet conservation goals (Margules & Pressey 2000), measure the success of conservation actions (Desmet & Cowling 2004) and allow for accountability and defensibility of conservation decisions. In South Africa (SA), vegetation types are used as higher order biodiversity feature surrogates for species and ecosystems (Lombard et al. 2003). This coarse-filter approach covers the entire landscape and reduces the spatial and taxonomic bias associated with species data (Lombard et al. 2003; Margules & Pressey 2000). Whilst vegetation types have been found to be good surrogates for arthropods (Schaffers et al. 2008), they are not good surrogates for specialised habitat or range-restricted species, rare or threatened species and vertebrates (Lombard et al. 2003). Using vegetation types in conservation planning is therefore complementary to species data and may fill a gap where species data are scarce. Plant communities or vegetation types underpin trophic structure and functioning (Jewitt et al. 2015a) and sequester nutrients in most ecosystems (Giam et al. 2010). These habitats support essential ecological processes and provide ecosystem services, materials and food critical for human well-being (Giam et al. 2010). However, habitat loss and land cover change are currently the leading cause of biodiversity loss worldwide (Jetz, Wilcove & Dobson 2007; MEA 2005; Vitousek 1994). Indeed, in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), SA, 7.6% (721 733 ha) of natural habitat was Background: Systematic conservation planning aims to ensure representivity and persistence of biodiversity. Quantitative targets set to meet these aims provide a yardstick with which to measure the current conservation status of biodiversity features and measure the success of conservation actions. Objectives: The conservation targets and current ecosystem status of vegetation types and biomes occurring in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) were assessed, and their level of formal protection was determined, to inform conservation planning initiatives in the province. Method: Land cover maps of the province were used to determine the amount of natural habitat remaining in KZN. This was intersected with the vegetation map and assessed relative to their conservation targets to determine the ecosystem status of each vegetation type in KZN. The proclaimed protected areas were used to determine the level of protection of each vegetation type. Results: In 17 years (1994–2011), 19.7% of natural habitat was lost to anthropogenic conversion of the landscape. The Indian Ocean Coastal Belt and Grassland biomes had the least remaining natural habitat, the highest rates of habitat loss and the least degree of formal protection. Conclusion: These findings inform conservation priorities in the province. Vegetation type targets need to be revised to ensure long-term persistence. Business-as-usual is no longer an option if we are to meet the legislative requirements and mandates to conserve the environment for current and future generations. Vegetation type conservation targets, status and level of protection in KwaZulu-Natal in 2016 Read online: Scan this QR code with your smart phone or mobile device to read online. http://www.abcjournal.org https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0964-692X mailto:debbie.jewitt@kznwildlife.com https://doi.org/10.4102/abc.v48i1.2294 https://doi.org/10.4102/abc.v48i1.2294 http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.4102/abc.v48i1.2294=pdf&date_stamp=2018-05-09 Page 2 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access lost to anthropogenic conversion in only 6 years (Jewitt et al. 2015b). Hence, there is an urgent need to assess the impact of habitat loss on vegetation types in KZN. This article assesses the status of vegetation types and biomes in KZN based on two standardised quantitative indicators used in SA: ecosystem status (Driver et al. 2012) that compares the amount of a vegetation type remaining in a natural state to thresholds of conservation concern based on conservation targets; and levels that assess how much of each vegetation target is achieved in protected areas. Research method and design Study site KwaZulu-Natal is a province on the east coast of SA. It has high levels of biodiversity and forms part of the Maputaland– Pondoland–Albany biodiversity hot spot with several centres of endemism [Maputaland, Pondoland (Mucina et al. 2006b), Midlands and Drakensberg Alpine (Mucina et al. 2006a)]. The KZN vegetation map provides greater detail on vegetation types and is mapped at a finer scale than the national vegetation map of Mucina and Rutherford (2006) and was used in this analysis. There are 101 vegetation