Socio-technical factors impacting youth

perspectives on digital transformation in

resource-constrained environments:

A study of Diepsloot youth

By

Lorraine Matanda

1813095

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts in the field of ICT Policy and Regulation

LINK Centre, SLLM, University of the Witwatersrand

Supervisor: Dr. L. Abrahams

Co-Supervisor: Prof. N.M. Ochara

February 2023

1



DECLARATION

Name: Lorraine Matanda

Student Number: 1813095

Degree: Master of Arts in the field of ICT Policy and Regulation

Socio-technical factors impacting youth perspectives on digital transformation in

resource-constrained environments: A study of Diepsloot youth

_________________________________________________________________________

I declare that the above dissertation is my own work and that all the sources that I have used

or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

19 June 2023

_________________________ ____________________

Signature Date

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ABSTRACT

There has been a proliferation of tech hubs in Africa, with more than 80 in South Africa,

forming a foundation for more inclusive digital innovation. However, we do not sufficiently

understand the relationships between tech hubs, digital inclusiveness and poverty. This

study explores the sociotechnical factors influencing access and use of the Internet to

achieve social inclusion in resource-constrained environments. The literature reviewed

focused on social influences on digital adoption, tech hub infrastructure, digital skills, and

trends in Information Communication Technologies (ICT) policies.

The study’s findings are categorised into themes using the sociotechnical systems (STS)

theoretical framework. Each of the seven STS theoretical components (goals, culture,

people, processes, infrastructure, technology and environment) were used as a lens to

explore the social and technical factors that influence the perspectives of the youth on digital

transformation. These themes were then mapped to the four dimensions of the research

questions (social influence of digital adoption, institutional infrastructure for access, digital

skills, and ICT policies for digital enablement) to highlight key findings and interpretations of

the study.

Under social influences, the youth demonstrated resilience driven by a need to improve their

standard of living in a challenging environment. The institutional infrastructure, designed to

support youth to access digital technologies, is constrained by a lack of resources. Tech

hubs are using creative ways with the limited resources to cater to all their patrons, although

there is room for improvement. In terms of digital skills, four youth profiles are highlighted to

demonstrate a solid existence of digital skills and pursuit of tangible outcomes among the

youth. In addition, the youth want to pursue entrepreneurship, meaning that tech hubs can

potentially become mass training centres for digital entrepreneurship. Finally, a review of ICT

policies revealed a chasm between the ICT policy objectives and activities on the ground,

pointing to a lack of implementation and monitoring of ICT policies. Acting as a platform for

digital foundations, tech hubs in marginalised environments must engage policymakers and

reinforce their role in digital empowerment to influence policy development.

This research is located in the qualitative interpretivist paradigm. A total of 21 in-depth

interviews were conducted with 18 youth, with an equal representation of male and female,

and three tech hub managers. Based on the researcher's analysis, access to the Internet

offers the resilient youth a view into "a new world" that makes them feel they can achieve

anything they want. The high literacy level among the youth puts them in good stead for

digital upskilling, and they are motivated to participate in the digital economy. However, ICT

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policy objectives concerning universal access look good on paper, but in reality, poor people

are still offline. They are still excluded.

Keywords: Digital transformation, tech hubs, youth, poverty, sociotechnical theory, social inclusion

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Lucienne Abrahams and

Prof. Nixon Muganda. You made the journey of learning a fulfilling one, though it was not

easy. You pushed me, you challenged me, you made me cry once or twice, the corrections

did not seem to end and the well dones were far between. Through all of this, I became

more determined and motivated to fulfil all the requirements of the degree. Today it is

complete. Sigh. You imparted not only knowledge but also a love for discovering knowledge.

To you, I owe a tonne of gratitude for your guidance and patience.

To the tech hub managers at Wot If? Trust and Southern Africa Youth Project, thank you for

your invaluable insights and for allowing me into your spaces to conduct my research. To the

youth of Diepsloot, thank you for sharing your perspectives on digital transformation. This

study would not have been possible without your valuable time and contributions.

To the great companies that I have worked for while studying this program, Altron and Air

Liquide. Thank you for the financial assistance and creating an enabling environment to

pursue my studies and share my learning journey.

To my niece, Tendai Marima-Ruzvidzo, PhD, thank you for taking the time to critically review

my work and risking being taken to the elders for discipline. Your insights and questions

were invaluable in the writing of this research. I am forever grateful.

To my helper of more than ten years and second mummy to my children, Mukai Noti, a

special thank you. I hardly left my desk during the final months of writing this research paper.

Thank you for running the household, ensuring that meals were served on time every day,

clothes ironed and the house cleaned.

To my siblings and my children who always had to work around my schedule and put many

plans on hold, particularly in the final months of writing this research, I owe you the world!

To my dear husband Bebura Matanda, this was a journey you walked with me every step of

the way. You were ever-present, giving me support and at times cheering me on when the

demands of the degree were weighing me down. Thank you for your patience and love. We

have a lot of catching up on our favourite programs on Netflix!

Most importantly, to God be the glory, for according to Deuteronomy 8:18, “it is He who gives

the ability to produce wealth.”

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this dissertation to my daughters - Sophie-Rose, Samia, and Alyssa. This

dissertation is an example that hard work, perseverance, and focus produce great results.

As you grow older and find your own ways in the world, may you always aim to get to the

extra mile. The extra mile requires hard work, perseverance, and focus. Take these within

your stride and you will be successful.

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ABBREVIATIONS

4IR Fourth Industrial Revolution

AI Artificial intelligence

CA Capability Approach

Covid-19 Coronavirus disease of 2019

DSD Department of Social Development

DT Digital Transformation

e-Gov Electronic government

ICASA Independent Communications Authority South Africa

ICT Information Communication Technology

ICT4D Information Communication Technology for Development

ITU International Telecommunications Union

NDP National Development Plan

PC4IR Presidential Commission on Fourth Industrial Revolution

RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme

SONA State of the Nation Address

SSA Sub Saharan Africa

STS Socio-technical system

TAM Technology Acceptance Model

Tech hubs Technology hubs

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Contents
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND: SOCIOTECHNICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING
PERSPECTIVES OF YOUTH ON DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION........................................14

1.0 Introduction to the study ............................................................................................14
1.1 Research Problem Statement ................................................................................... 14
1.2 Research Purpose Statement.................................................................................... 15
1.3 Research Questions ..................................................................................................15
1.4 Research Aim and Objectives ................................................................................... 15
1.5 Background discussion on the evolution of tech hubs in Africa................................. 15
1.6 Context of the study: The social and economical environment in Diepsloot.............. 17

1.6.1 Evolution of ICT policies for digital enablement in South Africa........................ 20
1.6.2 Digital skills landscape in South Africa..............................................................21

1.7 Delimitations of the Study...........................................................................................22
1.8 Conceptual descriptions of the study......................................................................... 22

1.8.1 Youth................................................................................................................. 22
1.8.2 Poverty.............................................................................................................. 22
1.8.3 Resource-constrained environments ................................................................22
1.8.4 Digital transformation (DT)................................................................................ 22
1.8.5 Tech hubs.......................................................................................................... 23
1.8.6 Digital skills........................................................................................................23
1.8.7 Social inclusion..................................................................................................23
1.8.8 Digital economies.............................................................................................. 23

1.9 Research report outline ............................................................................................. 24
1.10 Summary of the chapter .......................................................................................... 25

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ON DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND
SOCIOTECHNICAL INFLUENCES ON TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION.................................. 26

2.0 Overview of the chapter............................................................................................. 26
2.1 Conceptualising Digital Transformation (DT)............................................................. 26
2.2 Social influences affecting adoption of technology.....................................................26

2.2.1 The people’s context, a fundamental social factor for DT................................. 27
2.2.2 Poverty excludes the poor from using digital technology.................................. 27

2.3 Institutional infrastructure - tech hubs, the sociotechnical spaces............................. 28
2.3.1 Tech hubs, a bridge to Internet access..............................................................28
2.3.2 Tech hubs as catalysts of economic and digital inclusion................................. 29
2.3.4 Challenges encountered by tech hubs.............................................................. 31
2.3.5 Bringing resilience to tech hubs........................................................................ 32

2.4 Digital skills overview and motivation......................................................................... 33
2.4.1 Empowering the youth with digital skills .......................................................... 34

2.5 Key approaches in policies and strategies for digital inclusiveness...........................35
2.5.1 Addressing universal access through ICT policy and strategy .........................36
2.5.2 Addressing the digital skills gap through tech hubs.......................................... 37
2.5.3 Advancing socio-economic rights through ICT policies ....................................37
2.5.4 ICT policy implementation challenges .............................................................38

2.6 Theoretical framework introduction............................................................................ 39

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2.6.1 The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)........................................................39
2.6.2 The Capability Approach (CA)...........................................................................39
2.6.3 Sociotechnical systems (STS) theory ...............................................................40
2.6.4 Conceptual Research Framework.....................................................................41

2.7 Summary of the Chapter ........................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 3: INTERPRETIVIST RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................... 43

3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................43
3.1 Research paradigm.................................................................................................... 43

3.1.1 Rationale for adopting Interpretivism paradigm ................................................43
3.2 Research Approach ..................................................................................................44
3.3 Research Strategy......................................................................................................44
3.4 Research Design .......................................................................................................44

