MASTERS DEGREE IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT  

 

Working from Home: Impact of COVID-19 on Employee Motivation and Job 

Satisfaction among Non-Academic Staff at a Public University in South Africa. 

 

                               Researcher: Dorothy Miruka 

                              Student Number: 1103536 

                        Research Supervisor: Aretha Mazingi  

 

 

                                     

 

                                              

Research dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master 

of Commerce by Dissertation in the field of Human Resource Management in the Faculty of 

Commerce, Law and Management at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 

February 2023. 



ii 
 

         

                                                                      DECLARATION 

 

 

I, Dorothy Anyango Miruka, hereby declare that this research dissertation is my own, unaided 

work.  It is being submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of 

Human Resource Management at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.  This 

dissertation has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in this or any other 

university.  

 

I further declare that: 

 I am aware that plagiarism (the use of someone else’s work without their 

permission and/or without acknowledging the original source) is wrong. 

 I have followed the required conventions in referencing the thoughts and ideas of 

others. 

 I understand that the University of the Witwatersrand may take disciplinary 

action against me if there is a belief that this is not my own unaided work or that 

I have failed to acknowledge the source of the ideas or words in my writing. 

 

Signature                 ----------------------------------                           

Date                          _____________________ 

 

February 2023 

  



iii 
 

                                                          Acknowledgments  

 

 

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people  

To my supervisor Aretha Mazingi, words cannot express my gratitude. You have been a great 

lecturer since my undergraduate and I would not have made it through without you. Thank 

you for your guidance and support and for being extremely patient and helpful throughout 

the study.  

To my friend and mentor Ms Dinah Nato for her words of encouragement, support, and 

advice on key steps within the process. I owe you so much gratitude.   

 To Dr. John Karuitha for assisting with the R code, thank you.   

To the University of Witwatersrand for funding my studies, thank you for making my college 

career possible, I will forever be grateful.  

To my family for their support, particularly my spouse Odongo Kodongo for his words of 

encouragement.   

To all the non-academic staff members that took part in the research study and made this 

possible. Thank you. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



iv 
 

 

 

 

 

                                                                  Abstract  

This study explores the motivation and job satisfaction of the non-academic staff at a public 

institution of higher education in South Africa during the pandemic. This study investigates 

the motivation and job satisfaction of the non-academic staff at a public institution of higher 

education in South Africa during the pandemic. The pandemic brought challenges to society 

forcing various practices from work to travelling and daily responsibilities. This resulted in 

both employers and employees seeking alternative work arrangements. This research is on 

the impact of COVID-19 on employee motivation and job satisfaction on employees while 

they were working from home (WFH). Utilizing a quantitative research design, the study used 

a survey research methodology. Primary data was collected from 354 non-academic 

employees, using a 7 Likert questionnaire. The quantitative data results were analyzed using 

R studio (version 3.6.3). Multiple linear regression was carried out, data findings were then 

discussed presenting the results using and graphs. From the empirical results, the research 

found that there is a correlation between motivation and job satisfaction. These results 

indicate that there are correlations of sets of relationships between WFH, motivation, job 

satisfaction, and technological skills. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



v 
 

                                                     

                                                   

   TABLE OF CONTENTS 
CHAPTER 1.................................................................................................................................. 2 

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 2 

1.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 3 

1.2 Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 5 

1.3 Research Problem ............................................................................................................ 7 

1.4. Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 9 

1.5 Research Objectives ....................................................................................................... 10 

1.6 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 10 

1.7 Research context ............................................................................................................ 11 

1.8 Contribution of the Study ........................................................................................... 11 

1.8.1 Theoretical Contribution ............................................................................................. 11 

1.8.2 Contextual Contribution .............................................................................................. 12 

1.8.3 Practical Contribution ................................................................................................. 13 

CHAPTER 2................................................................................................................................ 14 

LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 14 

2.1 Theoretical framework ............................................................................................... 15 

2.2 Theories of Motivation and Satisfaction ........................................................................ 16 

2.2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs...................................................................................... 16 

2.2.2 Herzberg's Two-factor Theory ..................................................................................... 19 

2.2.3 Social exchange theory ............................................................................................... 20 

2.2.4 Theories on technology use ........................................................................................ 20 

2.2.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 21 

2.3 Working from Home ................................................................................................... 22 

2.3.1 Work-life balance ........................................................................................................ 24 

2.3.2 Good work environment ............................................................................................. 25 

2.3.3 Professional isolation .................................................................................................. 26 

2.3.4 Communication ........................................................................................................... 27 

2.4  Motivation ................................................................................................................. 28 

2.4.1 Extrinsic motivation ..................................................................................................... 30 

2.4.2 Intrinsic motivation ..................................................................................................... 31 



vi 
 

2.5 Job Satisfaction ........................................................................................................... 31 

2.6 Technological skills ..................................................................................................... 35 

2.7 Hypotheses and conceptual framework ........................................................................ 37 

2.7.1 Working from Home and employee motivation. ........................................................ 37 

2.7.2 Working from Home and job satisfaction. .................................................................. 38 

2.7.3 Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction ................................................................. 38 

2.7.4 The Role of technological skills on employee motivation and job satisfaction when 

WFH ...................................................................................................................................... 40 

2.8 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 42 

CHAPTER 3................................................................................................................................ 43 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 43 

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 44 

3.1.2 Research Paradigm ...................................................................................................... 44 

3.1.3 Research design ........................................................................................................... 45 

3.4 Delineation of the Study ................................................................................................ 46 

3.4.1 Study setting ................................................................................................................ 46 

3.4.2 Site selection ............................................................................................................... 47 

3.4.3 Unit of analysis ............................................................................................................ 47 

3.4.4 Target population ........................................................................................................ 48 

3.5 Sampling ......................................................................................................................... 49 

3.5.1 Sample size estimation ................................................................................................ 49 

3.5.2 Sampling strategies ..................................................................................................... 49 

3.5.2.1 Probability Sampling ................................................................................................ 49 

3.5.2.2 Non-probability Sampling ........................................................................................ 50 

3.5.3 Data collection strategy .............................................................................................. 51 

3.5.4 Data Collection Methods ............................................................................................. 51 

3.6 Data quality control ........................................................................................................ 52 

3.6.1 Validity ......................................................................................................................... 52 

3.6.2 Reliability ..................................................................................................................... 53 

3.6.3 Data analysis ................................................................................................................ 53 

3.6.4 Ethical considerations ................................................................................................. 55 

3.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 55 

CHAPTER 4................................................................................................................................ 56 