types and subtypes (EKZNW 2011a) in the province and five biomes are recognised [Grassland, Savanna, Indian Ocean Coastal Belt (IOCB), Forests and Wetlands (azonal)]. Their historical extents are 4 583 855 ha, 3 259 341 ha, 891 092 ha, 202 879 ha and 393 628 ha, respectively (Figures 1 and 2a). The forest coverage reflects a more current extent, as their historical extents could not be accurately mapped. Zonal and azonal groups are recognised within the forest biome and wetlands are considered azonal. The provincial biome classification includes wetlands as a biome, which differs from the Mucina and Rutherford definition of a biome (Rutherford, Mucina & Powrie 2006). Wetlands form a major part of the landscape in KZN and have distinct floristic communities and were therefore included as a biome in this analysis. Input data: Land cover Five different land cover maps were used to determine the extent of habitat conversion (non-natural categories) in KZN. The 1994 (Fairbanks et al. 2000) and 2000 (Van den Berg et al. 2008) land cover maps were national maps, whilst the 2005 (EKZNW 2011b; GTI 2008), 2008 (EKZNW 2013a; GTI 2010) and 2011 (EKZNW 2013b; EKZNW & GTI 2013) land cover maps were provincial maps developed by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife. Based on a systematic land cover change analysis for KZN (Jewitt et al. 2015b), which demonstrated the extensive categorical swopping between land cover categories, anthropogenic habitat conversion that occurred in the province was accumulated, that is, a non- natural category was not permitted to become a natural category at some future point in time. This was done specifically to identify primary natural vegetation occurring in the province rather than secondary natural vegetation, which does not harbour the same level of biodiversity as primary natural habitat (Walters, Kotze & O’Connor 2006). The land cover maps were projected, clipped to the 2008 vegetation extent to exclude the dynamic coastal rock and sand category and clipped to the 2010 provincial boundary (EKZNW 2010). Minor corrections were made to known errors in the land cover maps. To determine the amount of natural habitat remaining, two categories were created across the five land cover maps, namely natural vegetation and features (untransformed) and non-natural vegetation (transformed or anthropogenic features such as the built environment, cropped agriculture, timber plantations, dams and mines). These were intersected with the vegetation types and biomes to determine their degree of transformation or habitat loss. Input data: Conservation targets for vegetation types The conservation targets were a combination of the national targets used in the national protected area expansion strategy (Government of South Africa 2009), EKZNW vegetation targets (Jewitt 2009), forest targets (Berliner 2005) and the vegetation targets in Mucina and Rutherford (2006), using the higher target where applicable. The conservation targets for the non-forest vegetation types were determined using the species-area method developed by Desmet and Cowling (2004). The forest targets follow the method of Berliner (2005) where a baseline of 15% was adjusted upwards dependent on species diversity, rarity, patch fragmentation, historic reduction and location within regions or centres of endemism based on expert consultation. FIGURE 1: (a) The amount of natural habitat remaining per time period in the larger grassland and savanna biomes. (b) The amount of natural habitat remaining per time period in the Indian Ocean Coastal Belt (IOCB), Wetland and Forest biomes. a bWetlands IOCB Forests 5 000 4 500 4 000 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 Period A re a (h a × 10 3 ) 20001994 2005 2008 2011Original extent 1 000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Period A re a (h a × 10 3 ) 20001994 2005 2008 2011Original extent Grasslands Savanna http://www.abcjournal.org Page 3 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access FIGURE 2: (a) The biomes of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), (b) the remaining natural habitat in KZN in 2011, (c) the ecosystem status of vegetation types in 2011 and (d) the level of protection of vegetation types (January 2016) with Protected Areas shown in red. a c d b Legend Forest Grassland Indian ocean coastal belt Savanna Wetland N 0 10 20 40 60 80 Kilometers N N N 0 10 20 40 60 80 Kilometers 0 10 20 40 60 80 Kilometers 0 10 20 40 60 80 Kilometers Legend Fully protected (>= biodiversity target) Moderately protected (>= 10% - biodiversity target) Poorly protected (>= 1% – < 10%) Nominally protected (> 0% – < 1%) Not protected (0%) Protected areas Legend Cri�cally endangered remaining natural