Envisioning a Comprehensive Earth Information System for Improving Water 
Resource Assessment in the UAE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Abdullah Al Mangoosh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, 
Johannesburg Department of Geography Archaeology and Environmental Studies in 
fulfillment of requirement for the master degree. 
 
 
 
August 2004 
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I declare 
 
Signed 
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Dedication 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sheik Mansour Al Nayan 
 
My wife and daughters 
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Abstract 
 
Rapid population growth, combined with an expanding economy and tourist 
industry has lead to a water resource crisis in the United Arab Emirates. The water 
crisis includes serious difficulties in meeting basic needs, particularly in the 
agricultural sector, which is a dominating water consumer in the country. All 
economic sectors are finding it increasingly difficult meeting their water needs, which 
is primarily manifested by the natural scarcity of water recourses, depletion of 
groundwater, low efficiency of water use and low coverage of water and sanitation 
services. 
This dissertation presents a vision for a comprehensive Earth Information 
System that goes beyond the limited collection of, say, meteorological data, but 
seeks to create a national database of past, present and future data of the many 
related earth system components of both natural and human origin, all of which play 
a role in defining the hydrologic cycle, and ultimately, the state of water resources. 
This system is being motivated by the fact that most of the water resource 
assessments in the UAE cannot take advantage of such datasets because the data 
are either not collected, too fragmented, or are not part of a national archive that is 
accessible to the research community and the general public. This system will be 
developed at the highest level of the national government, through the Office of His 
Highness the President and the office of the Department of Water Resource Studies 
which will seek to provide improved water resource assessment using modern 
database and analytical methods, that will support the development of better studies 
and new, modern institutional networks and authorities. 
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Preface 
Water Resources Assessment (WRA) is the comprehensive analysis of both the 
supply and demand side of the water equation, which seeks to find the balance 
between water resource exploitation, water conservation, water development and 
sound water resource management. A prerequisite to sound WRA is the need for 
high quality and timely data and information in support of the WRA process that 
consists of numerous scientific disciplines (meteorology, hydrology, geology, 
geochemistry, microbiology, ecology, economics, sociology, etc). These sciences can 
individually and corporately provide an increasing array of scientific data from a 
multitude of platforms and data collection systems. These include field samples, 
automated weather and marine stations, water monitoring stations, weather radar, 
airborne surveys, satellites, geophysics surveys, geochemistry analysis and others.  
All of these disciplines have links to water resources and the hydrologic cycle. 
In Chapter 1 of this dissertation, is first to define WRA and then outline current 
difficulties preventing real water resources assessment for the UAE major challenges 
and driving forces and their impact on the water resources of the country. In addition, 
background material is given on the nature of the water resource situation in the 
UAE, and importantly the fact that the area is located in a hyper-arid Arabian 
Peninsula, which by definition is in a chronic water short state. So much so, that the 
use of climatological terms such as ?drought? does not even apply to this region.  
Chapter 2 goes into greater detail regarding the meteorology and climatological 
regimes of the UAE, laying the groundwork for identifying this region as lying within a 
hyper-arid zone and presenting some broad climatological data. A summary of the 
broad sources of water for the country is then given. This includes both renewable 
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resources, non-renewable, and alternative sources such as desalinization and re-
 use.  Chapter 2 concludes with a discussion on the current and future water stresses 
on the country, including the rapid population growth, expanding tourism trade and 
strongly expanding economy are putting an ever greater strain on the limited water 
resources.  
Chapter 3, discusses the specifics of the integrated Earth Information System 
(EIS), which is being envisioned as a key element in better WRA for the UAE.  This 
chapter systematically describes this system, from its meteorological core, that is 
based on an advanced weather forecasting and weather radar system, combined 
with other data sets such as local surface observations, global atmospheric models, 
and other data sets, to provide a state-of-the-art weather forecasting and weather 
analysis system.  From this meteorological core, the EIS will be developed to house 
other data related to the hydrologic cycle. These include data such as airborne 
magnetic data used to explore groundwater; borehole water data used in describing 
groundwater aquifers, hydrologic data such as information about wadis, reservoirs, 
dams, and other surface hydrologic features.  Geographic data sets will also be 
included, such as information regarding land use and land cover throughout the 
country, topographic features, roads, built-up areas, green areas, etc  The system 
will house other datasets such as information on tourism, water production by 
desalinization plants, municipal and industrial water use statistics, etc. Chapter 3 
finishes with a discussion on all relevant datasets, which are currently being pursued 
for inclusion into the EIS system, such as the writing of this dissertation.  However 
other datasets could be included as they are identified or created. 
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Finally and perhaps most importantly, Chapter 4 asserts that the pursuit of such 
an advanced EIS system is pointless unless well articulated studies can be identified 
and pursued. This can make tangible use of the data and information that the EIS 
could provide.  The WRA process is not limited to the assessment of difficulties 
preventing real WRA, but also providing practical solutions and giving 
recommendations on how to overcome such difficulties. Several research activities 
have already been pursued using components of the EIS, which are now supplying 
data to the core database. Likewise, the EIS also provides data in support of studies 
such as airborne geomagnetic surveys and experiments in rainfall enhancement.  
Chapter 5 concludes with a brief description of additional studies that should be 
pursued that would both support and make use of the advanced EIS.  The final 
chapter provides a summary of the dissertation and a brief discussion. 
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 Table of Contents 
 
CHAPTER 1  INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT. 1 
1.1. A Global Problem 1 
1.2. Water Resources in the Gulf Countries 4 
1.3. Purpose and scope of the thesis 6 
1.4. Water Resources Assessment (WRA): 8 
1.5. Water shortage or Drought? 10 
1.5.1 Natural Water shortage (water deficiency) 10 
1.5.2 Water Shortage due to water pollution 11 
1.5.3 Water shortage Due to Political Conflicts 12 
1.5.4 Water shortage due to economics 13 
1.6. Drought 14 
1.6.1 Meteorological drought 15 
1.6.2 Agricultural drought 15 
1.6.3 Hydrological drought 16 
1.6.4 Socioeconomic drought 16 
1.6.5 Current situation of water resources in the Arabian Peninsula. 20 
1.6.6 Recycled waste water 22 
1.6.7 Desalination 24 
Chapter 2  BACKGROUND OF THE UAE 27 
2.1. Geographical and Topography Background 27 
2.2. Synoptic Features of the UAE. 29 
2.2.1 Winter Circulation 30 
2.2.2 Summer Circulation 30 
2.3. Climatologically Background 32 
2.3.1 Precipitation 32 
2.3.2 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 33 
2.3.3 Surface Dry Air Temperature 35 
2.3.4 Relative Humidity 36 
2.3.5 Wind Speed 37 
2.4. Water resources background in the UAE: 38 
2.4.1 Groundwater 40 
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2.4.2 Groundwater as a water supply source by Emirate 45 
2.4.3 Surface Water 47 
2.5. Causes of water shortage in the UAE 56 
2.5.1 Population Growth 58 
2.5.2 Domestic, Industrial and Agricultural Water Use 59 
2.5.3 Tourism Expansion 62 
Chapter 3  THE VISION OF A NATIONAL EARTH INFORMATION SYSTEM TO    
SUPPORT WATER RESOURCE ASSESMENT. 64 
3.1. Defining a National Earth Information System 64 
3.2. An Earth Information system for the United Arab Emirates 66 
3.3. Components of the Earth Information System 67 
3.3.1 The Meteorological Component 68 
3.3.2 The Hydro-Geologic Components 71 
3.3.3 Other Components 74 
3.4. Data Resources in the UAE 75 
3.4.1 Public Authorities 75 
3.4.2 Governmental Ministries 76 
3.4.3 Companies working on water projects inside the UAE: 77 
3.4.4 Other Resources (International, academic, etc.) 77 
3.5. Data Classification and sorting. 78 
Chapter 4  SUPPORTING THE INFORMATION SYSTEM THROUGH RESEARCH.
  79 
4.1. Advanced Airborne Survey Technology In Ground Water Resource 
Assessments. 79 
4.2. Water Demand Forecast 84 
4.3. Rainfall Enhancement 85 
4.4. Water Budget Analysis via Hydrometeorology Observatories. 86 
Chapter 5  SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 88 
 
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List of Figures 
Figure 1.1  The hydrologic cycle (courtesy United States Geologic Survey). 
Figure 1.2  General layout of WRA cycle. 
Figure 1.3  Projected water use and water stress in 2025 (world water vision report). 
Figure 1.4.  Short term drought trends over the UAE for the between 1965 and 1999 
After, Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery, 2005). 
 Figure 1.5.  Long term trends of drought over the UAE between 1965 and 1999 
(After Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery, 2005). 
Figure 1.6.  Simple schematic of a Falaj. 
Figure 1.7  Desalination schemes in the Arabian Peninsula. 
 
Figure 2.1  Geographical Location of UAE (Orange boxes indicates position of the 
UAE). 
Figure 2.2  Topographical map of UAE. 
Figure 2.3  Total monthly Rainfall mean & Extreme (Ministry of agriculture records). 
Figure 2.4  Mean monthly Evaporation in mm.day-1 over UAE (Ministry of Agriculture 
records). 
Figure 2.5  Monthly dry Air Temperature C? 1966 ? 2001 (Ministry of agriculture 
records). 
Figure 2.6  Relative Humidity % 1966 ? 2001 (Ministry of agriculture records). 
Figure 2.7  Mean surface wind speed & Max. Gust (kt) in UAE (Ministry of agriculture 
records). 
Figure 2.8  a) Sources of fresh water and its b) usage in the United Arab Emirates. 
Figure 2.9  Groundwater resources of Abu Dhabi Emirate by GTZ (Hutchinson, 
1996). 
Figure 2.10  Groundwater flow systems in UAE (Rizk et.al, 1998). 
Figure 2.11  The main aquifers in the UAE (Rizk, Al Sharhan, and Shizuo Shindo). 
Figure 2.12  The different water-bearing zones in the Jabal Hafit (Khalifa, 1997). 
Figure 2.13  Major drainage basins and geologic structures of the UAE (Rizk et.al, 
1997 & El ? at al., 1993). 
Figure 2.14  Yearly Water Productions by Company 1993-2002 
Figure 2.15  Firm Capacities of Existing Desalination Plants and Wellfields of Abu 
Dhabi Emirate. 
Figure 2.16  Percentages of Desalinated Water Production in UAE (Year 2000) 
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Figure 2.17  Average water demand forecast (ADWEC, 2002) 
Figure 2.18  Firm Capacity Desalination Plants Existing, Committed and Planned for 
Abu Dhabi Emirate. (Source: Tebodin Master Plan Report). 
Figure 2.19   Population growth in the United Arab Emirates (Ministry of planning, 
2002). 
Figure 2.20  Past and Projected Water Demand (mcm) in the Arabian Peninsula for 
the Years 1990, 2000, and 2025 (ESCWA, 1994 ? 1995). 
Figure 2.21  Number of Guests in 1000?s in the UAE 1994 ? 2002 (Ministry of 
Planning, 2003). 
Figure 3.1 The organizational structure of a UAE water resources and environmental 
Earth Information System database. 
Figure 3.2  The meteorological components of the EIS system. 
Figure 3.3  UAE-4DEiS System Hardware and Functional Process Description. 
Figure 3.4  The hydrologic components of the EIS system. 
Figure 3.5  The geologic components of the EIS system. 
Figure 3.6  Detailed geologic components of the EIS system. 
Figure 4.1  The actual helicopter hoist mounted EM system with transmitter (TX) and 
receiver (Rx) coils on a UAE Army helicopter. 
Figure 4.2  Location map showing the Al Khazna survey area 
Figure 4.3 EW Geological section of Al Khazna based on GTZ drilling logs. 
Figure 4.4  Groundwater qualities in the fluvial gravel aquifer at Al Khazna, 
(reproduced from GTZ consultants). 
 
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List of Tables 
Table 1.1  Water resource summary in each country of the Arabian Peninsula 
(Abdulrazzak, 1992). 
Table 2.1 TDS Levels in the Northern Emirates Groundwater Wells (UAE water 
demand forecast, 2000? 2001). 
Table 2.2  Table Groundwater Water Production in the Northern Emirates, Year 2000 
(UAE water demand forecast, 2000? 2001). 
Table 2.3  Aflaj of the UAE (Rizk et.al, 1998). 
Table 2.4  Main dams in the UAE and there annual average volumes (Al Asam, 
1996). 
Table 2. 5 Existing Water Production in Abu Dhabi Emirate (Source: Tebodin Master 
Plan Report) 
Table 2.6  Desalination Water Productions in the Northern Emirates, Year 2000, 
(Source: FEWA) 
Table 2.7  Desalinated Water Productions in the UAE (Year 2000) (Sources: 
ADWEA, DEWA and SEWA) 
Table 2.8  Average Annual Population Growth Rates (UNPD, 1997) 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Chapter 1  
Introduction and Problem Statement 
 
Water is the most essential need of life and without it man can not survive for 
more than a few days. God has made every living thing dependent on water for its 
very existence. It constitutes two-thirds of body cell matter and 90% of all body fluids, 
including the blood as well as the lymphatic and spinal fluids. It is necessary for all 
biological processes.  Furthermore, it contributes to the regulation of body 
temperature through perspiration. 
Islam ascribes the most sacred qualities to water as a life-giving, sustaining and 
purifying resource. It is the origin of all life on earth, the substance from which Allah 
created man (25:54), and the Holy Qur?an emphasizes its centrality:  ?We made from 
water every living thing (21:30)?. Water is the primary element that existed even 
before the heavens and the earth did:  ?And it is He who created the heavens and the 
earth in six days, and his Throne was upon the waters (11:7). ? So, it is very clear that 
in order to understand life and living things on earth it is essential first to understand 
water and to unveil its secrets, creation, formation and behavior. 
1.1. A Global Problem 
It is estimated that the freshwater available for human consumption varies 
between (12,500 km?) and (14,000 km?) each year (Hendrickson et al., 1998; 
Jackson et al., 2001; UNU, 1996; Cosgrove, et al., 2000). And due to rapid 
population growth, the potential water availability of Earth's population decreased 
from (12,900 m?) per capita per year in 1970 to (9,000 m?) in 1990, and to less than 
(7,000 m?) in 2000 (Clarke, 1991a and b; Jackson et al, 2001; Shiklomanov, 1997; 
Jacobs, 2004; Clarke, 1993). This laid many countries in Africa, the Middle East, 
 