RESULTS.................................................................................................................................... 56 



vii 
 

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 57 

4.1.1 Descriptive statistics .................................................................................................... 57 

4.1.2 Descriptive results of demographics ........................................................................... 57 

4.2.2 Descriptive Analysis of dependent and independent variables ................................. 61 

4.2.2.1 Working from Home ................................................................................................ 61 

4.2.2.2 Motivation ................................................................................................................ 63 

4.2.2.3 Job satisfaction ......................................................................................................... 64 

4.2.2.4 Technological skills ................................................................................................... 65 

4.3: Reliability analysis ......................................................................................................... 66 

4.4 presentation of Empirical Results .................................................................................. 66 

4.4.1 WFH and employee motivation .................................................................................. 66 

4.4.2 Working from home and job satisfaction ................................................................... 67 

4.4.3 Employee motivation and job satisfaction? ................................................................ 68 

4.4.4 Technological skills, employee motivation, and job satisfaction when working from 

home. ................................................................................................................................... 69 

4.5 Regression analysis ......................................................................................................... 70 

4.5.1 Motivation ................................................................................................................... 71 

4.5.2 Job satisfaction ............................................................................................................ 73 

4.5.3 The Role of Technological Skill on employee motivation and Job Satisfaction .......... 73 

4.6 An alternative aggregation approach ............................................................................ 74 

4.6.1. Motivation .................................................................................................................. 75 

4.6.2. Job satisfaction ........................................................................................................... 75 

4.6.3 Regression diagnostics ................................................................................................ 77 

4.6.3: Summary .................................................................................................................... 77 

CHAPTER 5................................................................................................................................ 78 

DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 78 

5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 79 

5.1 Hypothesis testing .......................................................................................................... 79 

5.2.1 Relationship between WFH and Employee Motivation .............................................. 79 

5.2.2 Relationship between WFH and Job satisfaction ........................................................ 81 

5.2.2.3. Relationship between Employee Motivation and Job Satisfaction ........................ 82 

5.2.2.4 The role of technological skills on the relationship between employee motivation 

and job satisfaction when WFH. .......................................................................................... 83 

5.3 Findings of Research Questions ................................................................................ 85 



viii 
 

6  Summary, Conclusions, Limitations  & Recommendations .......................................... 87 

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 87 

6.2 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 87 

6.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 88 

6.4 Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 88 

6.5 Implications .................................................................................................................... 89 

6.6 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 89 

References ............................................................................................................................... 93 

Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 109 

Appendix A: Research Instrument ..................................................................................... 109 

Appendix B: ........................................................................................................................ 114 

Appendix C: ..................................................................................................................... 116 

Appendix D ..................................................................................................................... 118 

 

                                                           

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



ix 
 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1: Sampling frame ......................................................................................................... 50 

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for gender ............................................................................... 57 

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for marital status ................................................................... 58 

Table 4: Descriptive statistics for the level of education....................................................... 59 

Table 5: Descriptive statistics for employment category ...................................................... 60 

Table 6: Frequency table for WFH .......................................................................................... 62 

Table 7: Summary of variables capturing WFH ...................................................................... 62 

Table 8: Frequency table for motivation ................................................................................ 63 

Table 9: Summary of variables capturing motivation............................................................ 63 

Table 10: Frequency for job satisfaction ................................................................................ 64 

Table 11: Summary of variables capturing job satisfaction .................................................. 64 

Table 12: Summary of variables capturing technological skills ............................................. 65 

Table 13: Reliability of variance .............................................................................................. 66 

Table 14: Multiple regressions ................................................................................................ 70 

Table 15: Ordered logistic regressions ................................................................................... 76 

Table 16: Research Planning ................................................................................................... 90 

Table 17: Consistency matrix .................................................................................................. 91 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



x 
 

 

                                                                  LIST OF FIGURES                                                                                                                                                                 

Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: ................................................................................. 18 

Figure 2: Conceptual Model .................................................................................................... 41 

Figure 3: Descriptive Statistics for gender .............................................................................. 58 

Figure 4: Descriptive statistics for marital status ................................................................... 59 

Figure 5: Level of education respondents .............................................................................. 60 

Figure 6: Category of employment ......................................................................................... 61 

Figure 7: WFH and employee motivation ............................................................................... 67 

Figure 8: Correlation between WFH and job satisfaction ...................................................... 68 

Figure 9: Correlation between employee motivation and Job satisfaction .......................... 68 

Figure 10: Respondents profile (% of total count) ................................................................. 69 

Figure 11: Correlation between indicators........................................................................... 118 

                                          

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



2 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

    CHAPTER 1  

 

 

 

 

 

       INTRODUCTION   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



3 
 

1.1 Overview  

The abrupt transition from working in the office to working from home (WFH) became the 

new normal and critical in curbing the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Most organizations were 

unprepared and had no formal policy on how to transition to the new work approach.  

Organizations were forced to quickly decide on how to transition their operations to 

telecommuting for business continuity, and survival. Consequently, many companies were 

forced to downsize, with many workers losing their jobs. Through mobile and Internet‐based 

technologies the workforce was allowed to work from home or remotely, and this prevented 

issues such as absenteeism as well as the spreading of the disease during the pandemic 

(Abilash & Siju, 2021). However, these forced decisions were challenging for some employees, 

particularly those who have never encountered remote working and those who were not 

technologically savvy and unable to work effectively work from home. Such issues may have 

caused stress and affected workers’ well-being as they were pressured to work without 

proper training in the use of digital technology (O'Bannon, 2020). Due to  the lockdown caused 

by COVID-19, many employees who were parents or had older relatives living with them could 

not work well from home since the children and older relatives needed to be taken care of 

therefore interfering with work responsibilities hence reducing job satisfaction and employee 

motivation (Galvez, Tirado, & Martinez-Arguelles, 2020). To reduce the spread of COVID-19, 

the government became stricter as a result parents were required to provide child care, social 

interactions had to be limited, and some forms of recreation were no longer possible (Abilash 

& Siju, 2021). WFH has also identified areas where physical space is needed in home office 

environments during the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, not all workers have access to 

dedicated workspaces in their homes, which can result in them sharing their workspaces, for 

example with children who have to go to school remotely (Galvez et., 2020). Due to the 

restrictions placed on human and vehicular movements as a result of the pandemic, university 

instructors in South Africa and around the world were forced to work from home and change 

their face-to-face delivery mode of instruction to an online or virtual mode (Badaru, Adu, Adu, 

& Duku, 2022). However, employees can now alternate between WFH and their workplace 

depending on the company regulations for two or three days a week. The COVID-19 pandemic 

made many organizations re-think how and where their employees work, examining how they 

are responding to challenges and how they could navigate through those challenges of a 



4 
 

changing working environment and using technology to keep their businesses running as 

usual  (Shareena & Shahid, 2020).  