3.4.1 Unit of Analysis .................................................................................................44
3.4.2 Population ........................................................................................................ 45
3.4.3 Sample ............................................................................................................. 45
3.4.4 Demographics of the Participants..................................................................... 45
3.4.5 Sampling technique ..........................................................................................46
3.4.6 Data Collection Method..................................................................................... 47
3.4.7 Data analysis ....................................................................................................48
3.4.8 Ethical considerations....................................................................................... 50

3.5 Summary of the chapter ........................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 4: THE DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION JOURNEY OF DIEPSLOOT YOUTH....51

4.0 Introduction: Presentation of findings.........................................................................51
4.1 Goals: All about self-improvement in the long term....................................................52

4.1.1 Employability in the digital economy................................................................. 52
4.1.2 Participation in the digital economy ..................................................................53
4.1.3 Giving back to Diepsloot through working as tech hub managers.................... 53
4.1.4 Reflections on the theme of self-improvement in the long term........................ 55

4.2 Culture: Resilience in the face of a challenging context.............................................55
4.2.1 Youth resilience in the face of socio-economic challenges............................... 55
4.2.2 Peer pressure as a socio-economic challenge faced by Diepsloot youth......... 56
4.2.3 Positive influence amidst socio-economic challenges.......................................57
4.2.4 Reflections on the impact of culture on youth adoption of technology ............. 58

4.3 People: Digital skills to access economic opportunities............................................. 58
4.3.1 Assessment of technical digital skills among the Diepsloot youth.....................58
4.3.2 Beyond technical skills: Contextual digital skills among Diepsloot youth.......... 60
4.3.3 Profiles of youth who have been digitally empowered...................................... 61
4.3.4 Reflections on digital empowerment of Diepsloot youth....................................63

4.4 Processes: Procedures to achieve set goals............................................................. 63
4.4.1 Partnerships for outsourcing capacity............................................................... 63
4.4.2 Learnerships to build digital skills......................................................................64
4.4.3 Time-sharing in line with digital economy principles..........................................65
4.4.4 Reflections on processes to achieve system goals...........................................65

4.5 Infrastructure: Supporting access and use of digital technologies in Diepsloot......... 66

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4.5.1 Physical access to devices, supporting infrastructure and software................. 66
4.5.2 Digital access and digital content...................................................................... 68
4.5.3 Reflections on the infrastructure to access technology in tech hubs.................68

4.6 Technology: The key artefact in the tech hub.............................................................69
4.6.1 The Internet: an escape and pathway to a new world.......................................69
4.6.2 A "new world" from a philosophical perspective ..............................................70
4.6.3 Characterisation of the uses of technology by Diepsloot youth.........................70
4.6.4 Reflections on technology and Internet as key artefacts in the tech hub.......... 72

4.7 Environment: ICT policies' effectiveness in supporting social inclusion.....................72
4.7.1 Universal access policy key to achieving social inclusion ................................ 72
4.7.2 Digital skills roadmap that leaves no one behind............................................. 73
4.7.3 ICT policy impact on the Internet as a human right...........................................73
4.7.4 Impact of 4IR recommendations on digital technology use..............................74
4.7.5 Reflections on the ICT policies' effectiveness in supporting social inclusion.... 74

4.8 Synthesis of findings and objectives.......................................................................... 75
4.9 Summary of chapter ................................................................................................ 76

CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPING A SOCIALLY INCLUSIVE STS FRAMEWORK FOR TECH
HUBS IN RESOURCE-CONSTRAINED ENVIRONMENTS................................................. 77

5.0 Introduction.................................................................................................................77
5.1 Conceptual framework revisit..................................................................................... 77
5.2 A socially inclusive tech hub framework for resource-constrained environments...... 77

5.2.1 Goals alignment critical in design of tech hub................................................... 78
5.2.2 Build an innovative and digital culture............................................................... 79
5.2.3 People-centred digital transformation................................................................79
5.2.4 Governance processes in local tech hubs.........................................................80
5.2.5 Bricolage infrastructure in local tech hubs ........................................................80
5.2.6 The transforming power of technology.............................................................. 80
5.2.7 Robust engagement with policymakers.............................................................81

5.3 Summary of chapter ................................................................................................ 83
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION: HOW THE SOCIALLY-INCLUSIVE STS FRAMEWORK FOR
TECH HUBS INFORMS RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................. 84

6.0 Introduction.................................................................................................................84
6.1 Summary of Findings................................................................................................. 85
6.2 Conclusion..................................................................................................................86
6.3 Recommendations for practice in tech hubs.............................................................. 87

6.3.1 Leverage tech hub positive influence to drive social change............................ 88
6.3.2 Bricolage and develop revenue streams to operate sustainably.......................88
6.3.3 Digitally empowered youth must produce tangible outcomes........................... 89
6.3.4 Policy implementation and monitoring key to social inclusion..........................89

6.4 Evaluation of the study...............................................................................................90
6.5 Contributions of the study...........................................................................................90
6.6 Limitations of the study...............................................................................................91
6.7 Suggestions for Future Research...............................................................................91

List of References................................................................................................................ 93

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Annexure A – Ethical Clearance Certificate................................................................... 107
Annexure B – Request for permission to conduct research (two letters)....................... 109
Annexure C – Permission letters.................................................................................... 113
Annexure D – Consent to participate..............................................................................115
Annexure E – Participant information............................................................................. 116
Annexure F – Interview questions.................................................................................. 117

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List of figures

Figure 1: Tech hubs mapping in Africa

Figure 2: A picture of Diepsloot

Figure 3: Research report outline

Figure 4: Direct jobs created and valuable tech hub services

Figure 5: Socio-Technical Systems Theory Elements

Figure 6: Demographics of participants

Figure 7: Phases of developing thematic analysis

Figure 8: Generating initial codes

Figure 9: Searching, reviewing, defining and naming themes

Figure 10: Mapping of themes to research dimension

Figure 11: Tech hub managers lead a training session

Figure 12: Digital competencies of the 18 participants

Figure 13: Contextual digital skills of the youth

Figure 14: Youth collaborate on digital platforms

Figure 15: Conceptual research framework

Figure 16: STS framework for tech hubs in resource-constrained environments

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List of tables

Table 1: Career ambitions of the youth

Table 2: Youth participation in the digital economy

Table 3: Working with purpose – aspirations to become tech hub managers

Table 4: Poverty as a socio-economic challenge faced by youth in Diepsloot

Table 5: Peer Pressure as a socio-economic challenge faced by Diepsloot youth

Table 6: Positive influence exerted by the tech hub

Table 7: Social capital among Diepsloot youth

Table 8: Digital empowerment through four youth profiles

Table 9: Tech hubs outsourcing capacity

Table 10: Digital skills programs for the youth

Table 11: A new world through the lens of the tech hub

Table 12: Technology use 101, the introduction

Table 13: Technology use 201, the reinforcement

Table 14: Technology use 301: The mastering

Table 15: Socially inclusive STS

Table 16: Matrix of the socially inclusive STS and the research dimensions

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CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND: SOCIOTECHNICAL FACTORS

INFLUENCING PERSPECTIVES OF YOUTH ON DIGITAL

TRANSFORMATION

1.0 Introduction to the study 
This research investigates the sociotechnical factors that influence the youth's adoption and

use of digital technologies in technology hubs (tech hubs) located in resource-poor

environments. This study utilises a case study of Diepsloot, an informal settlement in South

Africa's Gauteng province characterised by high unemployment and poverty. This research

explores the relationship between poverty, tech hubs and digital innovation inclusiveness by

focusing on social influences driving digital adoption, institutional infrastructure, digital skills

and Information Communication Technologies (ICT) policies that enable digital

empowerment.

Pollio (2022) points out the disappointing reality of the benefits of accelerated technology

among the poor and calls for a future study that explores the reality of what he calls

technological profit amongst the poor. Lose (2021) suggests that further research should

focus on the success of tech hub patrons and the value they create instead of the funds

invested into the various programs. Lose further adds that research is needed to evaluate

whether those who need the incubators' support the most are provided with the proper

support. This research, therefore, explores the adoption and use of technology by youth in

resource-constrained areas and considers the outcomes of their technology use.

1.1 Research Problem Statement 
The lack of Internet in resource-poor environments gave rise to Wi-Fi hotspots in public

facilities and tech hubs, which act as institutional infrastructure to provide Internet access

and opportunities for digital entrepreneurship. Tech hubs in impoverished areas have

created a foundation for more inclusive digital innovation. Four important dimensions of

digital innovation inclusiveness are social influences on digital adoption, institutional

infrastructure, digital skills and ICT policies for digital enablement, understanding that digital

technologies are embedded in each of these four dimensions. However, the knowledge gap

is that we do not sufficiently understand the relationship between digital inclusiveness, tech

hubs, and poverty. We neither know the digital skills applied, the outcomes achieved, nor the

effectiveness of ICT policies on access and use of technology in poor environments. This

study explores the sociotechnical factors influencing access and use of the Internet to

achieve social inclusion by youth in Diepsloot.

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1.2 Research Purpose Statement
This study seeks to investigate the sociotechnical factors influencing the use of digital

technologies by youth in resource poor environments.

1.3 Research Questions 
Main research question: 
What are the sociotechnical factors influencing access and use of digital technologies by

youth in Diepsloot to promote social inclusion?

Research sub-questions:
1. How do social influences affect the perspectives of youth towards adopting digital

technologies?

2. How does the available institutional infrastructure established to support access to digital

technologies enable the Diepsloot youth to access the Internet and digital opportunities?

3. What digital skills do the Diepsloot youth possess to use digital technologies?

4. To what extent do current ICT policies embed the promotion of digital technologies in

support of social inclusion? 