habitat <= biodiversity target Endangered remaining natural habitat <= (biodiversity target +15%) Vulnerable remaining natural habitat <= 60% of original area of ecosystem Least threatened remaining natural habitat > 60% of original area of ecosystem Legend Natural habitat remaining Transformed http://www.abcjournal.org Page 4 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access Input data: Vegetation map The provincial vegetation map of KZN was used in this analysis (EKZNW 2011a). It is mapped at a finer scale than the national vegetation map (Mucina & Rutherford 2006). The vegetation map was clipped with the provincial boundary (EKZNW 2010). Input data: Protected Areas map The provincial Protected Areas from 2015 (EKZNW 2015) and proclaimed Stewardship sites (National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act [NEM:PA] 57 of 2003) as at January 2016 (EKZNW 2016) were used to determine the level of protection for the vegetation types. The Department of Environmental Affairs maintains a register of the country’s conservation estate (the South African Protected Areas Database [SAPAD]). The Protected Areas map used here differs slightly from the SAPAD map as there is a lag period between the provincial Protected Area proclamation and updating of the Surveyor General cadastres and SAPAD at a national level. Game farms and municipal reserves were not included unless proclaimed under NEM:PA. Analysis The land cover, vegetation map, conservation targets and protected areas map were used to calculate ecosystem status and levels of protection as described in the National Biodiversity Assessment (Driver et al. 2012). The remaining natural habitat and conservation targets informed the conservation or ecosystem status of the vegetation types. Thresholds of concern are defined as follows: Critically Endangered (≤ biodiversity target), Endangered (≤ biodiversity target + 15%), Vulnerable (≤ 60%) and Least Threatened (> 60%). The threshold for Critically Endangered is based on the vegetation type conservation target described above. Below this threshold, the basic species representation target cannot be achieved. The level of protection represents the area of a vegetation type within protected areas relative to the conservation target. In SA, conservation targets are the target for the amount of each vegetation type that should be represented within public and private proclaimed protected areas. The levels of protection thresholds of concern are defined as follows: Fully Protected (≥ biodiversity target), Moderately Protected (≥ 10% biodiversity target), Poorly Protected (≥ 1% – < 10%), Nominally Protected (0% – < 1%) and Not Protected (0%). Notes on the analysis Habitat patches smaller than 4 ha were removed with the exclusion of naturally fragmented vegetation types such as forests and wetlands, as well as Drakensberg–Amathole Afromontane Fynbos, Drakensberg Afroalpine Heathland, Basotho Montane Shrubland and Lebombo Summit Sourveld. Small patches were considered unable to support the natural processes that create and maintain biodiversity, for example fire. In addition, these small patches have an increased vulnerability to stochastic events, suffer from edge effects and increased disturbances (Doherty, Kearns & Barnett 2000), limiting their long-term persistence. Results Between 1994 and 2011 (17 years), 19.7% of natural habitat was converted to non-natural land classes, representing an average annual loss of 1.2% (109 906 ha per annum) and a decline from 73.3% to 53.6% remaining natural. Of the 53.5% remaining natural in 2011 (Figure 2b), 7.35% was considered degraded (in terms of aerial cover as detected from satellite imagery). These degraded areas do not support the full complement of biodiversity features. The degree of habitat loss varied across vegetation types and biomes, as did the conservation targets that ranged between 19% and 31.3% for non-forest targets and 61.6% and 100% for forest targets. The resulting conservation status of the vegetation types are: 21 (20.8%) vegetation types are Critically Endangered, 14 (13.9%) are Endangered, 17 (16.8%) are Vulnerable and 49 (48.5%) Least Threatened (Table 1, Figure 2c). The IOCB had the least remaining natural vegetation (24.9%) as of 2011, followed by grasslands (50.3%), wetlands (58.7%), savannas (63.7%) and forests (73.9%) (Figure 1). Similarly, the average annual rates of habitat loss in the biomes between 1994 and 2011 were 2.9%, 1.7%, 1.3%, 1.3% and 0.9% in the IOCB, grasslands, wetlands, savannas and forests, respectively. At a landscape scale, 9.1% of the terrestrial landscape is protected. The degree of protection (Figure 2d) within the biomes (Table 2) varies significantly, with only 6.8% of