 
 
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 Western Asia, and some Eastern European countries to have lower than average 
quantities of freshwater resources available to their populations. In densely populated 
parts of Asia, Africa and Central and Southern Europe, current per capita water 
availability is between (1,200 m?) and (5,000 m?) per year (Shiklomanov, 1999). The 
global availability of freshwater is projected to drop to (5,100 m?) per capita per year 
by 2025. This amount would be enough to meet individual human needs if it were 
distributed equally among the world's population (Shiklomanov, 1999). It is estimated 
that 3 billion people will be in the water scarcity category of (1,700 m?) per capita per 
year by 2025 (UNPD, 2001). The impressive amount of water, 14 trillion metric tones, 
and the capacity of the hydrological cycle to supply water is being outstripped by the 
volume of human demands, pollution of water resources and poor water 
management.  
The distribution of water resources around the globe is highly unequal, even at 
the continental level. Asia has more than 60 percent of the world?s population but 
only 36 percent of river runoff (much of it confined to the short monsoon season). 
South America, meanwhile, has just 6 percent of the global population but 26 percent 
of runoff. Canada has in excess of 30 times more water available to each of its 
citizens than China. Many of the world?s largest river catchments run through thinly 
populated regions, these include the Amazon (15 % of global runoff but 0.4 % of 
global population), the Zaire-Congo that flows into the Atlantic Ocean, and the great 
rivers of northern Canada and Siberia that flow into the Arctic Ocean. (UNU,  2004).  
Meanwhile, many countries with high population density or growth rates, such as 
Pakistan and Egypt, are in hot, water-stressed regions where crops require irrigation. 
Water tables are falling on every continent. Water shortages are having an increasing 
 
 
 
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 effect on global grain markets, as arid countries that rely on irrigation for crop 
production are switching to food imports. As a result, North Africa and the Middle 
East were the fastest growing import markets for grain in the 1990s. (UNU, 2004) 
The World Bank warns that freshwater is likely to become one of the major factors 
limiting economic development. At the start of the 21st century, 49 countries with 
around 35% of the world population were believed to have less than 2,000 cubic 
meters of renewable freshwater available per capita per year, implying water scarcity 
or chronic shortage. Major nations in the list include India, Ethiopia, Nigeria and 
Kenya. Northern China also faces major shortages. The crisis is likely to worsen by 
the deteriorating quality of water, polluted by industrial waste and sewage 
discharges, and spreading of water-related diseases such as cholera and 
schistosomiasis (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000)  
Many regions around the world depend on water from international rivers 
(Khoury, et al., 1986; Inhabitants FAO, 1989; Uqba, 1992; Green, E.A. 1993; Gleick, 
1993; Clarke 1993; ESCWA, 1994; ESCWA, 1995; Browning-Aitken and Richter, 
2003; Lawford et al., 2003; Varady and Morehouse, 2003;Browning-Aitken and 
Richter 2004 and  Aparicio and Hidalgo, 2004) .  Few agreements to share water 
supplies have been negotiated anywhere.  On the River Euphrates, Turkey has built 
several large dams without prior agreement with downstream neighbours, Syria and 
Iraq. On the River Nile, Egypt uses 85 percent of the river?s flow but has no 
agreement with potentially major upstream users such as Ethiopia. Unresolved 
disputes over riparian rights also fester within many countries. 
More than 60 percent of the water used in the world each year is diverted for 
irrigating crops. Egypt, which must irrigate all its crops, uses more than five times as 
 
 
 
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 much water per capita as Switzerland. In Asia, which has two thirds of the world?s 
irrigated land, 85 percent of water is used for irrigation. A worldwide doubling in the 
area under irrigation to more than 260 million hectares underpinned the ?green 
revolution? that kept the world fed in the late 20th century. Almost 40 percent of the 
global food harvest now comes from the 17 percent of the world?s croplands that are 
made productive through irrigation (UNPD, 1994 and UNPD, 1997).  
Many believe that as water becomes an increasingly scarce and valued 
resource, it will become a commodity. This is already true for the UAE where fresh 
water is produced by converting energy to water through desalination. Where it was 
once seen as available by right, it might be bought and sold at market prices. This 
offers potential benefits in its more efficient use, as water prices more closely reflect 
its cost, but this also holds new dangers for the poor.  A thousand tons of water can 
produce a ton of wheat. If the price of water were to reflect its ?true? cost, there is a 
danger that only the wealthy industrialized sector could afford it, with serious 
consequences for world food availability. 
1.2. Water Resources in the Gulf Countries 
Historically, the Gulf countries have suffered enormously from water shortages.  
It was the availability of water in certain regions that prompted people to settle.  The 
local population adapted to the arid environment, the population was small and 
restricted to oases and better watered upland areas which could support cattle and 
crops, as was the case for the United Arab Emirates (UAE).  Because of the rapid 
development and rise in population, consequent with the discovery and exploitation 
of oil resources, a large volume of groundwater has been used, depleting the 
 
 
 
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 aquifers in the UAE.  Now, the UAE faces a real water shortage problem, as neither 
the amount nor the quality can satisfy the ever-increasing water demands. 
In spite of the harsh weather, unfavorable soil conditions, and erratic rainfall of 
typically less than 100 mm/y, remarkable progress has been made in the agricultural 
sector in the last 25 years.  One negative outcome of this development success, 
however, has been the non-sustainable consumption of water resources for the 
agriculture sector which has increased dramatically over the past few decades (UAE 
country report, 1986; Kuwait country report, 1986; Ukayli and Husain, 1988; Bahrain 
country report, 1995; Qatar country report, 1995; Yemen country report, 1995; 
UNDESA, 2002 and UNU, 2004). 
The processes of sustainable development, sustainable management and 
integrated water resources management, are entirely dependent on the reliability of 
water resources assessment studies and the message they reveal for creating sound 
management plans. Water Resources Assessment (WRA) is defined as ?the 
determination of the resources, extent, dependability, and quality of water resources 
for its utilization and control (WMO & UNESCO, 1997).? Also, WRA is defined as the 
process of measuring, collecting and analyzing relevant parameters on the quantity 
and quality of water resources for the purpose of development and management of 
the existing resources. Water resources assessments (WRA) are critically dependent 
upon the availability, accuracy, and reliability of the necessary data for conducting 
such studies. Data, and their handling and analysis by qualified personnel, are key 
for the above mentioned processes, and when data are lacking or are of poor quality, 
incorrect assumptions can be made regarding the water situation in the country. 
 
 
 
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 1.3. Purpose and scope of this thesis 
The purpose of this thesis is to identify activities and management plans which 
are currently being followed in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and  which have lead 
to the current, unsustainable exploitation of the nation?s water resources. This thesis 
will lay out a practical national action plan and strategy to ensure the future viability of 
the water resources sector throughout the UAE.  The specific objectives of this study 
will be to: 
xrhombus Assess the current difficulties which prevent real WRA in the UAE. 
xrhombus Evaluate and diagnose existing and available WRA studies in the UAE. 
xrhombus Envision alternative water resource assessment and management strategies and 
technologies (e.g. data collection platforms, information systems, integrated 
databases etc.) that are most appropriate and effective for WRA in the UAE. 
The long term objective will be to develop a national action plan to upgrade 
basic water assessment and management of the UAE with an emphasis on capacity 
building that can be established with contributions from both internal expertise and 
the external support of specific agencies that can support the national action plan. 
The international standard for the implementation of programs for a WRA can be 
divided into three main stages: 
a) Basic water resources assessment. 
b) The extension of networks and more detailed investigations to meet the 
requirements of water resources development. 
c) The provision of the data and information required for the integrated 
management of water resources (WMO & UNESCO, 1997).  
These stages define, specify and analyze the existing difficulties that prevent the 
implementation of these international standards, and propose definitive solutions that 
 
 
 
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 can eliminate such difficulties, with the goal of creating a comprehensive water 
assessment program. This in turn will facilitate the pursuit of sustainable 
management of water resources in the United Arab Emirate. 
There are two central tenants of this thesis, the first centered on data and the 
second on process. Tenant one states that water resource assessment must rely on 
high quality data, comprising all aspects of the physical hydrologic cycle and human 
interventions in this cycle (Figure 1.1).   
 
Figure 1.1  The hydrologic cycle (courtesy United States Geologic Survey). 
 
From this tenant comes a grand vision for the UAE, namely the development of a 
comprehensive Earth Information System (EIS) that is based on an advanced data 
collection, processing, and storage system from an array of data types (geological, 
meteorological, hydrologic, agriculture, urban, water, infrastructure, etc.) and data 
 
 
 
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 platforms (remotely sensed, radar, satellite, advanced computer models of 
atmospheric and hydrologic processes, etc.). The second tenant argues that while 
the availability of high quality and timely data of the earth system is paramount, these 
data are of little use without simultaneously defining problems which the data can 
help address. Quite simply, there must be a reason and purpose for collecting this 
data, and there must be qualified human resources available to articulate the 
problems and carry-out the appropriate research. Thus, the WRA process can be 
improved by developing these capabilities, which if done carefully, should lead to a 
more sustainable use of our most precious resource-water.   
1.4. Water Resources Assessment (WRA) 
Compressive water resource assessment (WRA) is the integration of water 
resources science, engineering and management performed in a holistic manner for 
the following purposes 
a) Formulation of policies / strategies / legislation for water resources 
development and management.  
b) Planning and implementation, operation, regulation monitoring and 
maintenance of a water resources program.  
c) Decision making on water resources development proposals.  
d) Research and development in water resources areas in the nation's interest.  
e) Development of hydro- informatics technology.  
f) International and interdisciplinary communication and exchange of water 
resources data, information and advances.  
Water resources are defined as the ?water available or capable of being made 
available, for use in sufficient quantity and quality at a location and over a period of 
time appropriate for an identifiable demand (WMO & UNESCO, 1997)?.  
 
 
 
9
 WRA is defined as ?the determination of the resources, extent, dependability, 
and quality of water resources for its utilization and control (WMO & UNESCO, 
1997).? 
Also, WRA is defined as the process of measuring, collecting and analyzing 
relevant parameters on the quantity and quality of water resources for the purpose of 
development and management and involves the following activities (Figure 1.2): 
1. Planning and implementation of data acquisition stations and network 
2. Quality control and verification acquired data.  
3. Compilation of data with the best available data management systems. 
4. Analysis of data to yield effective water management. 
An assessment of the quantity and quality of available water is an essential 
prerequisite for water resources development and management, whether it is for the 
purpose of water supply for the population, agriculture, and industry or energy 
production.  The United Nations water conference (Palat, 1977) recognized this fact 
and resolved that all efforts should be undertaken at the national level to substantially 
increase financial resources for activities related to water resources assessment. 
 
 
 
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Figure 1.2  General layout of WRA cycle. 
 
1.5. Water shortage or Drought 
Water shortage is an international problem which is independent of the 
quantities and quality of water resources. Importantly, water shortage is not drought. 
Water shortage condition exist when sufficient water is not available to meet present 
or anticipated needs of persons using the water resource, alternatively when 
conditions are such to require temporary reduction in total water usage within a 
particular area to protect the water resource from serious harm.   
Water shortage can be sub-divided into four categories. Each of these will be 
discussed independently in the following sections. 
1.5.1 Natural Water shortage (water deficiency) 
Deficiency here is simply a lack of natural precipitation often compounded by 
geographic location, topographic features and other natural conditions such as poor 
soil quality.  This situation occurs in countries or regions located in arid and semi-arid 
 
 
 
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regions with little to no surface water resources existing (rivers and lakes) (Newson, 
1992). Prime examples of this type of water deficiency are most of the Arabian 
Peninsula and North African countries. 
1.5.2 Water Shortage due to water pollution 
Not only is freshwater being over-used and wasted, it is also increasingly 
polluted making it impossible to use and gives rise to an effective ?water shortage? 
situation. Each year roughly 450 cubic kilometers of waste water are discharged into 
rivers, streams and lakes globally (People & the Planet, 2000 ? 2004). 
To dilute and transport this dirty water before it can be used again, another 
6,000 cubic kilometers of clean water are needed - an amount equal to about two-
 thirds of the world's total annual useable freshwater runoff.  If current trends were to 
continue, the world's entire stable river flow would be needed just for pollutant 
transport and dilution, by the middle of this century. In developing countries, on 
average, 90 per cent of all domestic sewage and 75 per cent of all industrial wastes 
are discharged into surface waters without any treatment whatsoever.  Consider the 
following examples: 
a) Over three quarters of China's 50,000 kilometers of major rivers are so filled 
with pollution and sediment that they no longer support fish life. 
b) All of India's 14 major rivers are badly polluted. Together they transport 50 
million cubic meters of untreated sewage into India's coastal waters every 
year. 
c) In greater Sao Paulo, Brazil, 300 metric tons of untreated effluents from 
1,200 industries flow untreated into the Tiete River every day. The river 
contains high concentrations of lead, cadmium and other heavy metals. 
 
 
 
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d) In Thailand and Malaysia water pollution is so heavy that rivers often contain 
30 to 100 times more pathogens, heavy metals and poisons from industry 
and agriculture than is permitted by government health standards. 
e) Developed countries have polluted their surface waters as well. Two thirds of 
Europe?s major rivers contain excessive loads of oxygen-robbing nitrogen 
and phosphorus from chemical fertilizers, along with pesticide residues, 
industrial effluents and municipal wastes.  
The United States? largest river, the Mississippi, which drains 40 per cent of the 
lower 48 States, transports more than 1.6 million metric tons of nitrogen every year 
into the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the nitrogen comes from agricultural activities. The 
nitrogen and other pollutants carried by river have created a ?dead zone? that 
extends some 60 miles offshore. Expanding every year, it now encompasses an area 
the size of Rhode Island (Newson, 1992; Sampat, 2000). 
1.5.3 Water shortage Due to Political Conflicts 
 Water has become a very precious commodity that will probably be sold and 
traded internationally in the future.  One example has been Turkey's ambitious 
proposal in 1987 for a "Peace Pipeline" project to transfer water from the Seyhan and 
Ceyhan river systems in south-eastern Turkey to the Euphrates basin and to other 
countries downstream. This project would require the construction of a series of 
dams, water tunnels, and the world's longest international water pipeline system, with 
a total length of approximately 6,550 km and a capacity of 6 million cubic meters a 
day (Green, 1993). The problem of circumstantial water shortage arises between 
countries having mutual rivers and borders.  An example of this situation is the 
conflict between Syria, Iraq, and Turkey. Turkey, in an attempt to bolster its water 
storage capacity has attempted to build a number of dams.  The damming of water 
obviously severely reduces the amount of downstream flow to Syria and Iraq. 
 