1.4 Research Aim and Objectives 
This study aims to explore and understand the sociotechnical factors influencing access and

use of digital technologies by youth in Diepsloot to promote social inclusion. To address this

aim, the key objectives are:

● To determine the impact of social influences shaping the perspectives of youth

towards adapting to technology.

● To evaluate the available institutional infrastructure established to support access to

digital technologies and how it enables Diepsloot youth to use the Internet and get

digital opportunities.

● To assess the digital skills the Diepsloot youth possess that allow them to use digital

technologies.

● To evaluate the current ICT policies on embedding the promotion of digital

technologies in support of social inclusion

1.5 Background discussion on the evolution of tech hubs in Africa
Using digital technologies in resource-constrained environments requires access to the

Internet. This is offered by tech hubs whose establishment in poor communities emerges

from the historical trend of information communication technology for development (ICT4D).

ICT4D is found at the intersection of ICT, development, and the transformative process by

15



which ICT should lead to growth (Sein, Thapa, Hatakka & Sæbø, 2019). However, the tech

hub phenomenon has gone beyond the technical focus of ICT4D to incorporate social capital

in its design. Noticeably, tech hubs provide a channel for the generation of ICT-related skills

and solutions to address local challenges and foster a culture of innovation that empowers

communities (Amankwah-Amoah, 2016). Atiase et al. (2020) concur that tech hubs are well

positioned to create economic and social value in poor environments. 

In Africa, there has been a massive adoption of technology hubs creating a pattern of

innovation, a rise in innovative technologies and a digital market on the continent. A report

by Giuliani and Ajadi (2019) recorded the existence of 618 active tech hubs in Africa, with 80

in South Africa (refer to figure 1). The Internet is the core infrastructure driving innovation on

the continent (Ochara, 2020). Atiase et al. (2020) group the services of tech hubs into three

main areas: knowledge production, employment generation, and the creation of value.

Because tech hubs enable skills development through training and use of the Internet, they

can play a significant role in helping youth participate and benefit from the digital economy. 

Figure 1: Tech hubs mapping in Africa

Source: Giuliani and Ajadi (2019)

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The youth are leading internet adoption, with 70% of 15 to 24-year-olds online globally (ITU,

2017). According to InternetWorldStats (2020), over 32 million Internet users in South Africa,

equating to 55% of the population are using the Internet. Van Greunen and Veldsman (2016)

state that technology has significantly changed how young people interact as they use the

Internet. Pew Research (2016) found that in South Africa, less than six-in-ten millennials

have access to the Internet. The report further states that 21 million South Africans

subscribe to Facebook. Cele (2019) confirms that while Facebook is the most visited social

media site in South Africa, WhatsApp has 38 million unique mobile users. Instagram has five

million users, with women constituting 53% of South African digital users on Instagram

(InternetWorldStats, 2020). Google.co.za and google.com are the top two websites visited

by users. From an e-commerce perspective, the value of the digital economy in Africa is

estimated to be USD180 billion by 2025 (IFC, 2020), while in South East Asia, the digital

economy is expected to reach USD 363 billion by 2025 (Bloomberg, 2021). In South Africa,

18 million people are purchasing consumer goods via e-commerce (Cele, 2019), with online

sales of USD1.8 billion (ZAR30 billion) (International Trade Administration, 2021).

The National Broadband Policy (2013) was developed to guide the delivery of universal

access to all citizens through mobile and fixed broadband infrastructure. However, 61.8% of

households had access to the Internet through mobile devices (StatsSA, GHS 2017) and

smartphone penetration was 51% (Pew Research Centre, 2018). Smartphones are the entry

point to digital technology and the low penetration points to the likelihood of limited access

for poor people. This gap in access gave rise to the establishment of tech hubs and free

Wi-Fi hotspots in public spaces, particularly in poor areas. The South African government

has started investing in digital infrastructure in schools; however, there is limited investment

in equipping the learners with digital skills.

1.6 Context of the study: The social and economical environment in Diepsloot
Diepsloot is an informal settlement in Region A of the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan

Municipality and falls under the Gauteng province of South Africa, which is regarded as the

country's economic hub. Diepsloot was established in 1995 as a temporary transit settlement

for people evicted from other informal settlements in the city. Diepsloot is densely populated

with a growing population estimated at 350 000 on five square kilometres (South Africa

History Online). The population of Diepsloot is primarily black African and ethnically mixed.

Diepsloot is also a melting pot for foreign nationals from neighbouring countries looking for

business opportunities in Gauteng (Brown University, 2009). Diepsloot is an Afrikaans word

loosely translated as a deep ditch.

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The national unemployment rate in South Africa is at an all-time high of 35.3% (Stats SA,

2022) and is concentrated amongst the youth (15-34 years). The unemployment rate for

Diepsloot is estimated between 44% to 47% (News 24, 2020). The Housing Development

Agency (2013) found that unemployment rates are higher in informal settlements because

they mainly act as 'arrival cities' for migrants from rural areas. Cross and Chitiga-Mabugu

(2013) point out that urban migration is an employment strategy that results in high levels of

rural-to-urban migration and unemployment in Diepsloot. From this perspective, Diepsloot

serves an essential function as a cheap entry point and accessible location, a stepping-stone

to the labour market, and possibly a better future for aspiring young people (Cross, 2010).

While Diepsloot is riddled with its social challenges, such as poverty, crime and violent

protests, it still attracts people from rural areas and illegal immigrants looking to enter the job

market. Once they settle in their jobs, they move on to better housing elsewhere. Therefore,

social mobility is inevitable due to the constant movement of people. As described by Muller

and Pollak (2015), social mobility is how, over a period, individuals or families will move to a

social position that is more satisfying to their status and needs in a society.  

From an educational perspective, 66.5% of Diepsloot residents had not completed matric

(Stats SA, 2011). van Greunen and Veldsman (2016) found that academic

underachievement contributes to a vicious cycle of failure that manifests in behavioural,

unemployment, and social problems. Stats SA (2011) reported that 52.7% of Diepsloot

residents earn less than R3, 183 per month. The basic wage in South Africa is R3, 470.40

(Department of Employment and Labour, 2022). The streets of Diepsloot are dotted with

informal traders selling different products on the roadside, from vegetables, cool drink,

cooked food, live chickens, blankets, kitchenware, second-hand clothing, electronics, and

hair salons, among others. Other traders are running spaza shops and taverns from the

extensions of their dwellings. There is a shopping mall in Diepsloot called the Diepsloot Mall,

which a Shoprite store anchors, plus other value-for-money clothing brands such as Pep,

Jet, Ackermans, and fast-food outlet Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC).  

There are three primary forms of shelter in Diepsloot. The first is referred to as a shack

made from corrugated sheets, scrap, wood, metal, or plastic. The second is the

government-funded social housing project with brick walls and iron sheets as roofing,

referred to as Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). The third form of shelter

is bank-financed houses built with brick and tiled roofing. Diepsloot is subdivided into 13

extensions and housing structures in extensions 1, 12, and 13 consist of shacks only (Brown

University, 2009). A few bridges link the sections; however, these bridges are low, leaving

people at risk of being washed away when flooding occurs. In addition, the people whose
18



houses are by the streams are in more danger of their housing structures being swept away

by flash floods during the rainy seasons (Brown University, 2009). In Diepsloot, there is

roadside litter of items such as plastic bags, empty containers, broken glass, rotten food, and

hair. Most of the time, there is an unpleasant smell due to burst sewers flowing on the roads,

which seems a common feature in the area.

In Diepsloot, 60% of the residents use electricity for cooking, while 37.3% use paraffin. In

addition, 76.1% of the residents have no access to the Internet, though cell phone

penetration is high at 92.1% (Stats SA, 2011). Diepsloot is notorious for illegal electricity

connections. In 2020, The Citizen (2020) reported that Diepsloot residents went for months

without electricity after Eskom, the national power supplier, removed illegal connections from

the area. Further, media reports on the impact of Covid-19 in Diepsloot revealed that more

people lost their incomes due to the pandemic. The impact of Covid-19 exacerbated the

existing challenges that residents had to contend with as they, among other things, lamented

the proximity of their houses to each other, highlighting that they could not socially distance

themselves, even if they wanted to (News 24, 2020).

Diepsloot has four tech hubs currently operating: Southern African Youth Project, Wot-If?

Trust, Safe-Hub Diepsloot and Riversands. These tech hubs are focused on employment

creation through knowledge sharing facilitated by open access to training, learning, and

mentoring for the Diepsloot community. The Southern Africa Youth Project is mainly geared

towards skills development by equipping the youth with digital skills such as Microsoft Office,

Business Administration, Call Centre, and Life Skills in HIV/AIDS Awareness courses. The

Wot-If? Trust tech hub is more focused on broader spectrum initiatives geared to address

the social challenges in Diepsloot. They run digital skills projects such as ICT training

programs, i.e., 4IR, and partner with corporates on specific programs on entrepreneurship.

Safe-Hub is mainly focused on providing a safe environment for children while exposing

them to various sporting activities and providing access to the Internet. Riversands is

focused on fostering innovation and entrepreneurship; however, it is inaccessible to the

residents of Diepsloot who have to use public transport to get to the tech hub.