grasslands protected, 8.2% of the IOCB protected, 9% of the savannas protected, 24.6% of wetlands protected and 40.2% of forests protected. Compared to the national listed threatened ecosystems, this analysis identifies additional vegetation types that TABLE 1: The number of KwaZulu-Natal vegetation types summarised by their conservation status per biome. Biome Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Least Threatened Forests 11 5 0 7 Wetlands 4 2 5 15 Savanna 2 1 4 12 Indian Ocean Coastal Belt (IOCB) 2 2 1 1 Grassland 2 4 7 14 Total 21 14 17 49 http://www.abcjournal.org Page 5 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access TABLE 2: The number of KwaZulu-Natal vegetation types summarised by their protection status per biome. Biome Fully Protected Moderately Protected Poorly Protected Nominally Protected Not Protected Forests 3 17 2 1 0 Wetlands 13 4 7 0 2 Savanna 4 4 3 5 3 Indian Ocean Coastal Belt (IOCB) 2 2 1 1 0 Grassland 6 1 11 3 6 Total 28 28 24 10 11 TABLE 3: KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) vegetation type conservation targets, extents, ecosystem status and level of protection based on 2011 accumulated transformation statistics and protected area (PA) proclamation as at January 2016. Code KZN vegetation-type name KZN biome Conservation target (%) Original extent (ha) Remaining natural (ha) Remaining natural less fragments (ha) Ecosystem status Total PA (ha) Level of protection 1 Drakensberg-Amathole Afromontane Fynbos Grassland† 27§ 1427 1425 1425 LT 1020 FP 2 Amersfoort Highveld Clay Grassland Grassland 27§ 13 253 8493 8412 LT 0 N 3 Drakensberg Afroalpine Heathland Grassland 27§ 6410 6354 6354 LT 5522 FP 4 Drakensberg Foothill Moist Grassland Grassland 23§ 360 071 223 583 221 516 LT 29 285 PP 5 Basotho Montane Shrubland Grassland 28§ 2760 2483 2483 LT 0 N 6 Dry Coast Hinterland Grassland Savanna 25¶ 276 406 125 199 122 677 V 1950 NP 7 East Griqualand Grassland Grassland 23§ 134 232 67 256 66 360 V 366 NP 8 Eastern Free State Sandy Grassland Grassland 24§ 4119 3758 3729 LT 0 N 10 Income Sandy Grassland Grassland 23§ 437 810 198 948 194 765 V 0 N 11 Ithala Quartzite Sourveld Grassland 27§ 82 024 67 675 67 261 LT 11 159 MP 12 KaNgwane Montane Grassland Grassland 24§ 8265 2352 2228 E 0 N 13 KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld Grassland 25§ 179 668 19 954 17 978 CE 194 NP 14 Lebombo Summit Sourveld Grassland 24§ 11 763 3260 3260 E 172 PP 15 Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland Grassland 27§ 1134 1120 1103 LT 898 FP 16 Low Escarpment Moist Grassland Grassland 23§ 134 083 117 759 117 463 LT 3547 PP 17 Mabela Sandy Grassland Grassland 23§ 440 25 12 CE 0 N 18 Maputaland Wooded Grassland IOCB 25§ 107 929 39 643 39 172 E 19 109 MP 19 Maputaland Coastal Belt IOCB 25§ 221 194 78 535 76 799 E 37 176 MP 20 Midlands Mistbelt Grassland Grassland 23§ 547 445 130 599 126 355 E 13 697 PP 21 Moist Coast Hinterland Grassland Grassland 25¶ 437 556 157 573 153 031 E 873 NP 22 Mooi River Highland Grassland Grassland 23§ 266 938 144 071 142 047 V 13 719 PP 24 Northern Drakensberg Highland Grassland Grassland 27§ 70 706 69 096 69 044 LT 38 473 FP 25 Northern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland Grassland 24§ 696 920 391 958 387 698 V 10 854 PP 26 Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland Grassland 23§ 52 896 22 594 22 251 V 931 PP 27 Paulpietersburg Moist Grassland Grassland 24§ 284 058 120 957 118 688 V 8420 PP 28 Pondoland-Ugu Sandstone Coastal Sourveld IOCB 30.3§§ 37 245 7165 6773 CE 2247 PP 29 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt Grassland IOCB 25§ 411 500 45 543 40 613 CE 3890 NP 30 Southern Drakensberg Highland Grassland Grassland 27§ 89 808 88 501 88 471 LT 57 719 FP 31 Southern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland Grassland 23§ 231 823 96 778 94 713 V 9800 PP 32 uKhahlamba Basalt Grassland Grassland 27§ 120 155 119 924 119 905 LT 106 550 FP Table 3 continues on the next page → are listed as Critically Endangered (e.g. Zululand Coastal Thornveld, Alluvial wetlands and Lowveld Riverine Forest) (Table 3). Similarly, a far greater proportion of vegetation types are listed as Vulnerable. Discussion We present the targets, remaining natural habitat, conservation and protection status of vegetation types and biomes in KZN. Only 46.2% of the province remains in a natural state once degraded areas are removed. This figure is conservative considering the extensive alien invasive plants that occur in KZN biomes (Van Wilgen et al. 2012). Currently, alien invasive plants are not detected and mapped on the land cover maps because of the scale and resolution at which the land covers are mapped. Further, it is not always possible to