 
 
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However, the water was used as a political weapon to force Syria to curtail its 
support for Kurdish activists in south-east Anatolia (Green, 1993). 
1.5.4 Water shortage due economics 
 Not all countries in the world have water shortages as a result of an actual 
lack of availability.  The lack of resources to develop infrastructure in order to access 
the untapped water supply is an important impediment to many developing nations.   
Sudan, a country with longest part of the Nile River within its borders, suffers from 
severe water shortage for agricultural and domestic use. Figure 1.3 indicates that 
large parts of India and China suffer from similar problems (William J. Cosgrove and 
Frank R. Rijsberman, World Water Vision). 
 
Figure 1.3  Projected water use and water stress in 2025 (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 
2000). 
 
 
 
 
14 
1.6. Drought 
As mentioned, water shortage is not drought.  If so, then what is drought? There 
are many definitions for this word.  The dictionary defines drought as: A long period 
of abnormally low rainfall, especially one that adversely affects growing or living 
conditions. For areas which receive high amounts of precipitation, a condition of 
drought can develop more rapidly than in an area which doesn't receive high 
amounts of precipitation.  Many problems can arise due to droughts, including crop 
damage and water supply shortage.  The severity of drought depends mostly on the 
degree of the deficiency, the time period, and the size of the area affected.  Timing is 
also an important factor in defining drought, such as its onset and duration, the 
primary season in which it occurs, delays in the beginning of the normal rainy time 
periods, and rain events occurring relative to the growth stage of crops are examples 
of this timing.  
In addition to the general definition of drought described above, there are two 
alternative drought classification definitions.  A conceptual definition is useful for a 
general understanding of drought, and is useful in establishing drought policies.  An 
operational definition helps people understand things like the beginning, end, and 
severity of droughts.  When the beginning of a drought is determined, the operational 
definitions help in specifying the degree of departure from average of precipitation 
over a time period.  This can be done by comparing the current conditions with 
historical climatic data, usually over a 30-year period of data.  This definition can also 
be used when dealing with agriculture and helps address drought impact on crops 
and the rate of soil water depletion.  Drought severity, frequency, and duration for a 
historical period can be established operationally, but require weather data at various 
 
 
 
15 
time scales (such as monthly, seasonally,, or annually).  This information can be 
extremely useful in preparing for possible future droughts.  Four perspectives on 
drought are presented below.  
1.6.1 Meteorological drought 
Meteorological drought is usually defined by the measure of the departure of 
precipitation from the normal and the duration of the dry period.  Atmospheric 
conditions that cause the deficiencies of moisture vary greatly from region to 
region.  Some definitions identify droughts based on the number of days an area 
goes without precipitation relative to a specified ?normal? level.  The biggest 
challenges here is to define ?normal? precipitation, as in certain areas, such as arid 
and semi-arid regions, this is particularly challenging.  Often the variability of 
precipitation is greater than the mean.  Representing meteorological drought on an 
annual timescale is arguably most appropriate, since it eliminates seasonal biases. 
1.6.2 Agricultural drought 
Agricultural drought refers to the situation in which the moisture in the soil is no 
longer sufficient to meet the needs of the crops growing in the area.  Focus is placed 
on precipitation shortages, reduced ground water/reservoir levels, differences 
between actual and potential evapotranspiration and so on.  Good definitions of 
agricultural drought will account for susceptibility of crops during different stages in its 
development.  When soil moisture is lacking, this may hinder proper plant 
development, leading to lower final yield.  The water demand of a crop depends on 
weather conditions (such as temperature, relative humidity), its biological make-up, 
what stage of growth the crop is in, and the physical/chemical make-up of the soil.  If 
soil moisture is high enough to allow for proper early development, later lacking 
 
 
 
16 
moisture may not deplete final yield if the moisture can be replaced as the growing 
season goes on (e.g. irrigation or sufficient rainfall meets those needs). 
1.6.3 Hydrological drought 
Hydrological drought deals with surface and subsurface water supplies (such as 
stream flow, reservoir/lake levels, ground water).  Extended periods of insufficient 
precipitation cause these water supplies to drop below normal levels.  This drought 
definition differs from others in one significant way, Hydrological drought usually lags 
behind the others since the lack of moisture reveals itself in places such as ground 
water and surface water reservoir with a time delay.  This can affect things such as 
hydroelectric power plants and recreational areas. 
Though changes in climate and weather are the main contributors to 
hydrological drought, things such as changes in landscape, land use, and 
construction of dams also have impacts on drought.  An example of this type of 
process occurs in the Northern Great Plains of the US.  Since the Missouri River 
flows to the south, the lack of moisture to the north will impact the area downstream 
from the area receiving less precipitation.  Changes in land/water use in the region 
will alter the hydrological characteristics of flow and runoff rates, which in turn could 
amplify the drought in the area downstream from the area of origin. Thus, land use 
changes and human alterations of the hydrologic cycle can alter the frequency and 
intensity of water shortages, even when no meteorological drought is observed in the 
immediate region. 
1.6.4 Socioeconomic drought 
A socioeconomic drought takes place when the supply of economic goods and 
services cannot meet the demand for that product, and the cause of this short-fall is 
 
 
 
17 
weather-related. In most cases, demand for goods and services increase due to 
population pressures and income effects. Improved production, technology and 
construction of reservoirs for water supplies may increase the supply of goods.  If 
both are increasing, the rate of this change is crucial.  If demand is increasing faster 
than the supply, the impact of a drought will be much more significant on the area it 
affects. 
1.6.5 Droughts in the UAE 
Many people consider droughts to be a rare event when in fact they are a normal and 
recurrent feature of the climate.  Drought implies a lack of moisture for an extended 
period of time which in turns causes a deficit of moisture in the soil.  This can mean 
different things for different areas. 
Many problems can arise due to droughts, including crop damage and water supply 
shortage.  How severe a drought is depends mostly on the degree of the deficiency, 
the time period, and the size of the area affected. 
There are four perspectives on drought: meteorological, agricultural, hydrological, 
and socioeconomic. What we are concerned with in this dissertation is the 
meteorological drought.  Meteorological drought is usually defined by the measure of 
the departure of precipitation from the normal and the duration of the dry period. 
It is extremely important to distinguish between two types of droughts because they 
result from different causes and require different remedial actions when both occur. 
  Short Term Meteorological Drought 
Nil rainfall ? Few weeks/months 
Dry ground ? temporary lower stream flows  
 Long Term Hydrologic Cycle Drought 
 
 
 
18 
?        Normal annual rainfall but drastically lowered accumulation of water in  
     aquifers - permanently decreasing stream flows and drying up of  
     wetlands and springs. 
 
?        Caused by over abstraction from wells exceeding recharge flows into  
     aquifers and water resource system - lack of sufficient reservoir capacity. 
Droughts are common in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The normally meager 
annual precipitation causes extended periods of scant flow or no runoff at all in the 
UAE. Rainfall records can be used as one means to determine the duration and 
aerial extent of droughts.  
Generally, the annual rainfall fluctuations did not show any cyclicity or trend, as seen 
in Figure 1.4.  The rainfall over an area follows certain cyclic variation over a long 
period. The trend in rainfall is analyzed based on the technique of moving average.  
The moving average is an arithmetic average or a tool, like bar charts that can help 
predict when a trend is going up or down. The effect of the moving average process 
is to ameliorate the degree of variation within the original series by composing the 
new smoothed series. 
A period of five years is selected for moving analysis (Figure 1.5). The annual 
departure from average rainfall for any year is the difference between the average 
rainfall for that year, which is determined from the daily, monthly or annual records, 
and the average rainfall for the period of record. Annual departures of rainfall for the 
whole UAE are shown in Figure 1.5.  The curve above the average annual rainfall 
line is a positive departure from normal condition (wet condition), and the curve 
below the annual average annual line is a negative departure from normal (Dry 
condition). It is noticed from Figure 1.5, that the period before 1974 passed a large 
drought period and after this period the country passed by different wet and dry 
conditions where the period of wet seems to be larger than the drought particularly in 
the last ten years. 
 
 
 
19 
Figure (  2  ) : Five Years Moving Average for the Rainfall Precipitated 
over the United Arab Emirates 
0
 50
 100
 150
 200
 250
 300
 350
 400
 450
 65/66 68/69 71/72 74/75 77/78 80/81 83/84 86/87 89/90 92/93 95/96 98/99
 Water Years
 AnnualRainfall (mm) Average  Annual  Rainfall (mm) 5 per. Mov. Avg. (AnnualRainfall (mm))
  
Figure 1.4.  Short term drought trends over the UAE for the between 1965 and 1999 
After, Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery, 2005). 
Figure ( 1 ): Long - term AnnualRainfall in (mm) 
for the Period (1965/1966-2000/2001)
 0
 50
 100
 150
 200
 250
 300
 350
 400
 450
 65/ 66 68/ 69 71/ 72 74/ 75 77/ 78 80/ 81 83/ 84 86/ 87 89/ 90 92/ 93 95/ 96 98/ 99
 Water Year
 AnnualRainfall (mm) Linear (AnnualRainfall (mm))
  
 Figure 1.5.  Long term trends of drought over the UAE between 1965 and 1999 
(After Ministry of Agriculture and Fishery, 2005). 
 
 
 
20 
1.6.6 Current situation of water resources in the Arabian Peninsula 
Throughout history a lack of abundant freshwater in the Arab world has affected 
the lives and livelihood of its inhabitants. A remarkable variety of adjustments to 
water supply fluctuations and deficits have been made by the indigenous people over 
the years. Historically, the peoples of the region were transient, largely a result of the 
harsh environmental conditions of the hyper-arid region.  Perhaps the most important 
historical development was the falaj (pl aflaj). This is a local word used in both the 
UAE and neighboring Oman and describes an irrigation system that has been locally 
developed in southeast Arabia since the Iron Age, approximately 3000 years ago 
(Figure 1.6). The system can be described as a horizontal underground tunnel 
connected with surface vertical shafts. Water is drawn through this tunnel from the 
original source to cultivated land or a village through gravity (Burdon, 1973; 
Mohammed, 1986; Edgell, 1987; Shahin, 1989; Bushnak, 1992; El-Zawahry, and 
Ibrahim, 1992; Bushnak, 1995 and Saad, 1995) 
There is no fixed length for the tunnel, which can be from 3 to 30 kilometers in 
length. However, a 10 kilometer long tunnel is the standard length in the region. The 
city of Al Ain alone has many of these aflaj, (dry and alive) belonging to different 
periods. The archaeological evidence shows that two of them at least go back to the 
beginning of the first millennium BC. 
 
 
 
 
21 
 
Figure 1.6  Simple schematic of a Falaj. 
More recently, however, socio-economic development, high population growth, 
the availability of modern pumping and irrigation technology, as well as expanded 
urbanization and agriculture activities, have placed substantial strains on water 
resources.  High population growth in combination with increases in per capita 
consumption has contributed a significant increase in water consumption.  An 
important aspect of the region?s water supply shortage is the fact that all countries on 
the Arabian Peninsula are situated in extremely arid zones.  The intensive use of 
ground water resources from shallow and deep aquifers to meet rising demand has 
led to further exploitation of water resources in excess of natural renewability and has 
contributed towards water quality deterioration, especially in the coastal regions. This 
has compelled all countries suffering from water shortage to invest in the construction 
of sea water desalination plants. Rising demand is not only placing pressure on water 
resources, especially the most easily accessible sources, but also brings about an 
entirely new progression of environmental concerns and associated development 
costs (UNU, 1996). 
 
 
 
 
22 
1.6.7 Recycled waste water 
Existing waste-water treatment facilities in the Arabian Peninsula face difficulties 
in handling the ever-increasing volumes of waste water generated by increased 
water consumption and urbanization. Waste-water discharge from major urban 
centers is polluting shallow alluvial aquifers and the coastline, and has caused urban 
water-tables to rise. The main emphasis to date in these countries has been on 
simple disposal of waste water, rather than on treating and reusing effluent, owing to 
the extensive capital investment required for the latter.  Planning for the full utilization 
of treated effluent remains in the early stages, and the regional treatment capacity is 
sufficient to handle only 40 per cent of the domestic waste water generated. The total 
volume of recycled waste water used in the Arabian Peninsula is estimated at about 
433 mcm, which is far less than the volumes treated. The reuse volumes are shown 
in Table 1.1, which represent approximately 25 per cent of the available treated 
waste water (UNU, 1996). 
 