The Johannesburg Development Agency (2012) states that the City of Johannesburg

recognises Diepsloot as a priority development area in line with the Growth and

Development Strategy Joburg 2040, the Growth Management Strategy, and the Upgrading

of Marginalised Areas Programme. JDA further states that, in 2010, the City of

Johannesburg approved an urban development framework for Diepsloot that restated the

commitment to establish the area as a socially and economically viable human settlement
19



with access to essential services and opportunities for social mobility and economic

development. However, today, ten years later, there is still a long way to go in providing

basic services to the area to meet the needs of a growing and transiting population. Though

plagued by its socio-economic challenges, with the majority of residents living in poverty,

Diepsloot has a vibrant neighbourhood and residents who are hopeful and determined to

improve their lives (The Diepsloot Youth Programme, 2022). Pfigu (2014) who found that the

youth of Diepsloot desire a better life and want to improve their livelihoods, echoes this

insight. Diepsloot was selected for its uniqueness as an arrival and transitory place for

migrants in search of better opportunities. This demonstrates that the people in Diepsloot

have solid ambitions and aspire for a better life. Therefore, their hopes and dreams must be

highlighted for the right support to be directed towards nurturing these ambitions and

bringing them to fruition.

Figure 2: A picture of Diepsloot

Source: The Diepsloot Youth Programme, 2022

1.6.1 Evolution of ICT policies for digital enablement in South Africa
ICT policies are crucial determinants of how people access and use technology to ensure

economic inclusion. The United Nations (2016) identified policy as pivotal in the inclusive

digital transformation of societies, businesses, and governments. The first policy in the

post-apartheid government of South Africa that included ICT as an instrument to address the

20



inequalities of the apartheid era was the Reconstruction and Development Plan (RDP) (Van

Audenhove, 1999). This was followed by a number of policies such as the National

Development Plan (NDP) which articulated the government's objectives on ICT as an

instrument of development and social inclusion. The National Broadband Act of 2013 (SA

Connect) and The Integrated National ICT White Paper (2016) promoted social inclusion.

From the white paper, the National Skills and Future Skills Strategy (2017) was developed to

provide a roadmap for the digital upskilling of citizens. In the same year, South Africa's

National e-Strategy (2017) was launched to propel the nation towards a robust and socially

inclusive digital future through accelerating the adoption of ICTs in social and economic

sectors. The national e-strategy builds on the previous ICT policies and fulfills the National

Development Plan Vision 2030, which states, "a single cohesive national e-strategy is

essential to ensure the diffusion of ICTs in all areas of society and the economy." To this end,

in 2019, a Presidential Commission on the Fourth Industrial Revolution (PC4IR) was

established with a mandate to identify and recommend policies and strategies required for

South Africa to optimise benefits from the 4IR.  

1.6.2 Digital skills landscape in South Africa
The fourth industrial revolution (4IR) has ushered in a convergence of emerging

technologies resulting in an increased demand for specialised ICT skills. The JCSE-IITPSA

ICT Skills Survey highlighted a significant digital skills gap in South Africa (JCSE, 2019). The

National Digital and Future Skills Strategy (2017) acknowledges the digital skills gap in

South Africa. It outlines the plans for bridging the gap between supply-side skills (developing

digital skills at institutions of learning) and demand-side skills (readiness skills for the

workplace and communities) through its eight interconnected strategy elements. These

strategic elements are aimed at building digital capabilities in research and innovation at

institutions of higher and tertiary learning, tech hubs, and in the private and public sectors.

Tech hubs are identified in the first strategy element of digital foundations as playing an

active role in training people on basic and digital skills (The National Digital and Future Skills

Strategy, 2017).

This investigation will utilise a case study of Diepsloot informal settlement in Gauteng

Province, South Africa, to explore the sociotechnical factors influencing the use of digital

technologies among youth in poor communities. 

21



1.7 Delimitations of the Study
The sociotechnical theory was selected and used to understand the youth perspectives on

digital transformation in Diepsloot. This study is delimited to the social and technology

concepts, in line with the theory. These concepts provide the lens through which we can

understand how the social environment influences the use of technology among youth in

Diepsloot. The focus of the study is in a context that is characterised by high levels of

poverty and unemployment.

1.8 Conceptual descriptions of the study
This study contains a few key concepts used throughout the paper. This section provides

definitions of these terms and includes the context within which they have been

characterised. Accordingly, the descriptions are as follows:  

1.8.1 Youth
The government of South Africa broadly defines the youth as those aged 14 years to 35

years old, considering that a young person's transition into becoming independent and

self-sufficient could span a relatively long time (National Youth Policy, 2020-2030). On the

other hand, the African Union (AU) defines youth or young people as between 15 – 35 years

(African Union, 2006). The young people who participated in this study fall within this age

group.

1.8.2 Poverty
In broad terms, poverty is expressed as the deprivation of opportunities and choices that are

most basic for human development in leading a healthy lifestyle and enjoying the freedom,

dignity, and respect from others (Studies in Poverty and Inequality Institute, 2007). Poverty is

defined in this study as the lack of resources to fulfil human needs such as decent housing,

sanitation, food, and digital communication to reach the subsistence standard of living.

1.8.3 Resource-constrained environments 
Resource-constrained environments in relation to technology are broadly defined by

Anderson et al. (2012) as low-income communities with limited resources and constrained in

a number of ways, such as scarce network connectivity, limited power supply and low

bandwidth. This definition is applied in this study to describe the context of this research.

1.8.4 Digital transformation (DT)
DT is a phenomenon of the digital era. Stolterman and Fors (2004) introduced DT as the

change process associated with digital technologies in all aspects of society. Vial (2019)

defines DT as a process by which various technologies in information, computing,

communication, and connectivity activate significant changes to an entity – society or

22



organisation - as it tries to adapt and improve to survive. In this study, DT is viewed as an

adaptation and learning process driven by the youth's desire to participate in the digital

economy and be socially included.

1.8.5 Tech hubs
Technology hubs, mainly referred to as tech hubs, are characterised as collaborative spaces

where different people with varying digital expertise and interests come together to share

knowledge and skills, and develop their ideas through a community network (Jimenez &

Zheng, 2017). Graham (2019) describes the physical spaces as consisting of a

Wi-Fi-connected space with hot desks primarily used for laptop-based work. In this study,

tech hubs are characterised as socio-technical spaces that allow for digital enablement and

innovation through the cultivation of digital skills among the youth of Diepsloot. These

spaces are open to anyone, in particular those who may be excluded from participating and

engaging in innovation. The most advanced tech hubs have robust digital innovation with

some form of production and/or are selling their products/expertise and typically integrated

with the economy. The more early-stage tech hubs, which characterise this study, are still at

the digital empowerment stage of digital innovation and mostly focused on digital skills

training.

1.8.6 Digital skills
(UNESCO, 2018) refers to digital skills beyond just the ability to perform a task online to

encompass other aspects such as expertise, ethics, and cognitive behaviours. This is the

definition followed in this study.

1.8.7 Social inclusion
The World Bank (2020) broadly defines social inclusion as ensuring that individuals who may

have been disadvantaged based on their identity can participate in society to improve their

abilities, receive equal opportunities and preserve their dignity. In this paper, social inclusion

refers to the ability of youth from a disadvantaged community and background to have equal

access to opportunities and participate in the digital economy to achieve their full potential

and excel in life within their society.

1.8.8 Digital economies
UNCTAD (2019) refers to digital economies as economies that are driven by digital

technologies across all the dimensions; from business, industry, social, political,

healthcare,and cultural among others. Digital information technologies are employed to

develop, market and sell or consume products and services in a digital economy.

23



1.9 Research report outline 
This study is organised into six chapters, with the outline of each chapter illustrated in figure

3 below: 

Figure 3: Research report outline

Source: Matanda, 2023

Chapter 1: The introduction and background to the study. The problem statement, the

research questions, and the study's rationale are provided in this chapter. The research

context gives a detailed overview of Diepsloot informal settlements. The chapter ends with

definitions of key concepts used throughout the paper. 

Chapter 2: The literature on the key concepts of youth, digital transformation, tech hubs,

digital skills, and social inclusion. These concepts are explored through the literature to

provide a clear understanding of the problem. The selected theoretical framework, the

sociotechnical theory, is introduced and a conceptual framework is developed. 

Chapter 3: Provides an outline of the process, methods, and tools used to gather data. The

chapter also shows the philosophical research paradigms that this research is based on,

including sampling, data collection, and analysis.

Chapter 4: The analysis and interpretation of the data collected using the analytical lens

discussed in chapter 3. The data is organised into themes, which correlate with the research

questions.

Chapter 5:  The socially inclusive framework for tech hubs is introduced.

Chapter 6: The conclusion, recommendations, limitations and suggestions for future

research.

24



1.10 Summary of the chapter 
Chapter 1 provides an introduction and background of the study. The statement of the

problem, research questions, and objectives were outlined before the research context was

provided. The rationale is included in this chapter to justify the study. To provide clarity of key

concepts throughout the paper, definitions within the context of this paper, such as youth,

digital transformation, tech hubs, and poverty, were provided. This chapter ends with an

overview of the organisation of this paper.

25



CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ON DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION
AND SOCIOTECHNICAL INFLUENCES ON TECHNOLOGY
ADOPTION

2.0 Overview of the chapter
This chapter provides the literature review on digital transformation in resource-constrained

environments. It is aligned with the research purpose statement that seeks to explore the

influence of socio technical factors on the adoption and use of technology through the four

dimensions of social influences on digital adoption, institutional infrastructure, digital skills,

and ICT policies for digital enablement. These dimensions are unpacked to clarify how

young people in poor environments access and use digital technologies and if they achieve

tangible outcomes.