detect secondary vegetation, for example from abandoned agricultural fields, on satellite imagery. A further 7% of the landscape that is mapped as natural vegetation on the land cover maps is estimated to http://www.abcjournal.org Page 6 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access TABLE 3 (Continues...): KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) vegetation type conservation targets, extents, ecosystem status and level of protection based on 2011 accumulated transformation statistics and protected area (PA) proclamation as at January 2016. Code KZN vegetation-type name KZN biome Conservation target (%) Original extent (ha) Remaining natural (ha) Remaining natural less fragments (ha) Ecosystem status Total PA (ha) Level of protection 33 Wakkerstroom Montane Grassland Grassland 27§ 131 688 113 395 113 070 LT 4123 PP 34 Delagoa Lowveld Savanna 19§ 8770 1084 1069 CE 0 N 35 Eastern Valley Bushveld Savanna 25§ 313 748 211 707 210 176 LT 906 NP 36 Granite Lowveld Savanna 19§ 3656 1228 1188 E 0 N 37 KwaZulu-Natal Highland Thornveld Grassland 23§ 500 487 307 803 303 496 LT 9073 PP 38 KwaZulu-Natal Hinterland Thornveld Savanna 25§ 152 542 99 029 97 918 LT 740 NP 39 Makatini Clay Thicket Savanna 19§ 32 327 26 671 26 415 LT 12 760 FP 40.1 Maputaland Pallid Sandy Bushveld Savanna 25§§ 61 429 46 460 46 074 LT 9815 MP 40.2 Muzi Palm Veld and Wooded Grassland Savanna 25¶ 52 931 41 211 40 744 LT 3535 PP 41 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt Thornveld Savanna 25¶ 111 926 49 582 48 218 V 611 NP 42 Northern Zululand Sourveld Savanna 19§ 470 422 306 996 304 135 LT 34 585 PP 44 Southern Lebombo Bushveld Savanna 24§ 116 567 97 350 96 830 LT 11 972 MP 45 Swaziland Sour Bushveld Savanna 19§ 50 517 42 378 42 161 LT 12 009 FP 47 Tembe Sandy Bushveld Savanna 19§ 110 678 85 880 85 139 LT 17 707 MP 48 Thukela Thornveld Savanna 25§ 215 907 163 740 162 188 LT 6580 PP 49 Thukela Valley Bushveld Savanna 25§ 268 482 191 381 189 374 LT 1255 NP 50 Western Maputaland Clay Bushveld Savanna 19§ 152 693 57 032 54 458 V 31 248 FP 51 Western Maputaland Sandy Bushveld Savanna 19§ 15 132 9895 9664 LT 2819 MP 52 Zululand Coastal Thornveld Savanna 19§ 67 137 11 181 10 630 CE 0 N 53 Zululand Lowveld Savanna 19§ 665 917 375 813 372 083 V 135 475 FP 55 Subtropical Coastal Lagoons: Estuary Azonal Wetland 24§ 40 090 39 188 39 188 LT 35 224 FP 57 Drakensberg Montane Forests Forest 63.5†† 6393 6077 6077 LT 3665 MP 59 Eastern Mistbelt Forests Forest 66.5†† 44 474 29 933 29 933 E 8127 MP 60.1 Eastern Scarp Forests: Ngome-Nkandla Scarp Forest Forest 61.6†† 8593 3785 3785 CE 2911 MP 60.2 Eastern Scarp Forests: Northern Coastal Scarp Forest Forest 61.6†† 5632 4408 4408 LT 3693 FP 60.3 Eastern Scarp Forests: Northern Zululand Lebombo Scarp Forest Forest 61.6†† 7656 6785 6785 LT 3418 MP 60.4 Eastern Scarp Forests: Southern Coastal Scarp Forest Forest 61.6†† 11 378 8804 8804 LT 570 PP 61 Pondoland Scarp Forests Forest 61.6†† 4889 3998 3998 LT 2015 MP 62.1 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Forests: Dukuduku Moist Coastal Lowlands Forest Forest 71.7†† 8478 5781 5781 CE 7283 FP 62.2 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Forests: Maputaland Dry Coastal Lowlands Forest Forest 71.7†† 2406 2053 2053 E 1440 MP 62.3 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Forests: Maputaland Mesic Coastal Lowlands Forest Forest 71.7†† 8962 7218 7218 E 5814 MP 62.4 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Forests: Maputaland Moist Coastal Lowlands Forest Forest 71.7†† 13 655 10 833 10 833 E 8491 MP 62.5 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Forests: Southern Mesic Coastal Lowlands Forest Forest 71.7†† 10 705 5925 5925 CE 1415 MP 62.6 KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Forests: Southern Moist Coastal Lowlands Forest Forest 71.7†† 3174 1600 1600 CE 280 PP 63.1 KwaZulu-Natal Dune Forests: East Coast Dune Forest Forest 69.2†† 2497 1313 1313 CE 451 MP 63.2 KwaZulu-Natal Dune Forests: Maputaland Dune Forest Forest 69.2†† 16 390 13 051 13 051 E 10 898 MP 64.1 Licuati Sand Forests: Eastern Sand Forest Forest 69†† 25 478 23 461 23 461 LT 10 143 MP 64.2 Licuati Sand Forests: Western Sand Forest Forest 69†† 909 903 903 LT 870 FP 65 Lowveld Riverine Forests Azonal Forest 100†† 10 039 6134 6134 CE 4592 MP 66.1 Swamp Forests: Barringtonia Swamp Forest Azonal Forest 100†† 94 47 47 CE 47 MP 66.2 Swamp Forests: Ficus trichopoda Swamp Forest Azonal Forest 100†† 7722 5156 5156 CE 3570 MP 66.3 Swamp Forests: Raphia Swamp Forest Azonal Forest 100†† 370 172 172 CE 68 MP Table 3 continues on the next page → http://www.abcjournal.org Page 7 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access be historical agricultural fields (circa 