 
 
23 
Table 1.1  Water resource summary in each country of the Arabian Peninsula 
(Abdulrazzak, 1992). 
Waste 
Water 
Reuse 
(mcm) 
Desal. 
(mcm) 
Ground 
Water 
Use 
(mcm) 
Ground 
Water 
Rchgr. 
(mcm) 
Run-off 
Utilizt. 
(mcm) 
Shallow 
Ground 
Water 
Reserves 
(mcm) 
 
Run-
 off 
(mcm) 
Average 
Annual 
Rainfall 
(mm) 
Country 
(area 
km2) 
217.0 795 14,430 3,850 900 84,000 2,230 33-550 
 
KSA 
(2.15E6) 
 
83.0 240 80 160 - 182 0.10 30-140 
 
Kuwait 
(1.8E4) 
 
9.5 75 166 100 - 90 0.20 30-140 
 
Bahrain 
(652) 
 
25.0 92 190 50 0.25 2,500 1.35 20-150 
 
Qatar 
(11.6E4) 
 
128.0 385 900 125 75 20,000 125 80-160 
 
UAE 
(8.4E4) 
 
25.0 32 645 550 275 10,500 918 80-400 
 
Oman 
(2.1E5) 
 
6.0 9 1,200 1,525 475 13,500 2,000 10-1E3 
 
Yemen 
(5.28E5) 
 
493.5 1,628 17,611 6,360 2,700 130,772 5,275 40-363 
 
Total 
 
 
 
 
24 
 
1.6.8 Desalination 
During the last twenty years, many of the countries of the Arabian Peninsula 
have become increasingly dependent on desalination to meet their water-supply 
requirements (Figure 1.7).  Several of the Gulf countries, however, have no option 
but to rely on the desalination of sea water or brackish groundwater. This is due to 
renewable groundwater supplies that are small and often of poor quality as a result of 
the limited recharge magnitude and salt-water intrusion. In addition, the deep 
aquifers, particularly those near the coastal zones, usually contain highly saline 
water, requiring desalination.  
More than 80 per cent of desalinated water in the Gulf region is produced 
through Multi Stage Flush (MSF) distillation, while Reverse osmosis (RO) accounts 
for 16 %. These desalinization activities account for three-quarters of the world?s 
capacity of MSF desalination and about one-quarter of RO production. The Gulf 
countries share in multi-effect distillation (MED), electro dialysis (ED) and vapor 
compression (VC) as well as other processes, at the respective rates of 16.4, 16.6, 
and 5.5 %. The rapid increase in population in the GCC countries including UAE 
followed by accelerated expansion in all sectors (agriculture, industry, tourism for 
example) has increased the pressure on water and electricity supplies. Thus it was 
wise to select a cogeneration technology that recovers the waste heat from gas 
turbine during electricity production and converts it to water by means of MSF 
desalination technologies which had been most widely used over the past decades. 
The extensive use of desalination technology has required substantial financial 
investments from the GCC governments. Future projections indicate that more 
 
 
 
25 
investments in desalination technology will be required to offset overexploitation of 
water resources and increased public demand.   
The UAE is expected to substantially increase its desalination capacity over the 
coming decades, particularly for its urban centers at Abu Dhabi and Dubai 
(Abdulrazzak, 1992). Desalinated water will constitute a main source of water for 
domestic requirements for most of the countries of the peninsula, particularly Kuwait, 
Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. 
 
 
 
 
Figure 1.7.  Desalination schemes in the Arabian Peninsula. 
 
 
 
26 
 
1.6.9 Aquifers Artificial Recharge 
In contrast to the natural recharge, Artificial Groundwater recharge is defined as 
the underground storage of water in a suitable aquifer introduced through wells, 
galleries, trenches, channels or basins.  The principle of Artificial Recharge is not 
new as it is applied in numerous schemes in many parts of the world, where access 
water (Surface water or Desalination Surplus) is introduced in the underground, 
mostly to sustain over-exploited aquifer systems. 
 
 
 
27 
 
Chapter 2  
BACKGROUND ON THE UAE 
 
In order to assess water resources in the United Arab Emirates, it is important to 
consider its geographical location and resultant climatology as well as the 
topographical features that influence precipitation processes and water storage and 
recharge. 
2.1. Geographical and Topography Background 
The UAE is situated between latitudes 22 and 26.5 and longitudes 51 and 
56.5. The Gulf is on its northern border, Oman and the Arabian Sea are on its 
eastern border, Saudi Arabia to the South, and Qatar and Saudi Arabia border on the 
west. It covers a total area of 83,600 Km?. Importantly; the UAE can be considered to 
lie within a hyper-arid zone (Figure 2.1).  
 
Figure 2.1  Geographical Location of UAE (Orange box indicates position of the 
UAE). 
 
 
 
28 
The UAE union was achieved on the 2 December 1971 and comprises seven 
emirates: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras Al-Khaimah, Fujairah, Ajman and Umm Al 
Quwain. 
Physiologically, the UAE is divided into three areas; a range of mountains on the 
North-East, a flat coastal strip to the north, and arid deserts, rich with sediments to 
the south (Figure 2.2). The South-Eastern part of the UAE is dominated by gravel 
plains covered by sand dunes formed by the strong winds. Moving to the North-East 
we notice diminution of the gravel plains which are replaced by semi-shifting sand 
dunes in the midst of the sabkha (marsh) areas. Just west of the Oman Mountains 
spread many vast alluvial fans associated with wadi outflows, formed long ago.  
The vast low level plains and desert vary in ranging from areas below sea-level 
up to 300 meters above sea level. Progressively this low-level terrain gradually 
mingles with the range of high mountains. In between there are twisting hills lying 
towards the North and South. The summit of which is 1200 meters above sea level. 
There are also salt rocks forming saline domes in the sea, and hills on the land. 
Examples of this phenomenon may be seen at Jabal Al Dhanna, which is 99 meters 
above sea level. The range of mountains, which form a natural boundary between 
the UAE and Oman, extend 150 kilometers inside the UAE, while its maximum 
expanse to the East and West is 50 kilometers, an extension of Omani mountains 
with a summit that reaches 2,438 m above sea level. This variation of terrain affects 
the UAE climate to a great extent.  In the UAE, there are many green valleys and the 
forestation and 'greening of the desert' policy has transformed thousands of hectares 
of land throughout the country into greenery. 
 
 
 
 
29 
 
Figure 2.2  Topographical map of UAE. 
 
2.2.   Synoptic Features of the UAE 
Climatic variability and change is an important scientific, social and political 
topic around the world. Changing climates have important implications for many parts 
of the world, such as rising sea levels, and water and food resources. The location of 
the UAE and its characteristic land-sea distribution and the dominance of subtropical 
anticyclone, as a result of the descending limb of the Hadley cell, provide this region 
with a subtropical desert climate with several typical climatic features.  The position of 
the UAE relative to the Arabian Gulf and the Indian Ocean also exerts an important 
influence on the creation of the large desert zone, which also extends over North 
Africa and Western Asia (DWRS, 2002). In general, the annual flow over the UAE 
can be classified into two main circulation fields, one in winter and the other in 
summer. These two circulations are separated by two transitional periods that are 
characterized mostly by unstable atmospheric circulation. 
 
 
 
30 
2.2.1 Winter Circulation 
The winter (December ? March) is historically regarded as being the wet 
season in the UAE.  Rainfall may be related both to troughs over the region and the 
development of convective activity. The subtropical high pressure cell gets 
established over Northern Iran, the Caucasus region and the Anatoly Plateau in 
winter and the Siberian High intensifies. Low pressure over the Indian Ocean during 
this period also plays a role in the circulation. At the equator, during December and 
January, we find the 1000mb start to increase to 1005mb On the Arabian Sea. In 
winter, the most effective system over the region is the High pressure over Iran, 
which brings cool and dry northwesterly to northerly winds to the area. During this 
season, the Extreme Minimum temperature over the Emirates may reach a value of  
less than 2.0?C in some places. This circulation would lead to a drying of the region if 
not for the low pressure that drifts into the area from the Mediterranean Sea, where 
low pressure cells form, due to the relative warmth of the seawater. These shallow 
lows systems have an average central pressure of 1018 hPa and are accompanied 
by weather disturbances such as rain and thunderstorms. 
Once this low is formed, it is accompanied by a front called the "Mediterranean 
Arctic Front". Hence, when the tropical warm air currents (coming from the south) 
meet the Arctic cold currents coming from the north, the low-pressure systems form 
and move towards the east. It was noticed that the lows which drift to the east, start 
forming over the Island Cyprus and thus it is called the ?Mediterranean Low?. 
2.2.2 Summer Circulation 
The summer circulation brings heat waves and sandstorms to the area but is 
usually not accompanied by any rain except for thunderstorm development over the 
mountains. The extreme maximum Temperature over the Emirates during summer 
 
 
 
31 
may reach 52?C in some places.  During this period, the Euro-Asian High disappears 
due to the heat and is established over the Azores Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. 
Over Northern Africa, and West, Central and South Asia, a series of seasonal 
thermal low pressure systems form, the most effective of which is the one established 
over the Pakistan plain and North-West India. This is known as the ?Indian Seasonal 
Low". The ITCZ is between 22? and 24?N latitude, i.e., it is just over the Emirates. 
The atmospheric pressure over the Indian Ocean during this period is weak but 
relatively high when compared with the low pressure over the Arabian Peninsula. It is 
for this reason that this ocean is considered as an effective source of rain over the 
Emirates during this season. The subtropical high variance in the upper atmosphere 
is an important factor contributing to the lack of precipitation in summer as the air 
subsides and reduces the chance for the development of clouds and rainfall.  
The first transitional period 
This period starts at the end of March and ends in May (spring), when the high 
pressure cells over Central and West Asia weaken because of the heat and low 
pressure systems start to appear over North-East India and the South-West of the 
Arabian Peninsula. The weather activity during this period is strong over the Eastern 
part of the Mediterranean Sea and the plains to the south of it, which help in the 
formation of the low systems that give heavy rain showers in spring. These showers 
intensify with the arrival of the Arctic Air in the upper layers of the Troposphere, which 
creates a condition of instability. Starting mid-April, the surface becomes hot enough 
to help the uprising air currents to ride and meet the Arctic Air in the upper levels, 
forming local thunder activity cell. This is accompanied by sudden heavy rainfalls. 
Wind direction during this period is not as steady as in winter or summer. The North-
 
 
 
32 
Westerly winds decrease, somewhat, where as the northerly winds increase, as do 
the south-easterly winds. These winds usually bring hot air, which gives the period 
some of the characteristics of the hot season where the temperature reaches a little 
below 40?C, and represent an early summer period located between two relatively 
less warm periods. 
The second transitional period 
Occurs between September and November (autumn), when the low-pressure 
systems over Asia start to weaken because of the drop in the temperature.  At the 
same time the Siberian high pressure comes back to its old position, and the 
pressure quickly increases over Siberia and Central Asia.  Low pressure, as in the 
spring transitional period re-appears and increases in November and brings rain 
accompanied by thunderstorms. During this period, the north westerly winds 
decrease to less than in summer and winter, but prevailing northerly winds increase 
as do the southerlies (DWRS, 2002) . 
2.3. Climatologically Background 
 During the years (1966-2001), UAE has been affected by many synoptic 
patterns such as, the Siberian high pressure, the Mediterranean trough, the Red Sea 
trough, the Indian Monsoon trough and the Thermal low over the Arabian Peninsular. 
 The combined effects of the geographic, topographic and physiographic settings are 
responsible for shaping the general climatic features, particularly in respect to the 
distribution of rainfall in the region. 
2.3.1 Precipitation 
 The rainfall distribution in the UAE region is directly related to the prevalence of 
the atmospheric circulation. Due to the effect of many troughs and the formation of 
 
 
 
33 
some cumulus clouds over the mountainous regions, especially during the spring 
season, there were several records of precipitation, of which the mean monthly total 
rainfall was between 37.9 mm during February and 0.3 mm during June. The 
maximum total monthly rainfall, was 286.6 mm during February 1988 (Figure 2.3). 
 
 
2.3.2 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 
 In the Arabian Desert and the gulf region, the evaporation rate reaches 2500 
mm/year (This value is calculated by Penman Equation for the measured annual 
potential evapotranspiration) along the coasts and rises considerably towards the 
interior. Evaporation capacity usually denotes the maximum possible evaporation 
from the underlying surface with unlimited moisture reserves under given 
meteorological condition. The minimum amount of evaporation over U.A.E occurs in 
January (4.2 mm/day), and the maximum in June (13.9 mm/day), (Figure 2.4). 
 
 
 
34 
 
 
 
Figure 2.3  Total monthly mean (top) and extremes (bottom) rainfall between 1996 
and 2001 (Ministry of agriculture records). 
 
 
 
 
35 
 
Figure 2.4.  Mean monthly Evaporation in mm.day-1 over UAE between 1996 and 
2001 (Ministry of agriculture records). 
 
2.3.3 Surface Dry Air Temperature 
 The average measured temperature ranged from 18.3 ?C during January to 
35.1?C during July, The maximum mean temperature ranged from 24.2?C during 
January to 41.8?C during July. The minimum mean temperature for the years 1969-
 2000 was between 12.4?C during February and 28.3?C during August. Furthermore, 
the highest maximum temperature recorded was 50?C during July 1992, whereas the 
lowest minimum temperature was 2.9?C, recorded during February (Figure 2.5), 
(Ministry of Agriculture).  
 
 
 
36 
 
Figure 2.5  Monthly measured dry Air Temperature C? 1966 ? 2001 (Ministry of 
agriculture records). 
 
2.3.4 Relative Humidity 
 The average monthly relative humidity varies between 51% during June and 
64% during September. Whereas, the mean maximum relative humidity varies 
between 89% during January and 76% during May (recorded at many parts of the 
country), and the mean minimum value was between 39% during January and 17% 
during May (Figure 2.6). 
 
 
 
37 
 
 
Figure 2.6  Relative Humidity % 1966 ? 2001 (Ministry of agriculture records). 
 
2.3.5 Wind Speed 
 North-westerly winds dominated the northern, western and central parts of the 
U.A.E, while north-easterly winds prevailed over the rest of the country. The highest 
wind gust recorded a value of 70.0 Kt during the month of February. The annual 
average wind speed was between 3.5 Kt during November and 4.8 Kt during 
February (Figure 2.7). 
 
 
 
38 
 
 
Figure 2.7  Mean surface wind speed & Max. Gust (kt) in UAE (Ministry of agriculture 
records). 
 
2.4. Water resources background in the UAE 
Renewable water resources in the UAE are limited. The United Nations 
Environment Program ranks the UAE only behind Kuwait as the country with water 
use as a percentage of renewable resources at an astonishing 1500%! 
Water sources for the United Arab Emirates generally include the following:  
a) Alluvial Groundwater (including aflaj). 
b) Deep Groundwater. 
c) Surface water. 
d) Desalinated water. 
e) Waste water treatment (Recycled water). 
 
Each of the aforementioned sources of water contribute to the total re-usable 
fresh water supply in the UAE.  An analysis of the contribution of each of these 
showed that Ground water and water derived from desalination account for 88 % 
of the total supply (Figure 2.8a).  Desalination?s contribution has increase steadily 
 
 
 
39 
and is almost equivalent to the ground water supply.  Agriculture and forestry is 
the single largest consumer if fresh water in the UAE (Figure 2.8b)  
 
 
Figure 2.8.  a) Sources of fresh water and its b) usage in the United Arab Emirates. 
 