Although various studies confirm that WFH has increased in organizations; DeVries, Tummers, 

& Bekkers (2019) state that the advantages of WFH have been undermined by professional 

isolation and have ruined organizational commitment. Furthermore, WFH’s association with 

disconnection from work colleagues may lead to detrimental effects such as lack of job 

satisfaction, high turnover, and even ill health (Wang, Albert, & Sun, 2020). WFH has also been 

reported to harm individual work responsibilities (Palumbo, 2020). Another negative 

outcome of WFH is that the relationship between employees and supervisors is hampered 

due to less communication which is only done electronically, which in turn makes it difficult 

for employee performance to be recognized and this can lead to low motivation and job 

satisfaction (Susilo, 2020).  

Work prerequisites, conditions, and facilities of the work environments remain critical even 

when employees work from home. According to Raziq & Maulabakhsh (2015), a good working 

environment has a positive effect on job satisfaction and motivation of employees, resulting 

in a positive impact on an organization's productivity. A good work environment is a condition 

that allows employees to do their jobs healthily and comfortably which enables them 

(employees) to achieve a high level of satisfaction and become motivated to perform extra 

tasks for the organization (Al-Omari & Okasheh, 2017). The working hours allow people to 

schedule their work, which helps them to work around the schedule and this enables them to 

have a work-life balance. It also gives workers autonomy that allows them to decide how to 

perform their duties.  With the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak and given the closure of schools 

and parents’ WFH, therefore they had to juggle between working and taking care of their 

children.  This was challenging, especially for women, which could affect motivation and job 

satisfaction (Feng & Savani, 2020). However, despite having more duties than males, research 

has found that women report better levels of job satisfaction (Moors, Malley, & Stewart, 

2014).  

An employee is an essential resource of a company and the success of a company depends 

on the employee (Susilo, 2020). Therefore, it is important to ensure that employee job 

satisfaction is taken into account when WFH. The management also needs to ensure that 

employees understand the policies and strategies put in place to overcome the impacts of 



5 
 

demotivation and dissatisfaction such as low morale. Employees are motivated in different 

ways, some are driven by money, others by recognition and non-monetary rewards, and 

others become motivated when their psychological needs for autonomy and competence are 

satisfied (Kalogiannidis, 2021). Working as a team with colleagues also increases the 

opportunity to develop supportive behaviour and achieve job satisfaction; however, these 

prospects for teamwork diminish when employees work from home in isolation (Rysavy & 

Michalak, 2020). Therefore, this research studies the effects of working from home on 

employee motivation and job satisfaction, focusing on non-academic staff at a public tertiary 

institution in Gauteng. Non-academic employees at tertiary institutions are considered a 

fitting laboratory for examining these effects because by motivating these staff, there will be 

an increase in productivity and efficiency which determine the high quality of learning.  

 

1.2 Background of the Study 

 

The workplace and work environments were changed in various ways by the COVID-19 

pandemic. A major impact of the pandemic was the increase in work/study from home by 

academics, support staff, and students at universities and colleges. In response to the 

emergency, most universities and colleges around the world postponed many on-campus 

activities, organized work-from-home opportunities, and provided faculty, staff, and students 

with access to online digital platforms for tele-education and distance learning (Ahmadi, 

Zandi, Cetrez, & Akhavan, 2022). Research by Januarty, Edward, Pakpahan, & Purba (2020) 

explains the working environment as the surroundings of the workers, physical or non-

physical, which can affect them either positively or negatively when performing their duties. 

Similarly, Setiyani, Djumani, Setyo, & Lenny (2019) reported that a better work environment 

acts as a motivator in improving the satisfaction and motivation of employees in any given 

organization; in other words, the quality of the work environment influences employees’ level 

of satisfaction. Research by Yandi (2022) also reported that the work environment is crucial 

because it affects creativity by influencing employees’ intrinsic motivation to perform a task. 

Gagne & Deci (2005) ascertains that employees who experience more positive work outcomes 

are those who work in environments that facilitate the experience of need satisfaction.  



6 
 

However, employees who work in environments where their needs are actively thwarted 

experience feelings of rejection, discomfort, and oppression and are more likely to experience 

dysfunction at work (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan, Bosch, & Thogersen-Ntoumani, 2011).  

In their study, Kniffin, Narayanan, Anseel, Antonakis, Ashford, Bakker & Vugt (2021) 

discovered that poor working conditions increase job dissatisfaction while Diamantidis & 

Chatzoglou (2019) identify a positive relationship between the working environment and 

employee performance. The authors further elaborate that the working environment affects 

employee productivity, performance, as well as capability to be proactive, and productive. 

Hence employers should note the significant impact on employee motivation and job 

satisfaction when WFH. Therefore as employers, they need to look at aspects of work the 

environment that encourages satisfaction such as the design of the job, employees’ 

psychological needs, and employee/leader relationships among others. 

One important aspect of the work environment that affects employees is WFH, although the 

researcher is unaware that many studies have been conducted in the South African context. 

According to Gao & Sai (2020), employees experience isolation when WFH. Due to the COVID-

19 pandemic, social distancing measures were put in place and most employees transitioned 

to remote work, while others transitioned to rotational work using communication 

technologies. In recent years, there have been arguments that employees who are WFH are 

more productive due to fewer distractions from co-workers whereas others disagree, arguing 

that home environments are not the best (Dockery & Bawa, 2014). However, Allen, Golden, 

& Shockley (2015) argue that WFH through telecommuting helps employees cope with work 

and family responsibilities. The researchers further argue that although the new trend 

remains questionable, it makes workers feel safe. In addition, employees can flexibly decide 

how they balance work and home errands and from a cost perspective, they do not have to 

bear any travel expenses to commute to the office. Rupietta & Beckmann (2018) agree that 

WFH has a remarkable positive impact on employees’ motivation as the two complement 

each other.  

Studies by Oulasvirta, Rattenbury, Ma, & Raita (2012) Suggest that for remote workers, 

technology is the driving force behind organizational change and enabling WFH. The use of 

technology has rapidly changed the habits, social structures, and interactions of the work 

environment. Technology has advanced and the opportunities to work remotely have 



7 
 

increased, employees are now realizing they can have more autonomy, which companies 

seem increasingly willing to allow (Grant, Wallace, & Spurgeon, 2013). The transition to WFH 

has necessitated new skills for employees to perform their duties satisfactorily. For instance, 

employees require technological skills to use the internet for easy access to information and 

to be able to solve problems online (Brodeur, Clark, Fleche, & Powdthavee, 2021). Otherwise, 

it is difficult for people with low technological skills to work from home. Consequently, 

employers need to invest more in training and personal development as a means of increasing 

job satisfaction, motivation, and performance, and perhaps less so in financial rewards 

(Schmidt, 2007). 