2.1 Conceptualising Digital Transformation (DT)
DT is a phenomenon of the digital epoch, which has progressively been defined by various

scholars. Stolterman and Fors (2004) introduced DT as the change process associated with

digital technologies in all aspects of society. Ebert and Duarte (2016) call DT a convergence

of complex (technology) and soft forces (people and businesses) movements from which

increased value should emerge. Martin (2008) described DT as the ultimate stage in using

ICTs where significant new digital competencies and usage capabilities across societies,

businesses, and governments enable innovation and creativity. Schnasse et al. (2021) view

digital transformation as a "holistic sociotechnical challenge" with unprecedented

consequences on individuals, societies, organisations, and economies. In the context of this

study, these perspectives point to joint optimisation, a concept of the sociotechnical systems

(STS) coined by (Appelbaum, 1997) which seeks to establish mutual gains between people

and systems for digital transformation to occur. 

In the context of DT, the following discussion expands upon the four dimensions chosen for

this study, namely social influences on digital adoption, institutional infrastructure, digital

skills and ICT policies for digital enablement.

2.2 Social influences affecting adoption of technology
The social influences that influence the adoption and use of digital technologies are

discussed in this section. Social influences of friends and relatives concerning the

socialisation of ICT in poor communities significantly impact technology adoption and use

(Avilés et al., 2016). Their study revealed that people have presumptions about uses of the

Internet and will construct imaginary uses for it, regardless of their ability to access it.

Winocur (2007) puts forward a similar reflection as cited by (Avilés et al., 2016) that poor
26



people view the Internet as a strategy for social mobility. Avilés et al. (2016) conclude that in

low-income environments, the use of ICT and the potential thereof rests with children and

youth who use the Internet as a part of their strategy toward social mobility.  The desire to

escape hardship drives the youth towards social mobility, and they see the Internet as a

stepping-stone. A common factor among the youth in Diepsloot is to escape their current

circumstances and the existence of the tech hub instills a sense of hope that they can, one

day, equipped with digital skills, competitively participate in the digital economy. The section

below discusses the following social influences: poverty, literacy, and the environmental

context, which impact the way people adopt and use technologies in poor environments.

2.2.1 The people’s context, a fundamental social factor for DT
Understanding the context and social environment is crucial when planting infrastructure in

resource-poor environments. Zhang et al. (2018) highlight that social influences on human

behaviour, such as people’s history, culture, and values have a significant impact on how

they adapt to technology, transform and innovate. Waema and Miroro (2018) add that

context influences access and usage of the Internet. It is fundamental to consider the

appropriateness of the technology and the people's context in terms of what technology

represents to them, as these act as determinants to the adoption of digital technologies.

Soriano (2007) found that telecentres that failed to consider the history and culture of the

community could not deliver significant benefits to the people; they could not empower them

to use the technology because they did not know what was important to the community. The

appropriateness of digital technologies and their meaning determine the value the

community derives and the extent to which they will use the technologies.

2.2.2 Poverty excludes the poor from using digital technology
Broader resource limitations and persistent struggles associated with poverty influence the

use of digital technologies in low-income environments (Gonzales, 2016). Van Deursen,

Helsper, Eynon, et al. (2017) affirm that those marginalized in life's physical needs are likely

to be marginalized in their uses of technology. Poverty plays a significant role in the adoption

and use of digital technologies. The poor do not have ready access to digital technologies,

they have no ownership and consequently they are excluded from the opportunities and

benefits that digital technologies bring. As reiterated by Leye (2009), those who lack

capabilities in acquiring tools and content to use the Internet are excluded from its benefits.

Chetty et al. (2017) point out that young people from poor environments have a debilitating

fear of failure that prevents them from trying new things, mainly digital technology. PWC

(2019) confirms that lower levels of education and limited opportunities make people fearful

27



of learning new digital skills. The fear of using technology leads to low self-esteem.

Twinomurinzi and Msweli, 2019; Cázares, 2010) affirm that individuals with a low ICT

self-efficacy are intimidated and less likely to use ICT. Kanniainen, Kiili, Tolvanen, et al.

(2019) suggest that low literacy levels indicate that a person will struggle with

comprehension when conducting online research. The fear of technology and the low

self-esteem within a poor environment significantly contribute to the youth's attitude towards

technology. Challenges people face in poor environments in accessing the internet influence

their attitudes towards technologies (Gonzales, 2016).

2.3 Institutional infrastructure - tech hubs, the sociotechnical spaces
Scholars have described tech hubs as collaborative and safe innovative spaces that provide

opportunities for individuals to become part of a community; developing ideas and

technologies, acquiring and imparting digital skills toward self-sufficiency and employment

creation (AfriLabs & Briter Bridges, 2019; Dosso et al., 2021; Abrahams & Kedama, 2017;

World Bank, 2017; Atiase et al., 2020). Based on their purpose, tech hubs are categorised in

various ways such as incubators, accelerators, innovation hubs, labs, telecentres,

hackerspaces and in the context of this study, as sociotechnical spaces. The rise of

innovative technologies and a digital market on the continent is driving the proliferation of

tech hubs across Africa estimated to be at 643, including 78 in South Africa (AfriLabs &

Briter Bridges, 2019). Developments in tech hubs by companies like Facebook and Google,

demonstrate the interest and potential in tech adoption characterising the continent. The

evolution of tech hubs is happening in the context of rural-urban migration as people search

for employment opportunities (Dosso et al., 2021). Africa's urban population increased from

27 million in 1950 to 567 million in 2015 (OECD, 2020). A similar pattern of rural-urban

migration exists in South Africa, where people seeking better employment opportunities in

the city settle in places like Diepsloot.

This section discusses tech hubs as sociotechnical spaces that enable the youth to learn

digital skills through the use of the Internet, without any form of payment. It also looks at tech

hubs as catalysts of economic and digital inclusion, explores the challenges experienced by

tech hubs, and ways that tech hubs can be made to be resilient.

2.3.1 Tech hubs, a bridge to Internet access
Accessing the Internet has become increasingly important for communication, information,

and productivity. The Internet is the core infrastructure of the digital economy in Africa

(Ochara, 2019) and, as such, represents digital transformation (Ndule et al., 2021).

Frankfurter, Kokoszka, Newhouse, et al. (2020) stressed the significance of accessing and

28



using the Internet for economic inclusion in marginalised environments. Ndule et al. (2021)

confirm the extent to which the Internet is used provides a more accurate view of the

progress in digital transformation and its subsequent impact on livelihoods. Stretching this

idea, Van Deursen and van Dijk (2019) suggest that access to the Internet is a process that

begins with a positive attitude towards the Internet and progresses to ownership of material

and physical access. In the Diepsloot context, the Internet is the key element that connects

the youth to the world and therefore a precious resource in the tech hub.

In impoverished environments, resources are limited, and poor people can barely afford to

buy Internet data. The marginalised are excluded from using digital technologies due to the

cost of accessing the Internet. A4AI (2020) reported that South Africa does not meet the

affordability of internet access standards as the average cost of 1GB of mobile data equates

to 2.17% of the average monthly income. Gillwald and Chair (2016) highlighted that people

in the lower-income category were spending approximately 20% of their income on small

amounts of data, as the data prices remained significantly high. In the Eastern Cape

Province, Chisango and Lesame (2017) found that affordability was one of the main

challenges to adopting ICT. Free Internet or affordable data is a politically charged subject in

South Africa. Social movements such as the #DataMustFall Campaign were activated as

online protests against the high mobile data prices. In a study of 400 households, Waema

and Miroro (2014) found that tech hubs provided access relief as people from poor

households could access and use the Internet, although the extent of use varied based on

factors such as education level. The tech hubs in Diepsloot were specifically set up to

alleviate the financial burden associated with connecting to the Internet among the poor

young people. The set-up of common areas for people to access ICTs provides relief for the

marginalised and allows them to be socially included and participate in the digital economy.

2.3.2 Tech hubs as catalysts of economic and digital inclusion
In Wua'an, China, Soriano (2007) analysed the role of community telecentres in enhancing

the livelihood strategies of 30 poor rural households. The telecentres played a crucial role in

disseminating relevant information to people. The information enabled them to get farming

techniques on using pesticides, negotiate the best prices and find new markets for their

products. The villagers declared an increase in average annual income, attributed their

success, and broadened knowledge to the existence of the telecentres. The telecentres

empowered them to use technology and open new avenues for their products and additional

forms of livelihood. Tech hubs play a vital role in the entrepreneurship ecosystem in creating

new supply and value chains for the youth (Atiase et al., 2020). Confirming this finding, Faye

(2020) states that the impact made by a tech hub is the extent to which it generates jobs.  

29



A study by Dosso et al. (2021) of five tech hubs in West Africa showed a rise in innovative

technologies and a digital market on the continent driven by entrepreneurship. Across these

tech hubs, young people are leading innovation and entrepreneurship while creating

employment opportunities. For example, in Ivory Coast, a social innovation community

embracing digital technologies and tools, had 150 young budding entrepreneurs under its

wings, and approximately 40 projects were brought to maturity (Dosso et al., 2021). The

WakatLab in Burkina Faso focused on social innovation by developing health, education,

and agriculture solutions. The lab operates at different levels of the value chain, from idea

creation, prototyping and incubation, to go-to-market. Every year since 2016, the lab

nurtures ten youth projects and examples of these projects include developing a seeds

drying system, a wind turbine built from a hub of a motorcycle wheel, and 3D printers built up

from recycled parts (Dosso et al., 2021). Similarly, in Mali, the Bamako Incubator focused on

creating entrepreneurship and employment opportunities for youth and trained 60 people in

food, green, health and edutech (Dosso et al., 2021). This training has improved youth

employability and readiness for the labour market.