The nature of these resources and their use in the UAE are described below: 
 
 
 
40 
 
2.4.1 Groundwater 
 
Shallow alluvial aquifers 
Alluvial deposits along the main wadi channels and flood plains of drainage 
basins make up the shallow groundwater system in the Arabian Peninsula. 
Groundwater in the shallow aquifers is the only renewable water source for the 
Arabian Peninsula countries. The shallow aquifers in the eastern part of the 
peninsula, particularly in the UAE and Oman are generally thicker and wider than in 
the west, while alluvial thickness in the inland basins is greater than in those of the 
coastal basins (Abdulrazzak, 1992 and Abdulrazzak, 1995). In general the shallow 
aquifers in the UAE can be classified as: 
a) The  limestone aquifers in the north and east, 
b) Opiolitic aquifer in the east, 
c) Gravel aquifers flanking the eastern mountain ranges, 
d) Sand dune aquifer in the west and south west (Figure 2.11 illustrates 
the main aquifers in the United Arab Emirates. 
Quaternary alluvium of the western gravel aquifer is composed of about a 60 m 
sequence of sand and gravel with thin interbeds of silt and clay. Most of the alluvium 
was derived from the opiolitic Oman Mountains. In the north and west of Al Ain, 
present day wadis are located between NE-EW trending sand dunes. 
Aquifers associated with the prolific sand dunes are perhaps the least studied in 
the UAE. Fresh water aquifers in the quaternary sand dunes were discovered 
between Liwa and Madinat Zayed only recently. The continuation of exploration 
projects is expected to lead to similar fresh water lens discoveries of usable 
freshwater. The Sabkha deposits occur between dunes, and are composed of thin 
 
 
 
41 
sand and silt deposits. The thickness of this formation is highly variable; varying 
between 50 m and 150 m. The term "Sabkha" is a transliteration of an Arabic word 
meaning "Salt Flat". Physiographically, Sabkhas are very flat, through not necessarily 
level areas. 
Field measurements show that the depths to groundwater are < 5 m in the Liwa, 
Diba, Khorfakkan, Kalba, Sbaam, and Khatt areas, 10-25 m in the Al Shuayb, 
Madinat Zayed and Madam Areas. 25-50 m in Al Wagan, Al Hayer, Jabal Hafit, Al 
Faiyah, Al Jaww plain, Hatta and Masafi areas, 50-100 m in wadi Al Bih and Al Ain 
areas and > 100 m in Al Dhaid area (Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10). 
Figure 2.9.  Groundwater resources of Abu Dhabi Emirate by GTZ (Hutchinson, 
1996). 
Local discharge areas are encountered west of Al Ain, Liwa and western coastal 
sabkha. The coastal alluvial aquifers are subject to salt-water intrusion, especially on 
 
 
 
42 
the northern coast or Gulf side of the country.  This is believed to be due mostly to 
the extensive groundwater withdrawals that have occurred over the past decade. 
Shallow aquifer water quality is generally good. Groundwater from the shallow 
alluvial is sometimes used for domestic and irrigation purposes   . (Modified from 
Hutchinson, 1996).   
Fossil ground water aquifers 
The other main source of water for the countries of the Arabian Peninsula is the 
non-renewable fossil groundwater stored in the sedimentary deep aquifers. Figure 
2.11 shows the sandstone and limestone geological formations of the Arabian Shelf.  
These features store significant amounts of groundwater that are thousands of years 
old (Burdon 1973; Edgell 1987). The sedimentary aquifers have been classified as 
either primary or secondary, based on their aril extent, groundwater volume, water 
quality, and development potential (MAW, 1984). 
 
Figure 2.10.  Groundwater flow systems in UAE (Rizk et.al, 1998). 
 
 
 
43 
 
Figure 2.11  The main aquifers in the UAE (Rizk et.al, 1998). 
 
The primary aquifers are the Saq, Tabuk, Wajid, Minjur-Druma, Wasia-Biyadh, 
Dammam, Um er-Radhuma, and Neogene. The latter two are carbonate aquifers 
while the remainders are sandstone. Secondary aquifers are Aruma, Jauf, Khuff, Jilh, 
Sakaka, the upper Jurassic, the lower Cretaceous, and Buwaib. These aquifers cover 
two-thirds of Saudi Arabia and some of them extend into Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the 
United Arab Emirates, Oman, and Yemen, as well as into Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. 
The Dammam aquifer 
This aquifer possibly extends in the subsurface over most of Abu Dhabi Emirate. 
There is an increase in thickness and major changes of the lithology of the aquifer 
east of Al Ain; mostly this aquifer is not productive. Near the western border of the 
northern Oman Mountains, the alluvial deposits which construct the Um er Radhuma 
 
 
 
44 
aquifer in the UAE outcrops in Jebel Hafit in connection with Dammam outcrops. A 
thickness of 300-550 m in the southern part of the UAE, top of this layer (Um er 
Radhuma) at 985m below surface at Liwa, and the water quality is highly saline.  
Figure 2.12 shows a conceptual model of the different water-bearing zones in the 
Jabal Hafit area: fresh water zone replenished by meteoric water; a mixing zone 
where fresh water mixes with brackish water, and a deep saline water zone. The 
model supports a mixture of two different sources: fresh water from rains falling on 
the Jabal Hafit and saline water moving upward from a depth of 2000m, by gas or 
temperature drive. Brackish water forms as the two types of water mix together 
(Khalifa, 1997).  
 
Figure 2.12  The different water-bearing zones in the Jabal Hafit (Khalifa, 1997). 
 
The Dammam aquifer which is covered by clastic deposits of Oligocene-
 Miocene age in the UAE is still in the exploration stage and the initial findings show 
that, in the south western areas (Liwa area), the Dammam aquifer occurs at about 
400 m below ground surface and has a thickness of 280 m. while in the southern 
 
 
 
45 
areas the Dammam aquifer occurs at about 600 m below ground surface and has a 
thickness of about 500 m. Towards the north, the depth of  the aquifer is about 1300 
m below ground surface. The aquifer has been shown to contain very saline water, 
except in Al Ain area, where some wells penetrated the Dammam aquifer at depths 
of about 210 m, containing slightly brackish water.  
Although water in the deep aquifers is ample in quantity, the quality varies 
greatly and is not always suitable for domestic consumption. Total dissolved solids 
range (TDS) from 400 to 20,000 ppm. The Environmental Protection Agency of the 
United States (EPA-USA) guideline for consumable water TDS is at 500 ppm Max. 
(www.epa.gov), while the World Health Organization (WHO) and European Union 
(EU) currently have no guidelines (www.who.int). Water from these deep aquifers 
tends to be saturated with calcium and magnesium salts and has high concentrations 
of sulphate and chloride ions. The water in the deep aquifers also contains relatively 
large quantities of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide gases. The brackish water 
from some of these deep aquifers is usually used without treatment for agricultural 
purposes. The groundwater of most of the deep aquifers requires treatment such as 
cooling, aeration to remove hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide gases, and lime 
soda processing. 
2.4.2 Groundwater as a water supply source by Emirate 
The Emirate of Abu Dhabi 
The management of underground water is led by the Abu Dhabi Water and 
Electricity Authority (ADWEA) and the Abu Dhabi Municipality. The total number of 
usable underground water wells is about 40,000, distributed in the Al Ain region, the 
Central region and the Western region.  Under ADWEA, the quantity of water 
 
 
 
46 
abstracted from underground wells in year 1999 is 38.8 mgd as fresh water (UAE 
water demand forecast, 2000? 2001). 
The Emirate of Dubai 
The current underground water abstracted from wells in Dubai is about 10 mgd.  
Most of the water is abstracted from Al Aweer and Al Wohoosh underground water 
wells.  The quantity of water is continuously decreasing due to continuous abstraction 
and limited recharge. (ADEWA, 2002).  There are no substantial surface water 
resources in the emirate of Dubai. 
Emirate of Sharjah 
The Emirate of Sharjah depends mainly on underground water for its domestic 
water supply. It forms approximately 50% of the total water resources. The 
underground water supplies about 28 mgd abstracted from many wells in Sharjah 
City, Kalba, Khorfakkan and Al Hamriyah areas. Some quantity of the abstracted 
water is being desalinated through RO process in Kalba and Al Hamriyah areas due 
to high salinity of these underground wells. (ADEWA, 2002). There are no substantial 
surface water resources in the emirate of Sharjah (ADEWA, 2002). 
Northern Emirates 
The Emirates of Ras Al Khaimah, Fujairah, Umm Al Qaiwain and Ajman form 
the northern emirates.  Al Dhaid, which is a part of the emirate of Sharjah, is also 
under the northern emirates region. The main water resources are underground 
water and desalinated underground water using RO plants. The total underground 
water production is about 28.6 mgd, produced from 366 underground water wells 
distributed in the northern emirates Table 2.2). The salinity levels of under 
groundwater are increasing, due to the increase in water abstraction from 
 
 
 
47 
underground well, which also led to decreasing in the number of usable wells in the 
recent years  (UAE water demand forecast, 2000? 2001). Table 2.1 illustrates the 
TDS levels in the northern emirates groundwater wells. 
Table 2.1 TDS Levels in the Northern Emirates Groundwater Wells (ADEWA, 2002). 
TDS Levels (mg/l) No. of 
wells > 2500 2001-2500 
1501-
 2000 
1001-
 1500 
501-
 1000 0-500 
Emirate 
152 44 17 25 23 35 8 Ras Al Khaimah 
78 0 0 1 12 44 21 Fujairah 
109 60 15 18 6 8 2 Ajman 
27 15 12 0 0 0 0 Umm Al Quwain 
366 119 44 44 41 87 31 Total 
 
 
Table 2.2  Table Groundwater Water Production in the Northern Emirates, Year 2000 
(UAE water demand forecast, 2000? 2001). 
Quantity (mgd) Ground water source Sr. no 
11.8 Western area (Ajman and Umm Al Quwain) 1 
12.5 Northern area (Ras Al Khaimah) 2 
2.7 Eastern area (Fujairah) 3 
1.6 Central area (Al Dhaid) 4 
28.6 Total 
 
2.4.3 Surface Water 
The mean annual runoff on the main Wadis in the United Arab Emirates is 
125Mm?. A large volume of runoff water is now harvested by 35 recharge dams with 
a total storage capacity of 75 Mm?. A few dams are under construction at present and 
several others are planned in the future.   Springs provide about 3.0 Mm? of water per 
year. Springs discharges range from 0.6 Mm? / yr to 2.50 Mm? / yr, with little change 
over the years. Discharge of some springs is directly related to rainfall, whereas the 
discharge of others is not directly related to rainfall, because the recharge area is far 
away and the catchment's area is too large. Also the confined aquifers are not 
affected sharply.  During the 1984 ? 1991 period, spring salinity has increased by 10 
% (Khatt South in Ras Al Khaimah) to 50 % (e.g. Bu Sukhnah in Al Ain) as a result of 
 
 
 
48 
low rainfall and heavy ground water pumping in the recharge areas. Despite their 
limited discharge, Falaj water is a renewable resource which is directly related to 
rainfall. During 1978 ? 1995, the total Falaj discharge in the UAE varied between 9 
Mm? / yr in 1994 and 31.2 Mm? / yr in 1982 (Al Adrous, M.H,1990), which represents 
2.8 to 9.7 % of the total water use in the country.  
The annual recharge for groundwater in United Arab Emirates is estimated at 
120 Mm? (Kahlifa, 1995). This low recharge rate in combination with high levels of 
extraction leads to a highly unbalanced situation of aquifer depletion in many areas 
such as Al Ain and Al Dhaid, dryness of many shallow wells, and intrusion of saline 
water. Due to excessive ground water pumping, cones of depression ranging from 50 
to 100 km in diameter now exist in the Al Dhaid, Hatta, and Al Ain and Liwa areas. 
The volume of desalinated water has increased from 7 Mm? in 1973 to 694 Mm? in 
2000.  In 1985, the desalination plants in the United Arab Emirates produced 204 
Mm? of water, which represents 60 % of the domestic water needs. In 1998 the 
production of desalinated water reached 526.6 Mm? (Rizk, Z.S, 1999), which is 76 % 
of the water used for domestic purposes. In 1997, the United Arab Emirates 
production of desalinated water was 57 % in Abu Dhabi, 35 % in Dubai, 5 % in 
Sharjah, and 3 % in the northern Emirates. 
There are many surface water resources in the northern emirates due to the 
many valleys and mountains.  About 45 dams had been built to prevent rain water 
disposal to the sea.  Currently, 27 dams are under construction with a total design 
storage capacity of 5 million m3 (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1993).  The 
total storage design capacity of these dams is approximately 100 million m3. Water 
 
 
 
49 
stored by the dams is being used to recharge the underground water aquifers and to 
satisfy the increased agricultural water demand. 
 In spite of the absence of permanent streams in UAE, there are numerous dry 
drainage basins that can carry water during occasional heavy rain storms. Streams 
drain either eastward into the Gulf of Oman, or westward in the direction of the 
Arabian Gulf in the north and the sand dune fields in the southwest (Figure 2.13).   
 
Figure 2.13.  Major drainage basins and geologic structures of the UAE (Rizk et al., 
1998). 
 
The drainage basins can carry large amounts of water over a very short period 
of time and also support the aflaj systems (Table 2.3). Run-off occurs mainly in the 
form of intermittent flash floods, and is governed by rainfall patterns and topographic 
features over the UAE. The area of these basins vary from 5km? (Wadi Dhanna) to 
5000 km? (Wadi Al Bih).  The annual run-off volume generated in the United Arab 
Emirates is estimated to be approximately 125 mcm (Abdulrazzak, 1992). These 
drainage basins need more detailed studies for estimation of their water budgets and 
calculations of their run-off capacities during heavy rain storms (see Methods). 
 