 The growth of digital technology has contributed to both positive and negative impacts on 

workplaces, job skills, and competencies. Technology has transformed work relationships and 

communication systems that separate workers from formal workplaces and employers 

(Ruyter, Brown, & Burgess, 2019). Digital technology is transforming the workforce faster 

than before increasing unemployment. With most employees WFH, the competing forces of 

2030 have been accelerated by the new normal due to COVID-19 restrictions (Khalil, Elsaay, 

& Othman, 2017). Brown, et al.,(2017) indicates that by the year 2030, there will be an 

achievement in technological breakthrough, rapid urbanization, and change in global 

economic power. Hence, the new normal was made possible by the rapid development of 

technology. With most companies requiring their employees to socially isolate, while others 

chose to alternate between office and remote working, many governments have had to 

consider developing laws related to teleworking, hence the growth of the fourth industrial 

revolution (Bonilla-Molina, 2020). Employees, therefore, had to use technology to execute 

their tasks, and continuously update their knowledge and skills not only to increase 

productivity but also to increase their employability (Man & Man, 2019). Such an investment 

would cultivate a work environment that fosters motivation, leading to higher employee 

performance and the achievement of organizational goals (Setiyani et al., 2019).  

Given the above observations, this study aims to determine the effect of WFH due to Covid-

19 on employee motivation, and job satisfaction among non-academic employees at a public 

tertiary institution in Gauteng, South Africa.                                     

1.3 Research Problem 

 



8 
 

Changes in the work environment and changes in working conditions play a significant role in 

employee motivation and satisfaction where a job is concerned (Abilash & Siju, 2021). Due to 

the COVID-19 outbreak, the work environment largely changed from the standard office 

setting to WFH. According to Jamal, Anwar, Khan, and Saleem (2020), this ‘new normal’ 

affected employees in various ways. One of the problems emerging from WFH was 

professional isolation, in which workers were distanced from their colleagues (Wang, Albert, 

& Sun, 2020). As a result, the employees developed a feeling of disconnection from critical 

networks of influence, and social contacts, which prevents them from getting recognition and 

sharing their output, support, and goals (Susilo, 2020). Shared norms developing in teams 

exert a strong influence on workers, however, because employees were WFH, building trust 

and sharing experiences among workers became difficult for them to work as a team (Allen, 

Golden, & Shockley, 2015). WFH also disrupts teamwork especially when team members have 

been carefully chosen to complement each other’s strengths and to fill gaps where knowledge 

or skills are lacking and because of this, team members are unable to meet (Direction, 2013).  

Colleagues are therefore less likely to take notice of issues and offer the necessary support 

their peers may have (Wang, Albert, & Sun, 2020). As a result, they find it challenging to 

establish how to behave towards, or react to, work developments. Hence, this leads to the 

feeling of isolation accompanied by reduced confidence in their abilities; which ultimately 

may cause low motivation and job dissatisfaction (Wang, Albert, & Sun, 2020).  

 

Golden, Veiga, & Dino (2008) argue that professionally isolated employees are also less likely 

to receive important information or interpret information effectively and this may affect their 

performance of assignments. Golden, Veiga, and Dino (2008) further argue that 

psychologically and physically isolated employees are likely not to feel a sense of 

belongingness (the feeling of connection with work colleagues). This can lead to a lack of 

interest in employees, which leads to frustrations and the consequent lack of motivation, 

dissatisfaction, and the feeling of wanting to leave the company (Sabbagha, Ledimo, & 

Martins, 2018). A recent study by Susilo (2020) has also shown that most organizations laid 

off some of their employees due to lockdowns triggered by the outbreak of COVID-19. This 

caused workers anxiety about their job security, negatively affecting their motivation and job 

satisfaction and possibly resulting in low productivity. 

 



9 
 

Another important factor that may contribute to the feeling of isolation is technology, which 

has become an essential work tool as WFH has forced employees to work by 

telecommunicating (Rysavy & Michalak, 2020). Due to the lockdown associated with the 

COVID-19 outbreak, employees (including those in tertiary institutions) were forced to work 

online but recently institutions have introduced rotation work, requiring employees to 

alternate between working in the office and WFH. However, employees with little or no 

technological knowledge may find it difficult to use the technology-based platforms (Parham 

& Rauf, 2020). Because of this, they are not able to complete their responsibilities within the 

required period (Jamal, Anwar, Khan, & Saleem, 2020). Hence, such employees may feel 

psychologically unfit, resulting in a lack of motivation and a feeling of dissatisfaction (Sarwat, 

2012). In addition, Parham & Rauf (2020) reported that employees with little technological 

knowledge are unable to provide good service to their clients and therefore, compromise 

productivity and morale. 

The proposed study seeks to explore the role, if any, of COVID-19-induced isolations on the 

motivation and job satisfaction of non-academic employees of institutions of higher learning 

in South Africa. The role of isolation in job satisfaction has also been examined in some studies 

in an institutional setting. For example, (Bauer & Brazer, 2013) have shown that isolation has 

mediating effects on the relationship between social support and job satisfaction of school 

principals. However, a limited number of studies have been conducted on this topic focusing 

on non-academic staff in higher education in South Africa. Badaru, Adu, Adu, & Duku (2022) 

in their study, confirmed that literature is still scarce in the context of South Africa. In his 

research, Matli, (2020) also ascertained that It was too early to pull from the literature 

evidence for studies that have examined how the Covid-19 pandemic has transformed the 

work environment by gathering insights from workers who immediately became remote 

workers from home. This study adds to the growing body of knowledge regarding the theory 

of remote work during the Covid-19 pandemic. 

 

1.4. Research Questions  

 

 The study seeks to answer the following questions:  



10 
 

1.4.1. Is there a relationship between working from home and employee motivation? 

1.4.2. Is there a relationship between working from home and job satisfaction? 

1.4.3. Is there a relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction?  

1.4.4. How do technological skills affect the relationship between employee motivation 

and job satisfaction when working from home?  

1.5 Research Objectives 

 

The aim (broad objective) of this study is to establish the effect of WFH on employee 

motivation and job satisfaction due to the COVID-19 pandemic among the non-academic staff 

of a public institution in Gauteng, South Africa. 