The Eastern and Southern parts of Africa have also witnessed a rise of tech hubs. Kenya,

Uganda and South Africa are ranked highly in tech hub rankings (Atiase et al., 2020). The

iHub in Kenya was one of Africa's first tech hubs and focuses on technology entrepreneurs

seeking to collaborate, share, co-create and produce knowledge (iHub Kenya, 2019). iHub

played an instrumental role in the establishment of several startups as follows, 90% in ICT,

73% in finance, 52% in retail services, 44% in tourism, and 40% in social work services

(iHub, 2014). The Innovation Village in Uganda is driving innovation with an excess of 2000

program members, and over 10,000 visitors, the Innovation Village has hosted 140 startups

(The Innovation Village, 2022). In South Africa, MLab has successfully accelerated startups

using mobile applications (mLab, 2019). MLab has supported over 70 digital startups since

2016 and trained 1.7 million students in digital skills necessary to enter into venture creation,

positively contributing to the development of the Southern African economy (World Bank,

2017). From enabling local farmers to use mobile applications to monitor their yield, an

estimated income of USD 2.7 million per annum is expected in the agriculture sector in

Southern Africa with 272 direct employment opportunities created as shown in Figure 4

(MLab, 2019). The most valuable service by MLab is networking which confirms the

positioning of tech hubs as key collaborative spaces that nurture ideas and encourage

learning. 

30



The above findings are in line with Kelly and Firestone (2016), and Jiménez and Zheng

(2017) who affirm that tech hubs play a crucial role in modernising society and contributing

to economic growth.

Figure 4: Direct jobs created and valuable tech hub services

Source: MLab, 2019

The case studies of tech hubs presented above are typical of more advanced tech spaces

with robust digital innovation processes which include some form of production and

integration with the economy. On the other hand, the tech hub spaces in Diepsloot are

positioned to be socially inclusive and ultimately provide a bridge to the digital economy.

Although the tech hubs are considered to still be early stages of digital innovation, they are

focusing on digital empowerment through digital skills training.

2.3.4 Challenges encountered by tech hubs
Tech hubs face various challenges, regardless of their categorisation as a tech hub,

incubator, accelerator, or working space. The main and primary challenge confronting tech

hubs is access to funding (World Bank, 2017; AfriLabs & Briter Bridges, 2019). A significant

number of tech hubs in Africa are dependent on some form of external funding. Some hubs

are more self-sufficient and make money from consulting fees and membership fees (Atiase

et al., 2020). However, funding remains a considerable challenge for tech hubs when

considering the cost of infrastructure and technology transfer (Dosso et al., 2021). 

The second challenge is the inadequate level of skill and business acumen in the

management structure of the tech hubs in ways that provide value to the founders and

benefit the patrons (InfoDev, 2017; AfriLabs & Briter Bridges, 2019). Consequently, tech

hubs fail to build the right ecosystems to support the knowledge production and value

creation processes (Akanle et al., 2019). Atiase et al. (2017) confirm that creating

31



connections with external collaborators is cumbersome for some tech hubs. As a result, the

hubs fail to connect their patrons to external forms of knowledge and expertise, limiting their

ability to create economic value. This lack of integration between tech hubs and essential

stakeholders such as universities and policymakers manifests in a broken ecosystem that

does not produce mutual benefit.

In South Africa, the energy sector has experienced challenges such as aging equipment and

mismanagement of resources over the past decade (Makgetla, 2017). These challenges

have subjected the country to rolling power blackouts, negatively affecting the availability of

the Internet (Freedom House, 2020). Rolling power blackouts resulted in a 3.1% reduction in

real GDP growth, costing the economy up to 40,000 potential jobs (PWC, 2022). A constant

supply of power is crucial to running a tech hub and critical to access to the Internet. Without

electricity, one cannot switch on the computers, let alone use the Internet. In Africa, the low

penetration of electricity and lack of adequate infrastructure negatively affect ICTs, as these

technologies rely on a constant power supply (Ochara et al., 2008). The tech hubs in

Diepsloot experience similar challenges such as a lack of funding and load shedding.

2.3.5 Bringing resilience to tech hubs
Tech hubs need to evolve and create new self-financing models for financial independence.

AfriLabs & Briter Bridges (2019) recommend that tech hubs must look at consolidating and

packaging their offerings as a way to boost their revenue streams to achieve financial

sustainability. Tech hubs need to develop ways to monetize high-value services while

improving their capacity to deliver these services (World Bank, 2017). The governments

need to start purchasing products and services from tech hubs to improve local consumption

and the mentorship of new startups (Akanle et al., 2019). Atiase et al. (2020) assert that

financial independence and self-reliance enable tech hubs to create their strategies and

expand their technical competencies to meet the needs of their environment.

Attwood, Diga, Braathen, et al. (2013) recommend that community development workers

with expertise in empowerment, digital skills and administrative skills should be hired as

facilitators to strengthen tech hub management processes. Tech hub empowerment

strategies should be apparent to guide facilitators in managing complexities within their

environment. Facilitators have a crucial role in providing relevant information and

encouraging people to use digital technologies. Given this fundamental role tech hub

managers play, Soriano (2007) reinforces that priority must be given to building their

capacity. 

32



 

A functional ecosystem lies at the heart of a booming tech hub. Collaboration with peer tech

hubs, academia, communities, local ecosystems, entrepreneurs, businesses, and investors

is crucial to get insights into experiences and best practices on the continent (AfriLabs &

Briter Bridges, 2019). This engagement needs to be supported by enabling regulation, such

as legislation to enable startups and infrastructure investment (Dosso et al., 2021). Graham

(2019) highlights the need to investigate how tech hubs connect with entrepreneurs given

Africa's challenging realities and produce better outcomes for technology entrepreneurs on

the continent. Soriano (2007) calls for ICT interventions for telecentres in poor environments

to be integrated into a broader poverty reduction framework. Interaction with technology will

reap optimal benefits if the poor have access to education, finance, and electricity, among

other essential services that enable self-sufficiency and an improved standard of living.

The World Bank (2017) partially attributes the successes of the tech hubs to their ability to

evolve within their ecosystem context. However, they also caution that the future resilience

of the tech hubs will be in their continuous ability to evolve while leveraging on new

opportunities. 

2.4 Digital skills overview and motivation
UNESCO (2018) refers to digital skills beyond just the ability to perform a task online to

encompass other aspects such as expertise, ethics, and cognitive behaviours. As the world

goes through the 4IR and digital technologies become ubiquitous, entering every sector of

the economy and fundamentally changing the ways of work and life, digital skills have

become a fundamental necessity. Most jobs today require digital competence and an ability

to solve problems through creative thinking. Using the Internet requires a new set of

technical, information skills, and high literacy (Veldsman & van Greunen, 2015). Studying the

Malaysian youth, Foong (2018) confirmed that digital skills should not only be associated

with technology but also incorporate the social, emotional, and interpersonal relationship

effects of using technology, individually or with others. Accordingly, this section discusses

21st century digital skills, youth motivation to acquire skills, bridging the digital skills gap and

ends with empowering the youth with digital skills.

Van Laar et al. (2017) affirm that the capacity to innovate and remain competitive requires

more than just digital skills, but a layer of 21st century skills. These are a broader range of

skills, not underpinned by technology, but imperative for the knowledge economy. Van Laar

et al. (2017) developed a framework that combines 21st century skills and digital skills. The

33



framework has seven core skills and five contextual skills. The core skills are related to

technical, information management, communication, collaboration, creativity, critical thinking,

and problem solving. Contextual skills are involved with ethical awareness, cultural

awareness, flexibility, self-direction, and lifelong learning. This framework will be utilised in

the research questions to determine the 21st century digital skills among Diepsloot youth.

Motivation to learn digital skills is key. Gebhard, CEO of the Skills Development Corporation,

highlighted the importance of motivation to learn and self–upskill to meet the evolution of the

4IR (Malinga, 2021). Twinomurinzi and Msweli (2019) maintain that motivation is rooted in a

person's inherent belief that they have the power to produce what they desire. Eynon and

Geniets (2016) explain that young people's motivations to learn digital skills are based on

their current transitory life circumstances rather than the future. In a (PwC, 2019) study, 77%

of South African respondents showed a willingness and motivation to learn new digital skills

to improve their employability. Mariscal et al. (2016) point out that practical training and

broadband access enable communities to develop new skills and find practical applications

for existing and new abilities in poor environments. Among the young people in Diepsloot,

there is an inherent desire to improve their life circumstances and their livelihoods which can

be attained through digital upskilling.

2.4.1 Empowering the youth with digital skills 
The emergence of tech hubs, incubators, and accelerators as drivers of innovation fuelling

economic growth has contributed mainly to societies' digitalisation, bringing urgency to the

need for digital skills training (ITU, 2016). In Malaysia, the mydigitalmaker initiative equips

youth with digital skills and knowledge while empowering them to be producers of

technology. Those who have become experts are trained to be champions and change

agents with a long-term view of creating a sustainable pipeline of skilled digital workers

(UNESCO, 2017). In 2016, 88.6% of Malaysian youth were digitally competent and could

expand their ideas to become innovators and technology producers. This was achieved by

galvanizing and building a solid ecosystem through the public and private sectors, NGOs,

and universities (UNESCO, 2017). 