 
 
50 
Table 2.3  Aflaj of the UAE (Rizk et al., 1998). 
Falaj 
No. Basin Name Area (km?) 
Predicted 
Runoff 
Volume 
(mcm) 
Rank of 
Flash 
Flood Risk 
Length of 
Overland 
Flow 
Rank of 
Infiltration 
Rate 
1 Ajran 98.3 1.35 4 0.26 6 
2 Muraykhat 32.5 0.45 1 0.22 8 
3 Saah 1.5 0.21 8 0.20 9 
4 Mudabbah 67.1 0.92 6 0.24 7 
5 Lihast 44.1 0.61 9 0.22 8 
6 Shik 32.8 0.45 10 0.26 6 
7 Ghayl 18.5 0.25 6 0.28 5 
8 Musayliq 133.7 1.83 7 0.29 4 
9 Sidr 16.9 0.23 10 0.29 4 
10 Masah 17.1 0.23 5 0.29 4 
11 Bu Qalah 118.7 1.63 9 0.28 5 
12 Khubayb 39.7 0.54 3 0.36 1 
13 Khuqayrah 84.7 1.16 2 0.31 3 
14 Saad 136.3 1.87 8 0.33 2 
15 Al Ain East 149.5 2.05 8 0.20 9 
 
Under the pressure of population growth and economic expansion, natural 
water sources have become either reduced in quality and/or quantity. In an attempt 
to overcome the associated problems, the UAE has undertaken a massive project to 
construct 43 dams in 15 wadi's in the eastern and northern parts of the country to 
conserve scarce water resources. Among those dams the major nine dams are the 
following: Ham Dam, Wurayyah Dam, Zikt Dam, Basseirah Dam, Bih Dam, Idhm 
Dam, Gulfa Dam, Tawiyaeen Dam, and Hadf. These dams act as recharge 
mechanisms for the adjacent underground water aquifers e.g. the main goal of 
constructing the Tawiyaeen dam is to slow down the run-off which spreads in the 
gravel plain (see table 2.4). The capacity of this dam is 18.5 mcm, and the total 
capacity of the nine dams is approximately 45 mcm. 
 
 
 
51 
 
Table 2.4  Main dams in the UAE and there annual average volumes (Al Asam, 
1996). 
Main Dams In UAE 
Dam Bih Ham Idhn Gulfa Hadf Zikt Tawiyain 
Year 2.02 0.96 10.79 (1984) (1991) (1991) (1991) 
1982 3.29 1.72 0.76     
1983 1.03 0.21 2.00     
1984 2.27 -- 0.89     
1985 2.37 -- 1.55 --    
1986 8.21 10.22 9.88 --    
1987 4.26 23.65 6.51 14.35    
1988 4.94 10.09 5.24 21.14    
1989 0.49 20.27 0.76 12.76    
1990 0.57 5.73 19.02 19.36    
1991 5.85 5.65 14.93 20.73    
1992 2.00 1.90 13.00 36.61 8.47 18.52 0.42 
1993 0.62 15.95 6.43 8.88 10.84 1.50 9.64 
1994 2.92 8.76 7.06 24.90 7.61 17.09 5.76 
 
2.4.4 Emirate of Abu Dhabi. 
Desalinated water is the major water resource in Abu Dhabi Emirate. The 
majority of desalinated water is produced from Umm Al Nar and Taweelah 
desalination plants, while the remaining is produced from a desalination plant in Mirfa 
and small plants in Sila, Delma Island, Jebel Dhana and Sir Baniyas Island.  Refer to 
Figure 2.14 for the desalination capacities. 
 
 
 
52 
 
Figure 2.14.  Yearly Water Productions by Company 1993-2002. 
 
The Al Shuweihat project, when completed by the year 2004, will provide about 
93 mgd to the Abu Dhabi Emirate, a capacity that will help boost development along 
the Gulf coast. The recycled water in Abu Dhabi Emirates is mainly produced from Al 
Mafraq waste water treatment plant, which is under the jurisdiction of Abu Dhabi 
Municipality. The total quantity recycled water from Abu Dhabi and Al Ain 
Municipalities is about 54.6 mgd (ADEWA, 2002). The overall water production of 
desalinated water, recycled water and well field water from ADWEA and non ADWEA 
administration is tabulated in Table 2.5. 
 
 
 
53 
Table 2. 5 Existing Water Production in Abu Dhabi Emirate     
Water production (mgd) Type of production Authority 
220.8 Desalination ADWEA (Beginning of 2000) 
11 Recycled Al Ain Municipality (2000 data) 
43.6 Recycled Abu Dhabi Municipality (2000 
data) 
42.2 Well field domestic (fresh) 
40.4 Well field agriculture (fresh) 
330.9 Well field (brackish) 
63.9 Well field (saline) 
ADWEA, Abu Dhabi, Al Ain 
Municipalities, private wells and 
others (1994 data ) 
752.8 Total 
 
The firm capacities of existing ADWEA desalination plants and Wellfields water 
utilization in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi are shown in Figure 2.15. 
 
 
Figure 2.15  Firm Capacities of Existing Desalination Plants and Wellfields of Abu 
Dhabi Emirate (Al-Hosani, et al., 2002).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
54 
Emirate of Dubai 
The emirate of Dubai depends mainly on the desalinated water produced from 
desalination plants located in the Jebel Ali area.  The total capacity of the produced 
water is about 147 mgd. Refer to Table 2.5 and Figure 2.14 for the desalination 
capacities.  (ADEWA, 2002) 
Emirate of Sharjah 
A quantity of abstracted groundwater is desalinated through the RO process in 
Kalba and Al Hamriyah areas due to the high salinity of these underground wells 
(Source: SEWA), while desalinated sea water is the other basic resource of water of 
the Sharjah Emirate.  The production capacity is estimated at 31 mgd.  The majority 
of produced water is from the desalination plant in Layyah, while the remaining is 
produced from RO desalination plants in Kalba, Al Hamariah and Abu Mussa. Refer 
to Tables 2.7 and 2.8 for the desalination capacities. 
Northern Emirates 
The desalinated water in the northern emirates is composed of RO and MED 
plants.  Some of the RO plants are utilized to desalinate some of the saline 
groundwater.  The majority of desalinated water is produced from MED plants due to 
their integrity with power generation.  The total quantity of water production is about 
15.4 mgd. Tables 2.6 and 2.7 show the desalination water production in the northern 
emirates in the year 2000, while Figure 2.16 is an estimate of the percentage of 
freshwater supplied through desalinization for the entire country. 
 
 
 
55 
 
 
Table 2.6  Desalination Water Productions in the Northern Emirates, Year 2000, 
(FEWA, 2000) 
Quantity (mgd) Source Sr. No 
28.6 Desalination 1 
3.1 Sea water RO plants 2 
5.2 Ground water RO plants 3 
7.1 MED plants 4 
15.4 Total 
 
Table 2.7  Desalinated Water Productions in the UAE (Year 2000) (ADEWA, 2002) 
Capacity Emirate 
242.3 mgd Abu Dhabi 
147.0 mgd Dubai 
31.1 mgd Sharjah 
15.4 mgd Northern Emirates (UAE) 
435.8 mgd Total 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.16.  Percentages of Desalinated Water Production in UAE (Year 2000) 
 
 
 
56 
2.5. Causes of water shortage in the UAE 
As reviewed in Section 1.5, ?Water shortage or drought?, there are many 
definitions of water shortage. Clearly, since the UAE is situated in a hyper-arid zone, 
water deficiency as measured by a lack of natural precipitation is the primary culprit 
of the water shortages faced by the UAE. However, one should not overlook the 
others issues that compound this problem, which is the large human and economic 
growth that has occurred throughout the region over the past few decades. Thus, the 
UAE has two confounding problems: the desire for high economic growth, which will 
attract external migration to the country as well as tourists, and a water scarcity that 
in the short-term can only be made up through desalinization.  Of course the other 
major ?hidden? source of water is that which is ?virtually? supplied in terms of major 
food imports!  
Some water master planning has tried to project future water demands.  Figures 
2.17 and 2.18 illustrate briefly the water demand forecast and forecasts of 
desalination needs for the Abu Dhabi Emirate, respectively. 
 
Figure 2.17  Average water demand forecast (ADWEC, 2002) 
 
 
 
57 
 
Figure 2.18.  Firm Capacity Desalination Plants Existing, Committed and Planned for 
Abu Dhabi Emirate.  
 
Water shortages are pervasive throughout the UAE, and may be subdivided into 
two categories 1) Localized water shortage (concentrated in certain area) and 2) 
General water shortage (like the general arid and semiarid character of the UAE). 
Despite the intensive efforts that have been made by the UAE Government to meet 
the increasing water demands for the different sectors and applications, the gap 
between water demand and supply is large and continues to expand.  The water 
crisis in the UAE has developed over time and it is useful to investigate the root 
causes of this situation and how these may have changed over time.  These include: 
a. Geographical location, topographical features and the climate. 
b. Underground water overdraft. 
c. Rapid expansion in, agriculture, tourism, Industry, inhabitants, and 
foreign labor. 
d. Growth in Non-skilled labors especially in the field of agriculture. 
 
Scenario II 
Scenario I 
 
 
 
58 
2.5.1 Population Growth 
The great increase in population in the UAE in addition to the enormous 
expansion of economic and industrial activities has meant that underground water is 
insufficient to cover the present needs for human activities and the rapid 
development.  Figure 2.19 illustrates the population growth in the UAE over the past 
30 years at five year intervals. 
 
Figure 2.19.   Population growth in the United Arab Emirates between 1975 and 2001 
(Ministry of planning, 2002). 
 
 According to the most recent National assessment, the United Arab Emirates 
had a mean annual growth rate of 7.7 % between 1950 and 1995. In addition, 
according to the United Nation medium variant population projection, the UAE will 
have the highest global rate of population growth for the period 1950 to 2050 as 
illustrated in Table 2.8. 
 
 
 
59 
Table 2.8  Average Annual Population Growth Rates (UNPD, 1997) 
Past population Growth, 
 1950 ? 1995 Centennial population Growth, 1950 - 2050 
Population Growth Rate (in %) Population Growth Rate (in %) 
 Average Annual 
1950 ? 1995 
 Average Annual 
1950 ? 2050 
United Arab Emirates 
Qatar 
Western Sahara 
Kuwait 
Djibouti 
Brunei 
Saudi Arabia 
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 
Cote d'Ivoire 
Oman 
7.7 
6.9 
6.4 
5.4 
5.0 
4.0 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.5 
United Arab Emirates 
Western Sahara 
Qatar 
Djibouti 
Oman 
Kuwait 
Saudi Arabia 
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 
Gaza Strip 
Niger 
 
4.0 
3.7 
3.5 
3.2 
3.2 
3.1 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.7 
 
2.5.2 Domestic, Industrial, and Agricultural Water Use 
Imbalances between increasing water demand and existing water resources are 
being experienced by the UAE.  During the last decade, water demand in all sectors 
has increased dramatically as a result of high population growth, improvement in the 
standard of living, efforts to establish self-sufficiency in food, and promotion of 
industrial development. The deficit is being met through sea-water desalination and 
mining of groundwater resources.  Currently, agriculture is the primary water 
consumer in the UAE.  Industrial water demand is very small in comparison to the 
domestic sector. 
Over the course of the last few decades, the UAE government has focused its 
efforts in water development to the inter-emirates, comprising water transfers, wadi-
 basin development, identifying and exploiting natural groundwater reservoirs, and 
creating desalinization systems which has led to a more interconnected water system 
across emirate borders.  
 
 
 
60 
Domestic and industrial water requirements for the UAE are satisfied through 
desalination and a limited amount of groundwater from both shallow and deep 
aquifers. Likewise, agricultural water demand has sharply increased where 
groundwater reserves are being mined.  This agricultural development is a direct 
result of government policies encouraging self-sufficiency in food production. 
Government incentives and subsidies have made it possible for large areas to be 
cultivated, placing great strain on the existing groundwater resources. 
Total water demand for agricultural, industrial, and domestic purposes for the 
UAE increased during the period 1990-2000 from 1.49 to 2.18 bcm, an almost 
twofold increase, due to high population growth and the need for food production. 
Water requirements are expected to reach 3.2 bcm by the year 2025 (Figure 2.20). 
Agriculture accounts for the majority of water use, followed by the domestic sector. 
For the UAE, the agricultural water requirements are estimated at 1.4 bcm in 2000 
and are expected to reach 2.05 bcm in the year 2025. 
Industrial activities in UAE are limited and have contributed to only small 
increases in total water requirements, when compared with the domestic and 
agricultural sectors. Industrial water demand in 2000 reached 30 mcm. Industrial 
demand is projected to reach 50 mcm in the year 2025. 
 Industrial production structure in the UAE is geared towards consumer goods 
and petroleum refinement. Major industries in the United Arab Emirates consist of 
petrochemicals, cement, and limited food and beverage production.  
 
 
 
61 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.20  Past and Projected Water Demand (mcm) in the Arabian Peninsula for 
the Years 1990, 2000, and 2025 (ESCWA, 1994 ? 1995). 
 
 
 
62 
 
2.5.3 Tourism Expansion 
The growing attention given to the tourism industry in the UAE by both 
governmental and private sectors has resulted in significant growth in the UAE.  This 
is reflected in the establishment of a number of governmental departments and 
organizations devoted to tourism promotion.  In addition, a large number of private 
companies and travel agencies specializing in receiving tourist groups and organizing 
tourist tours have been established, Figure 2.21 represents the increase in the 
number of guests (in 1000 ) in the UAE from 1994 to 2002. 
 
Figure 2.21  Number of Guests in 1000 in the UAE 1994 ? 2002 (Ministry of 
Planning, 2003). 
 
The tourism sector has expanded significantly over the past ten years and has 
become an important contributor to the countries gross national product.  The 
increase in hotels revenues from 3.115 billion dirham in 1998 to 3.275 billion dirham 
in 1999 in conjunction with the accompanying rapid promotion of trade activities are a 
 
 
 
63 
good representation of the growing contribution of the tourism sector to national 
income in the UAE.  The implication of the rapid expansion of tourism has 
implications on the sustainability of water, as it can lead to enhanced soil erosion, 
increased pollution discharges into the sea, habitat loss, pressure on endangered 
species and strains on water resources. 
2.5.4 Water losses from transmission pipelines 
 
Water losses from transmission pipelines have a negative impact on the water 
supply capability, and contribute to the increase in the gap between water supply and 
demand in the country.  Therefore, while performing the assessment of the water 
budget for the country, water losses from transmission pipelines must be included in 
the calculation of the water budget.  Also, transmission and distribution pipelines 
must undergo continuous rehabilitation, replacement and cleaning in order to reduce 
those losses. 
 