 Specifically, the study’s objectives are:  

1.5.1 Establish if a relationship exists between working from home and employee 

motivation. 

1.5.2 Ascertain whether there is a relationship between working from home and job 

satisfaction. 

1.5.3 Determine whether there is a relationship between employee motivation and job 

satisfaction.  

1.5.4 Determine whether technological skills have an impact on employee motivation 

and job satisfaction when working from home. 

 

1.6 Significance of the Study  

 

The results of this study will create awareness of the level of motivation and job satisfaction 

of employees in higher learning institutions when they are WFH. Secondly, the study will assist 

management in developing strategies to motivate employees whilst WFH. Thirdly, from the 

developed strategies, HR can draft policies that may assist in implementing the strategies and 

ensure that these strategies are implemented to help with the transition of WFH, which will 

then motivate employees. Lastly, the strategies and policies developed can assist in 

motivation and job satisfaction allowing them to navigate through the challenges brought by 

the changing work environment. For example, continuous training on technological skills for 



11 
 

employees with challenges can increase motivation. The study will be helpful for the 

exploration of new ideas and provide an understanding of how motivation and job 

satisfaction can be strengthened when WFH. For instance, an institution can devise strategies 

to make WFH better without the employees feeling neglected when WFH. This can help the 

non-academic staff and academics to be psychologically prepared for the new work trend. 

From the study, the institution may give more benefits, such as data bundles in case of power 

blackouts to employees who are more productive when WFH, whether female or male 

workers, young or old. 

1.7 Research context  

 

This research is a study of non-academic staff at a public university in Johannesburg, South 

Africa. The university is internationally renowned for its academic excellence. The university 

has 33 schools, and this research study is intended to cover the entire institution. Therefore, 

all the non-academic employees had an equal chance to participate in the study. The study 

had a sample size of 354 employees and using the Raosoft sample size calculator, the sample 

size was determined. This institution has a higher population of students who may need 

consultation or assistance, particularly during this period of the pandemic; therefore, they 

need motivated employees who are willing to assist and give feedback without having to wait 

for a longer period. These employees form the backbone of the institution. They make 

operations easier for academic staff and students by ensuring that administration tasks such 

as finance, human resources, and safety are met, besides ensuring that the institution’s 

mission and vision are fulfilled. Without the administration staff effectively performing their 

roles, the institution would not be able to function effectively. This study, therefore, 

examined whether WFH affects employees in terms of professional isolation and the work 

environment. Lastly how technological skills play a role in motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) 

and job satisfaction when WFH. 

 

1.8 Contribution of the Study            

1.8.1 Theoretical Contribution  

 



12 
 

With WFH being the new norm, there have not been many studies yet. This literature will 

assist in building on existing literature about motivation and job satisfaction when employees 

are WFH. This new literature about WFH in academia will advise on how to manage 

professional isolation and further contribute to the literature on challenges of WFH such as 

professional isolation and lack of technological skills.   

Employees behave differently apart from being motivated and satisfied, which may be 

personal or professional depending on age and gender differences. Women are more affected 

because of extra roles they have and this may interfere with motivation and job satisfaction 

(Abilash & Siju, 2021). The institution needs to find ways of motivating its employees. The 

research, stresses that motivation and job satisfaction as these are very important factors 

when WFH specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, this literature will help 

the university management, to identify factors that may facilitate or hinder WFH by improving 

and increasing the number of staff training sessions to improve employee performance. With 

the new literature, the institution will be able to understand the reasons for their employees’ 

particular behaviour and how Maslow and Herzberg's theories can be applied to assist 

employees to improve their motivation and satisfaction when WFH. Evidence supporting the 

theories relating to employee motivation and performance showed that motivation has a 

positive and significant influence on employees' performance. With the help of this study, 

universities will be able to develop motivational strategies that provide them with a 

competitive edge and ensure their institutions' success. 

 

1.8.2 Contextual Contribution 

 

The study will occur in South Africa, specifically in a public tertiary institution. Motivation and 

job satisfaction are fundamental factors, hence this research will assist the institution to 

identify challenges that may lead to employees not feeling motivated or satisfied with their 

job when WFH. These institutions also provide an adequate setting for productivity, therefore 

this research will help the management tackle various problems and dysfunctional feelings 

among non-academic staff when WFH (Ahmad & Abdurahman, 2015). Hence, this will 



13 
 

determine changes in attitudes towards the job, particularly where age and gender are 

involved.  

1.8.3 Practical Contribution  

 

WFH has become part of the new normal and studies have confirmed there is a link between 

motivation, job satisfaction, and WFH. As a result, employees' work-life balance can be 

improved by using shifts, and management support is essential for keeping workers 

motivated (Ahmadi, Zandi, Cetrez, & Akhavan, 2022). The research study will help institutions 

create strategies and policies that assist workers to be motivated and satisfied. The study will 

also help institutions determine how the challenges of changing the work environment can 

be dealt with so that the productivity and objectives of the organization are not interfered 

with during the COVID-19 pandemic (Waizenegger et al., 2020).  

WFH has also brought restrictions on the movement of employees and social interactions 

which individuals are struggling to adapt. According to Cooper & Kurland (2002), WFH’s 

biggest threat is professional isolation as all communication is done through technology. It 

creates a psychological and physical distance between employees, employers, and colleagues 

in general. The study therefore will assist the university in identifying sufficient infrastructures 

such as technological resources, technical training, and support for employees. Generally, this 

study will help organizations through HR systems to help employees adapt and cope with the 

new changes in work, from working within the organization to remote work environments. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



14 
 

 

 

 

 

                                      

 

                                                
 

 

  CHAPTER 2  
 

 

        

 

  LITERATURE REVIEW  

 
 

 

                                                          
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



15 
 

2.1 Theoretical framework  

 

This chapter discusses the theoretical framework and literature review of the study. This 

section will review theory and evaluate the literature on working from home, motivation, and 

job satisfaction. The section also focuses on professional isolation and the fundamentals of 

technological skills when WFH. The study will explore how these factors may influence 

employees.       

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, organizations encouraged employees to work from home. 

However, they can now alternate between workplace and remote work. This research is 

supported by the theories of WFH, motivation, and job satisfaction (Nakrosiene, Buciuniene, 

& Gostautaite 2019; Wang, Albert, & Sun, 2020). Nakrosiene, Buciuniene, & Gostautaite 

(2019) argue that this new trend (WFH) may have a significant effect on the type of work done 

as well as on organizations, and it is not healthy for everyone. In the past, employees chose a 

different location of work environment from the actual workplace to have the opportunity to 

work on their own time. This was carried out and would be effective only for workers who 

were interested or able to engage in, WFH (Wang, Albert, & Sun, 2020).  