1960/1970), which are depauperate in their species complement especially in terms of specialised species and geophytic plants (Jewitt et al. 2017). Hence, estimates of natural habitat remaining are conservative. It is therefore essential that high diversity, primary natural vegetation sites are identified and secured TABLE 3 (Continues...): KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) vegetation type conservation targets, extents, ecosystem status and level of protection based on 2011 accumulated transformation statistics and protected area (PA) proclamation as at January 2016. Code KZN vegetation-type name KZN biome Conservation target (%) Original extent (ha) Remaining natural (ha) Remaining natural less fragments (ha) Ecosystem status Total PA (ha) Level of protection 66.4 Swamp Forests: Voacanga thouarsii Swamp Forest Azonal Forest 100†† 462 36 36 CE 2 NP 67 Mangrove Forests Azonal Forest 100†† 2522 2382 2382 CE 1798 MP 68 Subtropical Seashore Vegetation IOCB 20§ 52 42 23 V 23 FP 69 Subtropical Dune Thicket IOCB 20§ 1245 1195 1188 LT 1083 FP 70.1 Freshwater Wetlands: Drakensberg Wetlands Azonal Wetland 24§ 5759 4256 4256 LT 2405 FP 70.2 Freshwater Wetlands: Lesotho Mires Azonal Wetland 24§ 1 1 1 LT 1 FP 72.1 Freshwater Wetlands: Eastern Temperate Wetlands Azonal Wetland 24§ 44 743 24 702 24 702 V 502 PP 72.2 Freshwater Wetlands: Eastern Temperate Wetlands: Lakes & Pans Azonal Wetland 24§ 41 35 35 LT 10 FP 75.1 Alluvial Wetlands: Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation Azonal Wetland 31§ 17 088 5805 5805 E 1478 PP 75.3 Alluvial Wetlands: Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation: Lowveld Floodplain Grasslands Azonal Wetland 31§ 22 957 6078 6078 CE 3038 MP 75.4 Alluvial Wetlands: Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation: Lowveld Floodplain Grasslands: Tall Reed Wetland Azonal Wetland 31§ 2535 1424 1424 V 753 MP 75.5 Alluvial Wetlands: Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation: Lowveld Floodplain Grasslands: Short Grass/Sedge Wetland Azonal Wetland 31§ 7612 2087 2087 CE 434 PP 76.1 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands Azonal Wetland 24§ 13 949 6260 6260 V 2129 MP 76.2 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Tall Grassland/Sedge/ Reed Wetlands Azonal Wetland 24§ 14 809 14 442 14 442 LT 11 203 FP 76.3 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Short Grass/Sedge Wetlands Azonal Wetland 24§ 47 001 38 525 38 525 LT 15 182 FP 76.4 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Short Grass/Sedge Wetlands: Dune Slack Azonal Wetland 24§ 275 144 144 V 112 FP 76.5 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Short Grass/Sedge Wetlands: Coastal Plain Depression Azonal Wetland 24§ 782 649 649 LT 57 PP 76.7 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Coastal Lakes & Pans Azonal Wetland 24§ 7595 7097 7097 LT 6166 FP 76.8 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Coastal Lakes & Pans: Endorheic Azonal Wetland 24§ 6999 6977 6977 LT 6247 FP 76.9 Freshwater Wetlands: Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands: Coastal Lakes & Pans: Lacustrine Azonal Wetland 24§ 1 0 CE 0 N 77.1 Inland Saline Wetlands: Subtropical Salt Pans Azonal Wetland 24§ 2556 2277 2277 LT 1553 FP 77.2 Inland Saline Wetlands: Subtropical Salt Pans: Floodplain Pans (Open) Azonal Wetland 24§ 2086 1731 1731 LT 1198 FP 77.3 Inland Saline Wetlands: Subtropical Salt Pans: Rain fed (Endorheic) Pans (Closed) Azonal Wetland 24§ 538 328 328 LT 0 NP 78.1 Alluvial Wetlands: Temperate Alluvial Vegetation Azonal Wetland 24§§ 147 288 62 161 62 161 V 5604 PP 78.2 Alluvial Wetlands: Temperate Alluvial Vegetation: Midland Alluvial Woodland & Thicket Azonal Wetland 24§§ 207 42 42 CE 18 PP 78.3 Alluvial Wetlands: Temperate Alluvial Vegetation: Midland Floodplain Grasslands Azonal Wetland 24§§ 1780 1228 1228 LT 274 MP 79.1 Marine Saline Wetlands Azonal Wetland 24§§ 1761 427 427 E 22 PP 79.2 Marine Saline Wetlands: Saline Reed & Sedge Beds Azonal Wetland 24§§ 964 944 944 LT 942 FP 79.3 Marine Saline Wetlands: Saline Grassland & Mud Flats Azonal Wetland 24§§ 4212 2912 2912 LT 2366 FP †, this vegetation type has Fynbos affinities but for the purposes of statistical reporting has been included in the Grassland biome. Conservation targets were based on ††, Berliner (2005); §, Government of South Africa (2009); ¶, Mucina and Rutherford (2006); §§, Jewitt (2009). Ecosystem status abbreviations are: CE, Critically Endangered: E, Endangered; V, Vulnerable; LT, Least Threatened. Level of protection abbreviations are: N, Not Protected; NP, Nominally Protected; PP, Poorly Protected; MP, Moderately Protected; FP, Fully Protected. http://www.abcjournal.org Page 8 