In Africa, there are several interventions to develop digital literacy and skills among young

people. In Nigeria, Andela, a company focused on training developers to advance human

potential and digitize Africa using free online tools, surpassed its target of 100,000 learners

in 2021 (Andela, 2021). Not only is Andela providing learnerships, but the company is also

offering a platform to connect trained developers across all levels to employment

opportunities through its job network initiative (Andela, 2021). In Ivory Coast, Kalaan, an

34



association founded by international footballer Didier Drogba and the Development of

Education in Africa (ADEA) to promote and increase digital literacy, has trained 700,000

women and men in urban areas (Didier Drogba Foundation, 2019). The foundation aims to

equip 10 million Africans with digital skills over five years. In Gabon, the Train My Generation

– Gabon 5000 project works with the African Institute of Informatics to accredit the computer

training courses where participants can get three levels of certification: Beginner,

Intermediate, and Expert levels (UNESCO, 2017). Google launched Skills for Africa and

within the first year, had trained one million young people in Africa from 27 countries with

digital skills (ITWeb, 2017). Google is not only training young people in digital skills, it is also

committed to helping small businesses thrive online. To catch them young and transform the

national educational field, the government of Rwanda launched an innovative classroom

initiative to equip schools with ICT infrastructure in the digitalization of learning and teaching

processes (UNESCO, 2015).

The drive to equip the youth with digital skills is also evident in South Africa. Some initiatives

by government and social organisations have led to the establishment of tech hubs and

organisations such as WeThinkCode, SHARP Digital, Harambee Youth Employment

Accelerator, Digify Africa, Cape IT Initiative (CITI), Vukuzenzele, Tech4Good,

SkillsToSucceed, and the National Youth Development Agency (NYDA), among many

others. The department of Communications and Digital Technologies' training institute

National Electronic Media Institute of SA (Nemisa) collaborated with Coursera, an online

educational platform to offer young people free digital courses. Through MLabs in South

Africa, over 1.7 million students have been trained in digital skills to give them passage into

venture creation (World Bank, 2017). IHubs, through their ICT hubs, is playing a significant

role in providing digital skills (iHub, 2014). Entrepreneurs have also been trained on

leveraging the digital opportunities provided by MLab (MLab, 2019). A survey of 102 people

found that over 66 000 jobs in SA's ICT sector, two-thirds of which are entry-level, can

potentially be created from the digital upskilling of people (Harambee, 2020). Facebook's

partnership with Digify Africa has provided training to over 8 000 entrepreneurs since 2018

to help young people define and amplify their businesses online presence and integrate

social media in their activities (Digify Africa, 2022). Microsoft collaborated with Public Service

Sector Education and Training Authority (PSETA) and Afrika Tikkun to provide online

opportunities for 20 000 young people (IOL, 2022). 

2.5 Key approaches in policies and strategies for digital inclusiveness
Across the world, governments have focused on developing inclusive ICT policies and

strategies with equal access and use of ICTs to ensure no one is left behind, particularly,

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low-income groups (ITU, 2022). As a result, governments have had to reassess their ICT

policies to ensure digital inclusiveness for their citizens and allow them to keep up with the

developments of a changing world. Some key approaches to ICT policy strategies include

universal access and affordability, addressing the digital skills gap, and advancing

socio-economic rights. Lesotho is one of the few countries in Africa that has had success

using their Universal Service Funds by taking the SADC policies and adopting a methodical

approach to implementation (Gillwald et al., 2017). In addition, ensuring autonomy for the

Lesotho Communications Authority and setting up a converged sector regulator for

telecommunication, broadcasting, and postal services went a long way in using Lesotho's

universal access funds (Gillwald et al., 2017). South Africa can certainly copy this method to

provide universal access for citizens. Therefore, the approaches discussed in this section

are universal access, addressing the skills gap, advancing socio-economic rights, and

implementing ICT policy.

2.5.1 Addressing universal access through ICT policy and strategy 
The universal provision of ICT services has become a critical policy intervention in

developing countries (Lewis, 2017). The South Africa government employs the Constitutional

Telecommunications Act (No 103 of 1996), the Telecommunications Amendment Act (No 64

of 2001), and the Electronic Communications Act (No 36 of 2005) as instruments that inform

ICT policy towards universal access social inclusion (Lesame, 2005). These Acts form the

basis for establishing initiatives such as the universal service and access fund and universal

service obligations on mobile operators. The Universal Service and Access Fund (USAF)

was established in terms of section 89(1) of the Electronic Communications Act (2005), for

the provision of ICT equipment and services and to subsidise the construction and extension

of electronic communications for people in underserved areas. From its inception until 2014,

the USAF had a budget of R625 million, with approximately R400 million spent on

telecentres which are hardly operational today (Lewis, 2015; Gillwald, 2020). Gillwald et al.

(2017) found that these funds, earmarked to provide universal access and service, hardly

reached the needy as half the population remains offline. This is confirmed by Chisango and

Lesame (2017) who found access and availability as key challenges in adopting ICT among

people in the Eastern Cape Province.

As per the Integrated National ICT Policy White Paper (2016), the USAF will be transformed

into the Digital Development Fund (DDF) in 2023 to speed up the implementation of various

initiatives, including infrastructure and skills development to address market failure and

ensure access by all (South African Department of Telecommunications and Postal Services,

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2016). It is envisaged that this will expedite processes and decision-making to close the

access gap.

2.5.2 Addressing the digital skills gap through tech hubs
Tech hubs are identified as active role players in providing training for introductory and

intermediate digital skills. Tech hubs in poor environments have a significant role in

developing fundamental digital competencies among patrons. In the second and third

strategy elements of building advanced digital skills and Industry 4.0 and the world of work,

the Communications and Digital Technologies department has reached out to the private

sector to unlock development opportunities for young people. In line with this policy,

Microsoft announced that it had trained nearly 300 000 people in South Africa to gain access

to digital skills (Microsoft, 2021). In conjunction with various training partners, Google

launched the Digital Skills for Africa and has empowered over half a million young people

with digital skills (Grow with Google, 2021). Facebook collaborated with Digify Africa to

create Naledi, a WhatsApp learning bot that will enable young people across Africa to

access digital skills programmes. This collaboration has trained over 100, 000 youth

(Malinga, 2021). South African bank Nedbank launched the Nedbank DigiSkills online

platform in partnership with Microsoft and Afrika Tikkun to help South Africans acquire the

digital skills required in a more digital post-COVID-19 economy (The Skills Portal, 2020). The

above are a few examples that paint a picture of the implementation of the skills strategy by

the government and private sector in providing digital skills, particularly among the youth in

South Africa. 

2.5.3 Advancing socio-economic rights through ICT policies 
According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) socio-economic human

rights include the right to education, housing, adequate standard of living, health and culture.

In this section, the rights to education and adequate standard of living are discussed to

demonstrate how tech hubs are advancing these socio-economic rights. The right to

education is recognised as a right to free and equitable education for all, from primary school

education to higher education. Due to social inequality, approximately 260 million children

globally did not have access to school education in 2019 (UNICEF, 2021). In resource–poor

environments, tech hubs are serving a functional purpose of digitally upskilling the youth by

offering various programs and certifications in ICT courses at no cost to the participants. In

this regard, the tech hub advances the right to free education for all. The accelerated

development in ICTs are transforming human society from an information age to the digital

age across all spheres (Mahlangu, 2018). By providing collaborative and innovative spaces

37



for the generation of ideas, facilitating prompt exchange of information, tech hubs create an

environment to develop entrepreneurs who can create employment and contribute to

improving the standard of living of the people in marginalised environments.

In 2016, in a non-binding resolution, the UN's Human Rights Council reinforced the

importance of expanding access to the Internet through using a human rights-based

approach. This holistic approach embraces the intersection of the Internet and the realisation

of other human socio-economic rights as advocated by Faturoti (2022). Lesame (2014)

affirms that access to ICT is a fundamental constitutional right in South Africa while Mfuphi

(2020) argues that a lack of access to ICT denies citizens their constitutional right and

increases the probability of digital illiteracy and the required skills to participate in the digital

economy.

2.5.4 ICT policy implementation challenges 
The implementation of ICT policies to achieve universal access and reach critical mass in

digital upskilling of citizens has been met with challenges. The failure of the SA Connect

project aimed at connecting people in underserved areas. Instead of connecting 6,135

government facilities to broadband, only 970 were connected (Department of

Communication and Digital Technologies, 2017). In addition, the lack of coherence across

government levels has led to unnecessary delays in the digital migration, delays in the

spectrum allocation process, and misuse of the Universal Service and Access Funds. This

fragmentation across the government levels has consequently resulted in disparity in access

to the Internet, drawing back the objectives of universal access for all. In its five-year

strategic plan, ICASA reiterated that it had failed to keep up to date with the rapid

technological changes partly due to a lack of policy certainty and consistency on crucial

regulatory matters and inadequate funding (ICASA, 2020). Lewis (2017) attributes this to a

lack of clarity and direction from the government, governance issues, and institutional

capabilities. Further, he points out that USAASA admitted to not being successful in

providing universal service to every citizen (Lewis, 2017).

ICT policies should be anchored in human rights to ensure a just policy framework that

leaves no one behind. Sanders and Scanlon (2021) point out that access to digital

technology is a matter of socio-economic rights whose promotion has advanced the

commitment to social inclusion. However, a lack of support from the government will delay

incorporating these rights into policy and practice. Considering the role played by the

Internet, the drive towards universal access needs to incorporate socio-economic rights.