A study by Felstead & Henseke (2017) shows that the rate of employees working remotely 

has increased over the last decade. Working remotely was made possible by digital 

technology. Digital technology is playing a key role in flexibility and connectivity between 

employers and employees (Donnelly & Johns, 2020). Because of this, workers can work 

wherever and at whatever time. On the contrary, Gibson et al., (2002) as cited in Beauregard, 

Basile, & Canonico (2019) found that employees who work from home are associated with 

defaulting, and turnover due to flexibility, because of this, they are more prone to make 

mistakes in their work. Monitoring of employees can also be difficult for organizations when 

WFH and this can lead to employees neglecting their work responsibilities hence lowering the 

organization’s productivity (Rupietta & Beckmann, 2018). Furthermore, Robb & Shellebarger 

(2012) has also confirmed that through technology, employers are now capable of monitoring 

their employees by use of tracking software to check whether they are working. Again, due 

to unreliable connection of technology, WFH was not widely practiced until the COVID-19 

pandemic, which required almost all employees to work from home (Kniffin et al., 2021).  



16 
 

In South Africa, a study by Conradie & Klerk (2019) confirms that allowing employees flexibility 

or WFH reduces work demands in terms of psychological and physiological costs, which helps 

them to achieve their work objectives. Employees who are WFH may also have difficulties 

concentrating because of various distractions such as noise, social media, and household 

chores, all of which may affect their work performance (Toniolo-barrios & Pitt, 2021). 

Technology has a major role as far as WFH is concerned, such as communicating with 

supervisors and co-workers and performing their required tasks. However, it is also argued 

that information sharing can harm the organization, depending on technology especially 

when the employees lack technological knowledge (Cooper & Lu, 2019).  

2.2 Theories of Motivation and Satisfaction 

Several theories of motivation significant for work settings have evolved. The two most 

popular theories of motivation and satisfaction Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg’s 

two-factor model are useful for this study.  These two theories have therefore been merged 

to support the researcher’s study.  In addition, the study will also find out how the Social 

exchange theory contributes to the motivation of employees.  

2.2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 

 

 Kaur (2013) reports that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the commonly used theory of 

motivation and satisfaction. Maslow indicates that the best way of motivating individuals is 

to keep in mind that they are motivated by needs and “that satisfaction begins at the lowest 

level of hierarchy before moving to the next higher level” (Elnaga, 2013). The needs are 

arranged in a hierarchical order, with physiological needs at the base, followed by safety, 

belongingness/love, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Generally, Maslow stresses that 

one cannot achieve a self-actualization level of development unless the needs of levels 1 to 4 

have been achieved (Conforti, 1972).  

 

 

 

 



17 
 

Physiological Needs  

Maslow (1970) stresses that individuals require physiological needs for example food, shelter, 

and clothing to work comfortably. Basically, without these needs, human beings can not 

survive.  

Safety needs  

Maslow further emphasizes that employees need an environment that provides a sense of 

security and well-being for instance financial security and protection from accidents as these 

will increase effort and productivity, hence continued employment. This is very critical 

particularly when employees are working from home, ensuring safe working conditions and 

job security by employers could be ways of satisfying their safety needs (Ghatak & Singh, 

2019). Herzberg (1959) also stresses that employees will be motivated when working in a safe 

environment. Therefore, the university management should ensure the safety needs of their 

employees even when they are working from home.   

Social Needs ( belongingness)  

This type of need is a key determinant of an individual’s behavior. An environment where an 

individual is getting social support from co-workers, supervisors, family, or friends lowers 

stress. In this case, an employee who is WFH needs a feeling of belonging to feel motivated 

and satisfied when there is support from the organization and colleagues (Waizenegger et al., 

2020). Ghatak & Singh (2019) indicated that social needs are fundamental for employees, for 

instance interacting with colleagues enables employees to collaborate effectively to achieve 

the objectives of the organization.   

According to Maslow's theories, when a person’s life escalates his needs change, however, if 

he is unable to achieve those needs as he anticipates, then he becomes dissatisfied (Thiagaraj 

& Thangaswamy, 2017). These needs may be physiological, safety, security needs, and status 

among others. Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory argues that the extent to which an 

individual performs will depend on how much the expectation that the performance will yield 

a specific result if this is achieved, the employee becomes more satisfied and motivated. On 

the other hand, equity theory suggests that job satisfaction or dissatisfaction depends on how 

individuals are treated by the employer in work assignments of the same job and outcome. 



18 
 

Finally, self-actualization describes one's need to reach full potential. An employee who is  

WFH has an opportunity to make their own decision, be creative and able to express 

themselves, and have flexibility and autonomy in their work besides continuing to work to 

improve (Turabik & Baskan, 2015). Therefore the organizations’ management needs to ensure 

that the hierarchy of needs is understood perfectly and how these needs affect their 

employees if they have an interest in motivating their employees for effective performance 

(Wolor, Solikhah, Susita, & Martono, 2020). Again motivating employees of the institution for 

higher learning will increase the efficiency of education and the quality of students.  

 

Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 

 

 

 

Source: Maslow Hierarchy of Needs adopted from (Yu, 2022) 

 

 

 

 

 

Self-fulfilment 

needs 

Psychologi

cal needs 

Basic 

needs 

Esteem needs 

Belongingness and love needs 

Safety needs 

Physiological needs 

Self-
actualization 



19 
 

2.2.2 Herzberg's Two-factor Theory  

 

As explained by Herzberg (1959) motivation to work in an organization is influenced by two 

factors. Herzberg used the two-factor model to summarise the factors that affect employees’ 

attitudes toward work. Firstly, motivation is associated with achievement recognition, 

interest in work, and responsibility. Secondly, Herzberg explains the hygiene factors, which if 

not acquired by an employee, will result in a feeling of dissatisfaction with working conditions, 

job security, and supervision including pay (Bassett-Jones & LIoyd, 2005). Motivation should 

also be aligned with goal setting, equity, expectancy, and reinforcement theory to be able to 

achieve organizational goals, and employee satisfaction (Bassett-Jones & LIoyd, 2005). In his 

theory, Rotter (1975) argues that the behavior that an individual chooses is determined by 

the situation and the choice, which also depends on what the person expects as a reward. He 

further narrates that when individuals have freedom, they develop a positive attitude 

towards their responsibilities compared to when they have low freedom (Rotter, 1975).   