 
 
 
64 
 
Chapter 3  
The Vision of a National Earth Information System  
to Support Water Resource Assessment 
 
A primary hypothesis, which forms the genesis of this thesis, is that advances in 
water resources assessment (WRA) is severely constrained in the UAE due to the 
non availability of reliable data in support of WRA, and as long this problem persists, 
planning and development of water programs and water assessments will continue to 
remain a guess work. Likewise, there is no compatibility in the data bases in the 
many organizations and institutions that are involved in the collection of water related 
data because each one uses its own procedures and formats.  
3.1. Defining a National Earth Information System 
Collection and assessment of all existing data on water resources, water uses 
and water re-uses in UAE in terms of quantity and quality is a first phase towards a 
fully integrated approach to water resources conservation and management within 
the UAE.  A priority has to be given to a scientific and centralized knowledge of the 
country?s water resources with the building of a national earth information system 
(EIS). The DWRS has begun to establish the UAE national water resources data 
bank which in turn will integrate with the UAE national data bank in the near future 
(Rogers, 1986; Helsel, 1992 and McPhee and Yeh, 1994). The DWRS has been 
mandated to collect basic information, for disseminating central findings, and for 
transforming conclusions in policy proposals for decision makers at the highest level. 
Indeed many of the necessary meteorological data are becoming available through 
 
 
 
65 
the DWRS, with hydrology data, very soon becoming integrated into the EIS, as well 
as other none conventional water resource data which will also join the EIS. 
The current difficulties and challenges that the UAE faces with regards to 
freshwater are due to the tremendous fragmentation of the institutions and data 
which are scattered throughout the country.  The absence of a national data bank in 
the UAE can be identified by the following attributes:  
a) The absence of a central authority that deals with water related studies, 
research, and planning. 
b) An Insufficient number of weather and water monitoring stations. 
c) An inadequate expertise in data collection systems and processes. 
d) Scattering of available hydrologic data, making it nearly impossible to 
create a comprehensive picture of the water resource situation in the UAE.  
 
In fact, the UAE does not currently have a national governing authority that is 
overseeing water resources development, as this development process is currently 
done piecemeal. Therefore as needs arise, institutions, the private sector and even 
individuals identify their own water needs and pursue means of acquisition.  This is 
perhaps nowhere more evident than in the groundwater drilling and pumping 
process, where there is no major legislative control in the form of permitting and 
monitoring, which is a central reason why water resources assessment is currently 
inadequate in the UAE. Without proper assessment of groundwater resources, 
permitting of drilling and pumping activity and monitoring of climate and pumping 
rates, it will be impossible to determine to what extent, our current practices will be 
sustainable.   
With these facts in mind, the vision of a comprehensive earth information 
system is based on the idea of developing a computer-based modeling and database 
 
 
 
66 
system that utilizes cutting-edge hardware, software, and engineering development 
techniques for all manner of scientific disciplines related to the management of water 
resources.  This means the inclusion of data from the physical sciences, including: 
Meteorology, hydrology, geology, ecology and geography; and from the social 
sciences (GIS and Remote Sensing): economics, socio-economic development, 
human behavioral data (tourism, water use, water saving, etc.), and industrial data 
(desalinization capacity, heavy industrial water use rates, light industrial water use 
rates, etc.). 
3.2. An Earth Information system for the United Arab Emirates 
The integration of these disparate datasets requires innovative thinking as to 
how to bring them together in the most useful and constructive manner as possible.  
It is one thing to store an abundance of data, while it is quite another to integrate 
them into a useful set of information that a decision maker will find useful.  
The system is centered on a computerized relational database that can house 
terabytes of data.  There is nothing particularly special about a relational database in 
this context, but what is important, is realizing that such a database would need to 
store, retrieve and display many different kinds of data, develop means too retrieve 
them, and then find the most effective means of analyzing the results and 
summarizing those results for decision makers. Therefore, there are four critical 
elements to the data identification, acquisition, and storage process which are 
summarized below: 
a) Identifying Sources of data. 
b) Determining the Reliability of the data. 
c) Ensuring complete temporal and spatial Coverage of the data. 
 
 
 
67 
d) The ability to articulate the problems and issues that need to be addressed 
with this data. 
 
 
Figure 3.1 The organizational structure of a UAE water resources and environmental 
Earth Information System database. 
 
3.3. Components of the Earth Information System 
As can be seen in Figure 3.1, the vision for the EIS is quite comprehensive; 
comprising a number of disciplines that would be coordinated into a central database 
system and whose data could not only be accessible internally, by the staff of the 
Department of Water Resource Studies, but also through the Internet via web-
 browser based computing environments. Users of the system will be able to make 
queries to the database, visualize data via advanced graphical representations and 
have the ability to download select datasets that would be compatible for further 
 
 
 
68 
analysis using such analytical tools such as commercial Geographical Information 
Systems, Excel, Etc. Each component is described in more detail below. 
3.3.1 The Meteorological Component 
Over the past few years, the DWRS has pursued the development and 
deployment of an advanced, automated weather observational station (AWOS) 
comprised of over more than 50 AWOS, that cover the whole UAE, with real time 
data acquisition every 15 minutes. Parameters such as rainfall, temperature, 
humidity, wind speed and direction, solar radiation, etc. are included. In addition to 
AWOS towers, the system also is comprised of:  
a) More than 10 automatic monitoring marine stations that covers most of the 
UAE costal zone, with real time data acquisition every 15 minutes.  
b) Six weather radars covering the whole UAE. 
c) Implementation of an advanced meso-scale weather forecasting model, 
the Mesoscale Model-Version 5 (MM5). 
 
All of the above mentioned projects are very vital to the estimation of 
groundwater recharge, and the scientific analysis of the potential contribution of 
rainfall enhancement in increasing groundwater recharge rates. 
The meteorological components of the EIS are perhaps the most advanced 
part of the system, and drive its development requirements due to the fact that many 
of the datasets are real-time and require sophisticated control. Figure 3.2 shows all 
elements of the meteorology sub-components, including the data collections 
platforms: 1) Land-based Automated Weather Stations; 2) Marine-based Automated 
Weather Stations; 3) A weather radar network; 4) Satellite and other remotely sensed 
data products; 5) Upper air data from a network of lidar (Light Detection And 
 
 
 
69 
Ranging, which uses the same principle as weather radar); 5) Data from global 
weather models such as the European Center for Medium Range forecasts; 6) The 
World Meteorological Organizations Global Telecommunications Systems (GTS) data 
feeds for upper air (sounding) data.  
 
Figure 3.2  The meteorological components of the EIS system. 
 
In addition to the real-time data, collection platforms are derived data sets and 
datasets computed as Climatological statistics from the raw data. For example, data 
derived from the network of weather radar can be used to develop ?radar climatology? 
datasets, which would be useful for studying seasonal rainfall patterns or in support 
of rainfall enhancement programs, or other such studies.  Data from the automated 
weather stations can be used to compute Climatological statistics such as high and 
low temperature extremes, precipitation totals and maximums and many others. 
 
 
 
70 
The system also includes an advanced meso-scale weather forecasting system. 
This component of the EIS requires sophisticated hardware and software and 
generates a tremendous amount of data in real-time, as it generates weather 
forecasts on a daily basis.  The weather forecasting model integrates many of the 
real-time observations (Automated Weather Observational Stations (AWOS), Global 
Telecommunication System (GTS), and European Center of Medium Weather 
Forecast (ECMWF)) to help improve its forecasts.  
An overview of the system is given in Figure 3.3, and shows the system 
centered upon the ?The Model Application Cluster? (MAC) which is comprised of a 
linked set of 48 individual computers networked together to execute the weather 
forecast model. The MAC runs a Real-Time Four-Dimensional Data Assimilation (RT-
 FDDA) weather forecasting model, which is then supported by and supplies data to 
the database system commonly referred to as the Data Application Cluster (DAC). 
The DAC controls the main geospatial database for the system. Networked GIS 
workstations function as independent analysis tools, which can directly link to the 
DAC database via customized software or via Open Data Base Connectivity (ODBC) 
Drivers such as the Windows-based MySQL ODBC 3.5.1. 
In addition to these components, meteorological data are also being collected 
from other agencies throughout the UAE, who collect similar types of meteorological 
data. For example, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has several AWOS 
stations that collect the full compliment of meteorological data as well as a network of 
rain gauges whose data archives extend back to the 1970?s. These data are being 
collected and incorporated into the EIS system.  Daily rainfalls from nearly 30 rain 
gauges dating back to 1980 have been inserted into the database.  
 
 
 
71 
 
DAC 
3.2TB RAID 
Tape 
Archive 
Static Data Sets 
(GTZ, GWRP, 
etc.) 
Model 
Application 
Cluster 
Data Process/Query 
(uae-fido) 
Display- uaeViz 
(uae-viz) 
Data Ingest 
(uae-ingest) 
Other data sets 
(ECMWF, 
WMO, etc) 
 
Radar data from 
TITAN system 
MicroStep Data 
DWRS CLDB Satellite (TBD)  
 
Figure 3.3  UAE-4DEiS System Hardware and Functional Process Description. 
 
3.3.2 The Hydro-Geologic Components 
The hydro-geologic component of the EIS system includes all manner of data 
associated with the terrestrial part of the hydrologic cycle. This includes data about 
wadis, the geography of wadis, dams and reservoirs, alluvial groundwater aquifers, 
deep groundwater aquifers, digital elevation data; digital land use and land cover 
data, etc.  Figure 3.2 summarizes all hydrologic components while Figure 3.3 
summarizes the current geologic components that are being considered in the EIS 
system under the ?hydrogeology? category. 
Mapping geology with geophysics has the power to extend geological 
knowledge into areas where the geology is covered by transported sands (as in UAE 
case).  Unfortunately, only recently, a few foreign companies in cooperation with 
 
 
 
72 
some national companies or institutions started hydrological exploration projects with 
the aim of water resources assessment. These companies used expensive ground 
geophysics techniques. Combining geophysical methods enhances the accuracy of 
the maps generated. 
 
Figure 3.4  The hydrologic components of the EIS system. 
 
Airborne geophysical techniques have been employed since the 1960's to 
characterize the subsurface. A high-resolution airborne geophysical survey is a rapid 
and cost effective technique, and an invaluable tool for the national resources 
exploration.  Geophysical airborne survey will support the DWRS on the 
implementation of its strategic plan regarding sustainable water management.  
 
 
 
73 
The focus is to identify and quantify existing water supplies in the UAE to support 
critical decisions on future water management. The purpose of this is to eventually 
provide a comprehensive suite of specialized geophysical services within the UAE to 
study and evaluate existing water assets and natural water aquifers. It is recognized 
that better understanding is required of the existing fresh groundwater resources 
within the UAE for effective water resource management. This process will serve to 
inform water resource management in the UAE in the foreseeable future. 
 
Figure 3.5  The geologic components of the EIS system. 
 
 
 
74 
3.3.3 Other Components 
Figure 3.5 references the other data elements that are being included in the 
EIS system, which are summarized in Figure 3.6.  These include geographic data 
which are common to commercial the geographic information system (GIS), such as 
the Environmental System Research Institute?s (ESRI) ARCGIS? software.  These 
can include all manner of geographic data, such as: Country Borders/Land and 
Ocean, Cities, Populated Areas, Wadis, Roads, Urban Areas, Green Areas. Gridded 
data, including topography, land use and land cover, all manner of geologic data 
(soils, minerals, tectonics); national census data (population, housing, tourism, and 
infrastructure such as water, electricity and telecommunications, etc.); environmental 
data (pollution, waste water production, etc.). 
   a) GIS and remote sensing.       b) Economic and vital statistics. 
     
   c) Environmental Data.        d) Other sources. 
    
Figure 3.6  Detailed geologic components of the EIS system. 
 
 
 
75 
 
3.4. Data Resources in the UAE 
As part of the EIS, all the major supporting datasets that are housed in different 
institutions spread throughout the country are being gathered for inclusion into the 
Earth Information System. However, it is impossible, impractical and nonsensical to 
include all data.  The first priority is to identify the most important data elements for 
WRA, the current sources of water related data in the country, and identify the 
necessary requirements to meet the upcoming data needs first, the institutional 
authorities, both public and private, are identified throughout the UAE (which are 
responsible or have an interest in water related data).  Next, the data that these 
institutions require or collect are identified and finally they are gathered and inserted 
into the database. 
3.4.1 Public Authorities 
There are four major authorities responsible for the urban and rural water and 
domestic water supply. They are responsible for producing and distributing water and 
electricity, according to geographic distribution: 
a) Abu Dhabi water and electricity authority (AWEA) for Abu Dhabi Emirate. 
b) Dubai electricity and water authority (DEWA) for Dubai emirate. 
c) Sharjah electricity and water authority (SEWA) for Sharjah emirate. 
d) The federal electricity and water authority (FEWA), located in Dubai, for the 
emirates of Ajman, Ras AL Khaimah, Umm AL Quwain and Fujairah and 
the rural area of Sharjah. 
 
The data collected from these authorities includes:  
a) Desalination plants locations, types, capacity, production, consumption, 
etc. 
 
 
 
76 
b) Desalination plants under construction. 
c) Groundwater well numbers, types, production capacity, water quality, 
sustainability. 
 
3.4.2 Governmental Ministries 
Data will be continually collected from different ministries including: 
a) Ministry of planning. 
b) Ministry of agriculture and fisheries. 
c) Ministry of industry. 
d) Ministry of electricity and water. 
 
The data collected from these authorities include the following: 
a) Population by emirate and year. 
b) Population in main cities. 
c) Average annual growth rate. 
d) Estimates of population by Emirate. 
e) Actual and estimated population. 
f) Labour force. 
g) Tourism. 
h) Agriculture expansion & growth. 
i) Industrial expansion & growth. 
j) Additional weather and climate information. 
k) Information on wadis and dams. 
 