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The following section will review and discuss the theoretical framework underpinning this

research.

2.6 Theoretical framework introduction
Theories are fundamental to research, and their selection is equally important to the studied

phenomena. The theoretical framework guides the scope and focus of the study toward the

achievement of the objectives (Green, 2014). Theories provide a structure upon which the

research, problem statement, objectives, research questions, and contribution are based

(Grant & Osanloo, 2014). For this study, three theories were identified as follows; Capability

Approach (CA), Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), and the Sociotechnical theory (STS).

These theories are reviewed and the most appropriate theory for this research is discussed

in light of the research objectives. 

2.6.1 The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
TAM theory falls under Information Systems and Information Technology spheres and

replicates the process in which end users accept and use technology. To determine the

attitude of users towards adopting new technologies, the TAM theory carries two central

beliefs, namely perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) (Erasmus et

al., 2015). PU measures how individuals believe they will benefit from using technology and

PEOU is a concept that considers an individual's assessment of the effort required in using

technology (Venkatesh, 2000). The PU and PEOU are vital factors determining whether

individuals or groups decide to accept technology artefacts (Lee et al., 2003; Surendran,

2012). While TAM is a strong predictor of acceptance of technology, it does little to help our

understanding of the actual usage of the technology artefact (Venkatesh, 2000). Lim,

Osman, Salahuddin, et al. (2016) found that TAM showed weaknesses in explaining users'

behaviour in technology use. Similarly, Napitupulu (2017) found that TAM failed to explain

the social influences that drive user behaviour. These criticisms of TAM are primarily due to

its deterministic approach. Therefore, while TAM could be appropriate for this research, the

researcher did not select it because it is mainly designed to measure technology acceptance

with minimal focus on actual use. 

                                                      

2.6.2 The Capability Approach (CA)
The CA is focused on what an individual can do and become, referred to as

capabilities (Robeyns, 2005; Zheng & Walsham, 2008) while having the freedom to live the

life one values (Sen, 1999). In the context of ICT4D, Madon (2004) introduced the CA

approach as a framework to evaluate the impact of ICT4D interventions. Therefore, the CA

39



considers the end state, the local context, and the development process (Zheng & Walsham,

2008) and offers a way of conceptualising development not as economic growth but as

individual freedom (Kleine, 2010). Tshivhase et al. (2016) highlighted that the CA is a

powerful evaluative tool that places people at the centre of an ICT4D inquiry. While the CA

approach has been used in ICT4D research and would be a sound theory in this study, the

researcher decided not to select it. The CA framework does not consider variables such as

access or usage but is concerned with the end state rather than the means. This research

seeks to dig deeper into understanding those variables and the process of learning digital

technologies. 

2.6.3 Sociotechnical systems (STS) theory 
The sociotechnical theory was first developed by Emery and Trist (1965) to analyse how

social and technological factors impact the innovation and transformation of industries.

Building on this thinking, Zhang et al. (2018) defined the STS from an interaction perspective

of technology and human behaviour to achieve excellence in technical performance and

quality in people's lives. Cummings (1994) adds the interdependence concept between and

among people, technology, and the environment, highlighting the importance of all elements

supporting each other. Trist, Higgin, Murray, et al. (1963) caution that the combination of

social and technological elements must be open to their environment for an organization to

function. The environment is contextual and includes factors like legislation and policies.

Davis et al. (2014) adapted the STS framework to include six interrelated and inextricably

linked components (technology, culture, processes, goals, people, and infrastructure)

embedded within an external environment. This framework proposes that these components

are interdependent and changes in one part necessitate changes in other parts leading to

successful joint optimization. Joint optimisation is a concept where people, technology, and

the environment work together to achieve a set objective (Appelbaum, 1997).

Figure 5: Socio-Technical Systems Theory Elements

40



Source: Davis et al. (2014)

This research adopts the STS theory by Davis et al. (2014). In this study, the interdependent

components are used as theoretical lenses to guide understanding of Diepsloot youth

perspectives regarding the role played by the tech hub in poor environments.

2.6.4 Conceptual Research Framework
Selecting the most appropriate theory is determined by the goals of the phenomena being

studied (Sekgwelelo et al., 2017). Following the review of the TAM, CA, and STS theories,

and careful analysis of the literature available on youth and the role of tech hubs, the

researcher found the STS theory to be the most suited for this research. This is because it

considers all components of social, technology and the environment and the outcomes of

technology use. The framework in figure 6 depicts the STS theory, which will guide the

interview questions and presentation of research findings.

2.7 Summary of the Chapter 
In this chapter, the four dimensions (social influences, institutional infrastructure, digital skills

and policies) were explored before the conceptual framework was discussed. The tech hubs

are a significant driver of digital transformation in resource-constrained environments, and

their proliferation represents a rise in innovation and new digital markets. However, for

societies to digitally transform they need to be skilled and equipped to use technologies

while understanding inherent fears of technology that exist due to lack of education. In

41



addition, the implementation of ICT policies needs to be strengthened to ensure policy

objectives are met, particularly on universal access and digital skills training. This helped in

understanding how technologies are employed in poor environments, the digital skills

required and the critical role of ICT policies in bridging the access gap. This chapter also

provided a review of some theories that can be used as analytical lenses in exploring the

perspectives of the youth on the role of tech hubs in resource-constrained environments. A

conceptual framework was developed using the STS theory. The next chapter contains the

research methodology. 

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CHAPTER 3: INTERPRETIVIST RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction 
This chapter is on the research methodology of this study. It identifies and explains the

research paradigm, the rationale for selecting that paradigm, and the approach used. The

research design and strategy and the sampling techniques, data collection methods, and

analysis are included in this chapter. A qualitative research methodology was used. The

participants' context, attitudes, and behaviour were examined with a clear focus on

investigating their influence on the use of digital technologies. The data collection technique

was purposive sampling to allow in-depth interviews with the youth, where personal

experiences, cultural meanings, and context were drawn. Interviews were also conducted

with tech hub managers.  

3.1 Research paradigm
A paradigm describes the philosophical orientation of the researcher and influences what

should be researched, how it should be researched, and how to interpret the results of the

research (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017). Guba and Lincoln (1994) define a paradigm as a basic

set of beliefs or worldviews guiding a research investigation. A paradigm comprises four

elements: epistemology, ontology, methodology, and axiology (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

However, the three most commonly used paradigms in qualitative research are

Interpretivism, positivism, and critical theory (Antwi & Hanza, 2015). This research is located

in the qualitative interpretive paradigm.  

Interpretivism is based on methods that accentuate the nature of people's characters and

how they behave in their social and cultural contexts (Chowdhury, 2014). Interpretivists

argue that reality and knowledge are social products that must be understood within the

context of social actors (researchers) who construct and make meaning of that reality

(Sekgwelelo et al., 2017). Furthermore, Chowdhury and Gopal (2014) affirm that new

meanings are created through richer understandings and interpretations of the different

social worlds and contexts. In the context of this study, the researcher's perceptions, values,

and objectives play a significant part in influencing the social reality and bringing new

knowledge on the perspectives of the youth on the role of tech hubs in poor environments.

3.1.1 Rationale for adopting Interpretivism paradigm 
Interpretivism was adopted as it provides an opportunity for a researcher to make meaning

of a constructed reality. The constructed reality needs to be guided by theory therefore; a

43



deductive approach within the interpretive paradigm was employed in this study. With

deductive reasoning, the argument moves from general principles to particular instances.

Guided by the STS theory, the study's objectives are to explore the sociotechnical factors

influencing the use of tech hubs in resource-constrained environments.

3.2 Research Approach 
This study used a qualitative research methodology situated in the Interpretivism paradigm.

The researcher explored meanings and insights in qualitative research through engagement

with identified subjects (Haradhan, 2018). The qualitative methodology enabled the author,

through in-depth interviews, to capture a rich array of contextual data on technology use in

impoverished environments. In addition, the use of multiple participants serves to deepen

the understanding of the investigated experience (Polkinghorne, 2005). Accordingly, the

researcher was able to construct reality through the interviewees' lived experiences and the

meanings they make of those experiences. 

3.3 Research Strategy
The research strategy enables a researcher to conduct research systematically by following

a detailed plan of action that produces high-quality results (MacKenzie, 2014). The four main

research strategies are case studies, qualitative interviews, quantitative surveys, and

action-oriented research. The research strategy used in this research is a case study. A case

study is, by its nature, exploratory and explanatory and is used to advance understanding of

the subject matter in a real-life context while answering the how, why, and to a lesser extent,

what research questions (Harrison, Birks, Franklin, et al., (2017). For this research, the case

study was the best research strategy to explore the youth's perspectives on the role of

technology hubs in poor environments. Without having deep conversations with the youth

and the tech hub managers in their current context, it would have been impossible to get rich

data and meanings. 

3.4 Research Design 
Research design in qualitative research seeks to find the answers to questions pertaining to

the hows and whys of a phenomenon being studied. The following section details the unit of

analysis, population, sample, demographics of participants and the sampling techniques.

3.4.1 Unit of Analysis 
A unit of analysis is the critical object analysed in the study that the researcher wishes to say

something about at the end of the study (DeCarlo, 2018). The research question determines

44



the unit of analysis. In this research, the unit of analysis was the youth and their usage of

technology in resource-constrained environments. 

3.4.2 Population 
Population refers to all the individuals or groups in a particular space. As it is impossible to

locate or access the whole population, the targeted population in this study were two