Herzberg uses this theory to explain that individuals can be satisfied, and dissatisfied at the 

same time. He argues that working conditions, interpersonal relations, and organizational 

policy among others are hygiene factors besides motivators (Gawel, 1996). Furthermore, a 

lack of hygiene factors can lead to job dissatisfaction. According to this theory, employee 

achievement, recognition, and interesting work are connected to job satisfaction. Herzberg 

named the two sets of factors, motivators (satisfying incidents) and hygiene (dissatisfying 

events) (Sachau, 2007).  

According to Herzberg 1966, motivation increases the job satisfaction of an employee leading 

to efficiency and an increase in the effectiveness of an organization. However, hygiene factors 

do not promote satisfaction at work but prevent dissatisfaction while motivators increase 

satisfaction. Both motivational factors need to be balanced to achieve job satisfaction at work 

(Bassett-Jones & LIoyd, 2005). Therefore, organizations can use Herzberg's theory of 

motivation to ensure that their employees are motivated to avoid dissatisfaction, and at the 

same time increase job satisfaction.   

Herzberg’s two-way factor theory is suitable for this study as it confirms that individuals are 

motivated if they have an opportunity for growth and be able to achieve their objectives 

(Herzberg, 1966). Hygiene factors are associated with conditions that surround work such as 



20 
 

personal life, working conditions, poor ventilation, and organizational policies that can 

influence workers and cause satisfaction or no satisfaction. Job satisfaction and an attractive 

work environment are the intrinsic motivational factors that influence job performance (Ali, 

et al., 2021). 

2.2.3 Social exchange theory  

 

 Homans (1961) defines social exchange theory as the “exchange of activity, tangible or 

intangible and more or less rewarding or costly between at least two people”. Social behavior 

is a result of social interaction and how the behavior of one individual impacts the other. 

Homans states that when one is positively recognized for a behavior, the deed is likely to be 

repeated. Admittedly, Lawler (2001) explains that social exchange is a collaborative effort and 

when tasks are exchanged and achieved successfully, the parties involved will be emotionally 

uplifted. Therefore, applying social exchange theory for instance rewarding employees for 

good work, offering support to struggling employees ( sharing knowledge), and regular checks 

on employees encourages motivation. Because of this, an organization maintains a healthy 

work environment and culture that promotes friendliness which helps employees connect 

even though they are working remotely (Tsai & Kang, 2019). This theory underpins the study 

because the more people around the world adopt social distancing practices, social 

engagement decrease and the lack of social interaction affects motivation (Swain, Saha, 

Abowd, & Choudhary, 2020). Hence Social cues such as body language, gestures, intonation, 

and pitch are lost in conversations that take place over the phone or online, which as a result 

negatively hinders social contact and has a negative impact on the mental and physical health 

of employees (Kniffin, et al., 2021). Flowing informal conversations and the social 

relationships they foster are central to organizational collaboration. Despite access to remote 

work and ICT, employees rate face-to-face interaction significantly higher in terms of 

frequency, quality, and importance (Allen, Golden, & Shockley, 2015). 

2.2.4 Theories on technology use  

 

Technology is one of the most important aspects of improving productivity in any 

organization. Because of this, countries have heavily invested in information technology. 

Many theories explain how and why individuals feel about new technologies. However, this 



21 
 

study will focus on the Technology acceptance modem, which is based on the Theory of 

Reasoned Action (TRA). The adoption theory predicts how new technologies have been 

adopted and used in organizations (Dube, Van Eck, & Zuva, 2020). This theory suggests that 

the use of technology depends on employees’ attitudes (Elias, Smith, & Barney, 2012). 

The theory addresses employees’ perception of the usefulness and convenience of 

technology, and as a result, defines attitudes toward the use of that technology. According to 

Lucas (1981), Employees' attitudes toward technology are crucial because they influence how 

successfully technological systems are implemented within the company. There is a 

significant correlation between the user’s attitudes and their degree of control over the use 

of an information system (Hamed, 2018). Furthermore, employees who have a negative 

attitude toward technology are likely to see technology in the workplace as a source of anxiety 

(Elias, Smith, & Barney, 2012). Accordingly, one would expect that an employee’s age would 

be relevant to their attitude toward technology. As a result, the management should strive to 

ensure that employees’ attitudes towards technology in the workplace are positive. Past 

studies have highlighted the importance of technology skills, Job satisfaction, and employee 

overall well-being as key antecedents to productivity in remote work arrangements (Kniffin, 

et al., 2021).  

The above theories are all important because they all relate to this study. For example, social 

exchange theory explained how Lack of social interaction can affect the effectiveness in work-

from-home situations. Maslow and Herzberg’s theories explained how motivation and job 

satisfaction can affect the productivity of an organization if certain needs are not taken into 

consideration.  

2.2.5 Summary  

This section examined how theories are used to explain motivation and job satisfaction. Each 

theory uniquely illustrates its impact on motivation and job satisfaction. The theories of 

Maslow and Herzberg are the most used to explain motivation and satisfaction among 

employees and their causes of behaviour. 

  



22 
 

 

2.3 Working from Home  

This section evaluated the literature on working from home, motivation, and job satisfaction. 

The section focused on professional isolation and the fundamentals of technological skills 

when WFH. The study will explore how these factors may influence employees.       

Bailey & Kurland (2002) defines working from home as “working away from the conventional 

workplace, communicating by way of telecommunications or computer-based technology” 

(p. 394). Similarly, Bellmann & Hubler (2020) defines WFH as a “work arrangement in which 

employees execute their regular duties at different locations other than their ordinary 

workplace, supported by technological connections” (p.425). Based on the above definitions, 

it is clear that WFH is almost impossible without technology because it requires a combination 

of information and communication technology (Allen, Golden, & Shockley, 2015).  There are 

various theories as to why employees may prefer to work from home According to 

Waizenegger, McKenna, Cai, & Bendz (2020), WFH enables employees to focus and this 

results in job satisfaction. However, Shareena & Shahid (2020) ascertains that the willingness 

of WFH depends on the environment and this requires quiet surroundings with a good 

internet connection.  

WFH is assumed a better option for individuals who have other roles to play (Krasulja, 

Blagojevic, & Radojevic, 2015). However, Collins, Hislop, & Cartwright (2016) argue that 

Working remotely causes a rift between remote workers and office-based employees, which 

negatively affects how each individual's work assignments are perceived. Hence, it is 

important to take a break from work to reduce the feeling of pressure. Because of this, it is 

important to continue with work-life balance policies when WFH (Felstead & Henseke, 2017).  