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access via Protected Area expansion and Stewardship programmes. These sites need to be appropriately managed to maintain their biodiversity value. High livestock stocking rates, unsustainable indigenous resource harvesting and alien invasive plant species are contributing to the degradation of intact ecosystems and are a major concern for the future. The vegetation types occurring along the coast and the midlands have the largest loss of natural habitat and are thus the most threatened vegetation types in the province. The IOCB and grassland biomes have the least amount of natural habitat remaining and have the highest annual rates of habitat loss. They also have the least amount of formal protection. These vegetation types and biomes require urgent conservation action. To ensure representivity, each vegetation type should be adequately protected and have the target amount of habitat formally protected. The current distribution of the Protected Area network is biased. Future Protected Areas should be created in vegetation types without any protection or which are nominally or poorly protected. The Drakensberg, Zululand and Maputaland areas have a better Protected Area network than north-western and south-eastern KZN. Rates of habitat loss in the forest biome were the lowest but this may reflect the more recent mapping extent of forests rather than their actual habitat loss. The indices reported here may help to inform land use planning and Protected Area expansion by spatially depicting vegetation types under greatest threat or requiring Protected Area expansion. These maps may be used in provincial conservation plans, spatial development frameworks, Protected Area expansion strategies and other land use planning initiatives. Whilst Protected Areas have increased in extent since 1994, the rate of habitat loss is continuing unsustainably, limiting the options to expand the Protected Area network and increasing the threat status of vegetation types. The rates of habitat loss have slowed over successive time periods, but this could be related to the sluggish economy (Jewitt et al. 2015b) or other factors and could potentially increase in future. Jewitt et al. (2015b) identified the dominant drivers of transformation, or loss of natural habitat, as cultivated agriculture, timber plantations, the built environment, mining and dams. These represent the key sectors that should be engaged with to guide appropriate land use change. Rouget et al. (2003) recommend considering future land use changes to identify future threats and enable the search for alternative options. For instance, the Carbon Tax Policy, scheduled to come into effect in 2017, may have a significant effect on industries such as agriculture (Agri SA Commodity Chamber 2017). This could have the advantage of encouraging farmers to take up sustainable land management practices or it could drive significant land use changes in the agricultural landscape to remain economically viable. South Africa has good environmental legislation (e.g. the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998) and is also a signatory to many different global conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). These demand the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems and species for current and future generations. The intentions of the legislation and conventions are good, yet the loss of natural habitat and species declines continue, resulting in the high number of threatened ecosystems. A third of the vegetation types in the province are Endangered or Critically Endangered. The National List of Ecosystems that are Threatened and in need of protection (Act No. 1002 of 2011) was established to protect threatened ecosystems. This analysis demonstrates that several ecosystems have since attained a worse conservation status (based only on Criteria A1 or loss of habitat). This analysis identifies 8.5% of KZN as Critically Endangered compared to zero in the Threatened Ecosystem legislation. Similarly, 15.5% is listed as Endangered compared to 5% in the legislation. However, the legislation only became effective in 2011, meaning that future land cover maps will allow an assessment of the efficacy of the Threatened Ecosystem legislation. If current legislation, or perhaps the lack of implementation thereof, is not sufficient to protect ecosystems and species, a new model for conservation and sustainability must urgently be found. Indeed, the calls for acknowledging and implementing what is ultimately required to sustain life on the Earth are increasing (Noss et al. 2012). It is recognised that humanity is pushing ecosystems beyond their capacity to support life and time is running out