 
 
 
77 
In addition to the aforementioned it will be important to conduct studies, research to 
gather the necessary and statistics that relate to water consumption in the domestic, 
agricultural and industrial sectors. 
3.4.3 Companies working on water projects inside the UAE 
 
Data are under collection from several foreign companies including but not limited to 
the following:- 
a) United States Geologic Survey as part of the Groundwater Research 
Program. 
b) NDC (National Drilling Company). 
c) ADNOC (Abu Dhabi National Oil Company) 
d) GTZ. 
e) Schlumberger. 
 
Data available from the above mentioned companies are entirely related to 
ground water aquifers locations, types, volumes, productivity, recharge rate, 
sustainability, water quality and quantities, etc. So, listing or giving a list for all the 
available scientific researches with regard to the groundwater resources in the UAE 
will assist in making the available information available for research and 
management decisions. 
3.4.4 Other Resources  
Data from universities, research centers, and other available studies related to 
water resources in the UAE, concerning both past and current situations, will be 
sought after.  In addition, there are many international and regional data resources 
concerning water related subjects such as, hydrogeology, water resources, etc, 
 
 
 
78 
especially those related to water resources in Arid and semi-Arid regions including 
the Arabian countries & Arabian Peninsula such as: 
a) World Water Vision ? Arab countries Vision Consultations. 
b) Geo 2000 (Global Environmental Outlook). 
c) WWAP (World Water Assessment Program). 
d) UNESCO Data base. 
e) UNEP Data Base. 
f) ESCWA (United Nations Economic & social Commission for Western 
Asia). 
g) CSAD (Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Land). 
 
3.5. Data Classification and sorting 
 
Data will be classified and sorted according to the above mentioned categories 
and sub-categories. Also, the reliability of the data must be evaluated so that only 
reliable data will be taken into account. In addition, the coverage of the data is very 
important for the evaluation of the country water budget. 
Data must be processed independently in order to figure out the effect of each 
parameter on the water supply and demand of the country After that the general 
water budget of the UAE will be calculated. 
 
 
 
79 
Chapter 4  
Supporting the Information System through Research 
 
The importance of an Earth Information system for integrated water resources 
assessment has led to the vision and implementation of a number of systems and 
projects initiated by the Department of Water Resources Studies (DWRS) of the 
Office of His Highness, The President. This system should enhance data collection, 
processing and interpretation in the UAE, which in turn will help researchers in 
conducting real water resources assessment and management using real and 
reliable data. In the next few pages, a summary of some initial research priorities that 
the UAE can pursue.  This is a sample list of the projects achieved: 
4.1. Advanced Airborne Survey Technology In Ground Water Resource 
Assessments 
 
Over the past several years, different airborne geophysical technologies have 
been applied to great effect, to groundwater resource exploration and management 
around the world.  The UAE (DWRS) is investigating whether these technologies may 
help in the search and management of fresh groundwater resources in the Emirates, 
where thousands of boreholes have been drilled over the past eight years.  The 
DWRS recently invited some airborne geophysical survey companies to fly a variety 
of technologies over a known groundwater resource near the Al Khazna Palace to 
demonstrate the speed and quality of data acquisition and show how the data could 
be integrated with existing datasets to provide the most value for water, minerals, 
agriculture and environmental industries.  
A combination of airborne technologies was flown, including Time Domain 
Electromagnetic (TEM), magnetic, Gamma Ray Radiometric, and laser altimeter 
 
 
 
80 
systems. The HoistEM was mounted on a UAE Army helicopter using an in-loop 
configuration. The low flying height of the transmitter allows stronger signal strength 
into the ground over a smaller footprint.  This means that the HoistEM system is 
capable of resolving conductors as narrow as 30 meters. Furthermore, the symmetric 
geometry of the transmitter and receiver configuration produces a clean symmetric 
response, independent of the flying direction (Figure 4.1) 
The interpretation of the data took advantage of additional information supplied by 
institutions that are carrying on work of groundwater exploration, such as bore holes 
and groundwater geophysical data, to show how these data could be applied, to add 
value to the identification and management of water resources. 
 
Figure 4.1  The actual helicopter hoist mounted EM system with transmitter (TX) and 
receiver (Rx) coils on a UAE Army helicopter. 
 
 
 
 
 
81 
The Al Khazna area (Figure 4.2) was chosen for the trial because the 
hydrogeology has already been investigated from historic drilling exploration by GTZ 
consultants.  These drilling results suggest that the shallow to medium deep seated 
stratigraphy beneath the area (down to a depth of approximately 200 meters) 
comprises three main sedimentary sequences (Figure 4.3):  
a) Recent wind blown sand deposits. 
b) Pleistocene to recent distal fluvial fan deposits, intercalated with inland 
sabkha. 
c) Tertiary continental and evaporate deposits of the Fars Formation.  
 
 
Figure 4.2  Location map showing the Al Khazna survey area. 
 
 
 
 
82 
The survey area is covered by Quaternary sand dunes which form in broad sand 
ridges several kilometers wide and spaced several kilometers apart.  The surface of 
these ridges is covered by loose fine grained light brown dry sand that is readily 
remobilized by the wind into high choppy asymmetric dunes or low sand sheet areas 
(Figure 4.3).   The sand cover is underlain by up to 50 to 100 m of fluvial 
conglomerate, gravel, clayey silt and fine sand. The conglomerate contains clasts of 
ophiolite, chart, dolomite and shale cemented with calcrete, gypsum and manganese 
oxide.   
 
Figure 4.3 EW Geological section of Al Khazna based on GTZ drilling logs. 
 
Fresh groundwater mainly occurs in the sand and conglomerate lenses between 
a depth of 10 and 100 meters.  The Tertiary clay stones tend to have very little 
permeability or storage and the salinity tends to be higher due to the presence of 
evaporated deposits.  Figure 4.4 shows a water quality map produced by GTZ 
 
 
 
83 
Consultants based on bore-water quality samples collected from numerous scattered 
private and exploration boreholes in the fluvial deposits. 
 
Figure 4.4  Groundwater qualities in the fluvial gravel aquifer at Al Khazna, 
(reproduced from GTZ consultants). 
 
From the results of the survey trials, it is clear that rapid, high quality airborne 
data acquisition surveys are feasible in the Emirates.  When airborne data is 
integrated with existing datasets, it provides a powerful tool, not only for the rapid 
search and management of fresh groundwater resources, but also in mineral 
exploration, agriculture and environmental management.  
Never before has a ?whole of country survey? been undertaken and the challenge 
for the DWRS will be to manage the quantity, integrity and security of the data 
acquisition, as well as how the data is integrated with other users to provide 
meaningful value added products. 
 
 
 
84 
4.2. Water Demand Forecast 
Despite the increases in water demand and accompanying increases in the 
supply infrastructure, water remains scarce in many localities in the UAE, yet there is 
still no national understand regarding the nature of these demands, how they are 
being met, and how they can be sustained in the future. Well formulated and planned 
research is necessary to address these issues. 
The scarcity of water is enhanced by the rapid increase in irrigation water 
requirements for farming and landscaping. The UAE government has recently 
decreed a large increase in the number of farms that fully depend on desalinated 
water. The decree is part of the government policy for distributing the farms to the 
citizen population in order to reach self sufficiency in most items of food production. 
However, the agricultural sector is heavily subsidized by the government. 
The percentage growth in citizen population is high in comparison with other 
countries. Additionally, economic growth has resulted in an increase in non-citizen 
population. An average population growth of 5.8% is forecasted by the ministry of 
planning. In addition, the population growth in rural areas is approximately twice the 
growth in urban areas. High per capita consumption is caused by the climatic 
conditions prevailing in the UAE, high standard of living and low tariff structure for 
water. 
 
 
 
85 
4.3. Rainfall Enhancement 
For the reasons detailed in this thesis, namely the impeding water crisis and 
the fact that the UAE is in a perpetual state of water scarcity, the UAE government 
through the DWRS office has explored the possibilities to augment water resources 
via methods such as cloud seeding to enhance rainfall. 
The potential for such man-made increases is strongly dependent on the 
natural microphysics (e.g. the size and concentration of water droplets and ice inside 
clouds) and dynamics of the clouds that are being seeded.  These factors can differ 
significantly from one geographical region to another, and even between seasons in 
the same region.  In some instances clouds may not be suitable for seeding or the 
frequency of occurrence of suitable clouds may be too low to warrant the investment 
in a cloud seeding program. Therefore, the following two questions are critical to 
answer before proceeding: 
a) Does the frequency of occurrence of clouds warrant the investment in a 
cloud seeding program? 
 
b) Would the clouds in UAE, based on our current knowledge of cloud 
seeding techniques, be amenable to seeding in order to enhance rainfall? 
 
As part of the UAE program that included flights over the Oman Mountain 
region from 2001 through 2003, research suggested that the frequency of occurrence 
of clouds during the summer was sufficient to warrant a randomized cloud seeding 
experiment and that those clouds were amenable for seeding with hygroscopic flares 
to enhance rainfall. Measurements conducted with the new Al Ain radar in the UAE 
during the 2003 summer supported the earlier results. During the winter, insufficient 
cloud opportunities occurred to warrant a cloud seeding program.  
 
 
 
86 
With respect to the second question, microphysical observations of cloud 
droplets and aerosols show continental conditions in both the UAE and Oman during 
the summer.  More varying conditions exist during the winter, mostly due to weaker 
cloud conditions (higher clouds and lower updraft speeds).  The consistency of the 
measurements across the region indicates that during the summer, convective 
storms could be amenable to seeding with hygroscopic flares in the vicinity of the 
Oman Mountains. 
Based on the results mentioned above, the UAE government through the 
DWRS is evaluating and quantifying the increases in precipitation due to seeding, 
using a randomization procedure to demonstrate statistically that the seeding method 
works, and to quantify the increase achieved.  This approach is similar, for example, 
to what is commonly done in medical trials with a new drug.   The data from these 
experiments, particularly radar and weather forecasting, will be incorporated into the 
EIS system. 
4.4. Water Budget Analysis via Hydrometeorology Observatories 
Here, water budget analysis refers to studies related to the physical hydrologic 
cycle. There is a fundamental question that is yet unanswered with regards to 
renewable water resources in the UAE, namely: What is the primary mechanism of 
recharge to the alluvial aquifers, and does their rate of extraction far exceed their 
replenishment?  The study of wadi hydrology, while tackled by many in the UAE has 
been too geared around fragmented research. What is needed is a clear vision that 
seeks to understand the physical hydrology of these systems.  The EIS can help this 
process by providing an integrating framework for conducting studies and a central 
repository for storing new data. 
 
 
 
87 
These kinds of studies could also address issues such as: 
a) Quantify and qualify existing water resources within the UAE through use 
of new airborne geophysical data acquisition in conjunction of existing 
data. 
b) Identify and map saline/fresh water interfaces and intrusions along the 
coastline. 
c) Map saline water migration pathways into agricultural areas. 
d) Identify and map prehistoric water aquifers in desert areas. 
e) Interpretation of integrated data to produce new water resources maps. 
 
The DWRS is envisioning the development of a hydro-meteorological 
observatory, centered upon one or two ideal wadis located in the UAE. The idea is to 
heavily instrument with all necessary equipment, the wadi bed and the surrounding 
watershed contained within it, with a dense network of strategically placed rain 
gauges, surface flux towers that could measure heat and moisture fluxes from the 
land surface.  Also, dense network of soil moisture sensors both normal and parallel 
to the wadi bed, placed at multiple depths, to determine the penetration depth of soil 
water following rainfall and wadi flow.  Until we know the nature of rainfall that leads 
to sufficient runoff and recharge, we will still not fully understand the mechanisms of 
groundwater recharge, particularly in the alluvial aquifers associated with wadis.  
 
 
 
88 
Chapter 5  
Summary and Conclusion 
 
The UAE have limited renewable freshwater supplies, which have been nearly 
fully developed, with fossil groundwater reserves the only dependable source in 
many areas and a tremendous reliance on desalinization to meet growing urban and 
tourist demands. In some regions, depletion of these non-renewable groundwater 
resources is taking place at an alarming rate, owing to over pumping in order to meet 
agricultural and other requirements. 
Improvements in the standard of living and urban migration, coupled with the 
absence of conservation programmes, have brought about high domestic water 
consumption, which itself increased, for example, three times from 1980 to 1990. 
Programmes currently in force have focused mainly on the development of water 
resources rather than management, in order to meet rising water demand. To 
overcome water shortages, the UAE have come to rely on desalination and mining of 
groundwater resources. Conservative forecasts indicate that demand during the 
period 1995-2025 for all sectors is expected to increase almost twofold. 
As mentioned before in the preliminary findings, there are a major challenges 
and driving forces which have a negative impact on the water resources in the UAE, 
starting with the highest population growth in the world and ending with, but not 
limited to, multiplicity of authorities, lack of comprehensive national water policies and 
inadequacy of public awareness. 
It is important to stress water management and acceptance that water is a 
commodity in short supply, and therefore has distinct value and cost and is not 
something available on demand in any quantity at virtually no cost. To achieve this 
 
 
 
89 
goal, there is a growing need for an awareness programme of the problems involved 
in the conservation and rational use of water, and the protection of groundwater to 
support what may prove unpopular economic policies. The awareness programme 
should target all educational levels.  It should cover the relevant parameters grouped 
as below: 
a) Conservation of resources. 
b) Special, well controlled education programmes on the best methods of 
exploitation. 
c) Drilling, modern techniques of water distribution and continuous 
maintenance.  
d) Scales of charges for fresh water. 
e) Establishment of agricultural guidelines for the use of Sea and Brackish 
water in Irrigation.  
f) Monitoring the usage of modern irrigation techniques, which reduce water 
demand and enhance production, like drip and sprinkler irrigation 
techniques. Concentrate on trees resistant to drought & salinity, and 
encouraging the use of greenhouses. 
g) Development of database for all the UAE which preserves all the 
hydrological cycle data beside wells information data. 
h) The water resources and their conservation are essential for the country for 
both present and future generations. 
i) Finally, we have to work together to protect the future of our children 
because we did not inherit the world from our parents ? we borrowed 
it from our children (Mohammed A Abu Zeid, president of the world water 
council)   
 
 
 
 
90 
 
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