to change the current failing trajectory (Ripple et al. 2017). Targets The targets used here may differ from national targets. Differences may arise because of the phytosociological data available at the time of the analysis, the differences between calculated targets and extrapolated targets and the finer scale of the provincial vegetation map compared to the national vegetation map. Similarly, the conservation status may differ because of revised vegetation boundaries at the time of the analysis, dates of land cover maps used and vegetation types that may extend beyond the boundary of KZN compared to KZN endemic vegetation types. Processes are in place to include finer scale mapping initiatives into the national vegetation map, facilitating a hierarchical level of mapping from broad scale to fine scale (Dayaram et al. 2017). The targets provide an estimation of the area required to represent a single occurrence of 75% of the plant species occurring within the vegetation type (Desmet 2004). The targets do not consider ecological processes. Hence, the targets are conservative and will not ensure adequate representivity or persistence of all species, but they represent an important first step in securing representative habitats in the province. Recent conservation plans based on composite sets of biodiversity targets aimed at achieving biodiversity persistence require 60%–65% of the area (Noss et al. 1999). http://www.abcjournal.org Page 9 of 10 Original Research http://www.abcjournal.org Open Access It is well known that larger areas conserve more species (Desmet & Cowling 2004) and are essential for ecological resilience. The probability of species extinctions is less in larger areas (Cumming 2011). Given climate change predictions, larger areas that are more resilient to environmental perturbations are critical. Noss et al. (2012) suggested that 50% of landscapes should be managed in a conservation-friendly manner so that species, populations and communities are conserved into the future. Similarly, Soulé and Sanjayan (1998) estimated that 50% of the landscape is required to maintain functional integrity and ensure biological persistence. Flather and Bevers (2002) found that there was a rapid decline in the probability of landscapes supporting viable populations once less than 50% of habitat remained. Plant pollination is significantly negatively impacted once 50% of the habitat is lost (Traveset et al. 2018). It is recommended that the current vegetation type targets, both provincial and national, should be revised to accommodate ecological and evolutionary processes, ensure essential ecosystem services are provided, maintain landscape connectivity and provide resilience to climate change impacts and other threats to maintain viable populations and ensure long-term persistence. It is recommended that the targets should be closer to 50% (Locke 2013) – significantly higher than the current targets. KwaZulu-Natal has less than the recommended target amount of natural habitat remaining. As the province’s ecological infrastructure is lost, an increasing proportion of species extinctions can be expected. The long-term social cost of losing this infrastructure is likely far greater than the short-term cost of preventing further loss of natural habitat in the landscape. Conclusion The evaluation of the conservation and protection status of vegetation types in KZN informs conservation priorities in the province. The rapid rate of habitat loss is creating an urgency to protect the remaining natural habitat, especially because the remaining primary, intact vegetation is below the recommended target of 50%. Restoration efforts are required in the Critically Endangered and Endangered vegetation types. Awareness campaigns are required amongst all stakeholders, highlighting the rapid loss of natural habitat and the legislative need to protect the environment. This would be enhanced by demonstrating the value and benefits of the natural environment to society. Agreements need to be secured amongst all government sectors to halt further conversion of primary habitat and rather intensify development on existing non-natural land. Business-as- usual is no longer an option if we are to meet the legislative requirements and mandates to conserve the environment for current and future generations. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Ed Witkowski for reviewing the draft manuscript and two anonymous reviewers and the editor for their comments that helped improve the manuscript. Competing interests The author declares that she has no financial or personal relationships that may have influenced her in writing this article. 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