According to Sullivan & Smithson (2007), WFH provides employees with flexibility for work 

and because they do not commute often, they have more time to spend on work, personal 

responsibility, or leisure. On the other hand, (Palumbo, 2020) argues that contamination 

between work and personal life stimulates undesirable repercussions on the ability of 

employees WFH to manage the work-life connection. Mellner, Kecklund, Kompier, Sariaslan, 

& Aronsson (2016), explains that the same employees are likely to be less motivated if there 

is no healthy work-life balance considering that employees are psychologically detached, 



23 
 

hence increasing the dangers of always being assigned to any available work.  In the same 

way, Kniffin et al., (2021) maintain that the new trend is not suitable for everyone, especially 

those employees whose tasks are complicated and require uninterrupted time to complete 

those tasks. Working remotely (WFH) may be challenging, especially for employees who have 

never worked from home and those who are lonely, for instance, those who are childless, and 

who may experience a lack of belonging (Carnevale & Hatak, 2020). For such employees, WFH 

increases stress levels, which expectedly reduces motivation and dissatisfaction (Cooper & 

Kurland, 2002).   

Susilo (2020), mentioned further challenges such as a heightened likelihood of 

miscommunication due to inadequate supervision and the difficulties faced by employees 

who may find difficulties maintaining boundaries between work and personal duties.  

Moreover, some critics argue that it is difficult to measure the productivity of employees’ 

WFH since they are out of sight, (Timsal & Awais, 2016). Despite WFH, employees may also 

experience anxiety due to uncertainty about the future of their careers (Shoss, 2017). This is 

due to the degeneration of the economy related to the COVID-19 pandemic, which has led to 

layoffs, downsizing, and unemployment threatening the job security of employees in most 

organizations leading to pay cuts and reduced work hours (Restubog, Ocampo, & Wang, 

2020).  

Cooper & Lu (2019) in their study argue that due to changes in work behaviour, employees 

are forced to overwork or work longer hours than before for fear of losing their jobs. 

Therefore, the demand to adjust to working and family may be challenging and this may lead 

to family-work obstructions, emotional strain, stress, and burnout resulting in a lack of work 

motivation (Sonnentag, Kuttler, & Fritz, 2010). In support, Flesia, Fietta, Segatto, & Monaro 

(2020) finds that the most affected employees WFH during the COVID-19 pandemic were 

women. A study by McCartney & Evans  (2005) confirms that WFH policies may not be suitable 

for the requirement and wants of the organization, they may affect customers' demands 

negatively when they are not motivated. As regards, it can be said that individuals have 

different perceptions of what they would consider a balance between work, and home life. 

According to Toniolo-Barrios & Pitt (2021), WFH can be stressful during the COVID-19   

pandemic, especially with children around, limited space, a distraction from noise and 



24 
 

personal relationships are likely to affect concentration thus lowering motivation and 

increasing stress, which can result in mental instability.  

This study will examine the following aspects of WFH; work-life balance, good work 

environment, professional isolation, and communication.  

2.3.1 Work-life balance  

 

 One challenging aspect of WFH is to separate and balance work and personal time. Given 

that many employees were forced to work from home while caring for their family members 

and other obligations, the COVID‐19 pandemic made it extremely difficult to achieve and 

maintain an adequate level of work and life balance (Parham & Rauf, 2020). Work-life balance 

is the equivalence of time that an individual consumes working compared to the time spent 

in the individual’s own life (Wolor, Solikhah, Susita, & Martono, 2020). It can also be defined 

as the process of creating a healthy environment that enables employees to harmonize their 

work and individual responsibility thus enhancing work performance (Delecta, 2011). WFH is 

one of the best tools for work-life balance, especially for working mothers as it gives 

employees the flexibility they need for quality work and life as they can afford to take care of 

both private and professional matters (Dizaho, Salleh, & Abdullah, 2017).  

Previous research has confirmed that One of the reasons why employees may prefer WFH is 

the flexible options they have (autonomy) which allows them to plan how to perform their 

work balancing work, and family matters (Dockery & Bawa, 2014). Contemporary workers 

want freedom and flexible work arrangements to enable them to manage the stresses of 

home and work issues (Conradie & Klerk, 2019). Delina & Raya (2013) echo this, pointing out 

that an imbalance can cause stress and reduce the quality of life leading to ineffectiveness at 

work.    

A study by Watson & Lightfoot (2003) indicates that WFH can be advantageous to employees 

as it gives them a chance to have a positive work balance which may lead to motivation and 

high-performance levels. A good work balance nurtures employees; furthermore, motivated 

employees are less likely to take sick leave or leave the organization but will be prepared to 

work longer hours (Felstead & Henseke, 2017). Findings by Dizaho, Salleh, & Abdullah (2017) 



25 
 

have confirmed that work-life balance leads to flexible working and therefore has a low 

turnover rate and higher employee engagement and satisfaction.  

2.3.2 Good work environment  

 

A work environment is one of the most important factors that determine the level of 

satisfaction and motivation of employees (Agbozo et al., 2017). A research study by Awada, 

Lucas, Becerik-Gerber, & Roll (2021) states that transitioning from working in established 

office spaces to WFH can be difficult. If the employee likes the environment in which he or 

she works, then he or she will be comfortable. The work environment may be the physical, 

psychological, or social environment. According to Somerwill & Wehn (2022), how an 

environment is perceived tends to influence an individual’s behaviour in that environment. 

According to the model, how people perceive their living and working environments tends to 

have a major impact on their attitudes, behavior, and physical and mental health. 

 A good work environment includes safety, a comfortable workplace supported by good 

ventilation, and a workspace, which allows employees to perform their responsibilities with 

a high level of satisfaction and this also indicates that employees are satisfied with their job. 

(Agbozo, Owusu, Hoedoafia, & Atakorah, 2017).  According to  Badrianto & Ekhsan (2020), a 

comfortable work environment provides employees with a sense of security and enables 

them to perform effectively because it affects their emotions. Employees who like their 

environment are more comfortable working there, hence when their performance is better, 

their job satisfaction also becomes better (Moors, Malley, & Stewart, 2014). This is because 

stressful work environments put high psychological demands on employees, leading to high 

levels of stress that can negatively impact mental health such as depression, especially in 

working women with young children who are unable to balance work and family (Shepherd-

Banigan, Bell, Basu, Booth-LaForce, & Harris, 2016).  

Results from Sarode & Shirsath (2014) show that a good work environment makes employees 

psychologically satisfied and leads to an increase in performance and productivity. Setiyani et 

al., (2019) state that a good work environment encourages the spirit of employee 

involvement to work harder to achieve company goals. It has also been confirmed that 

employees will perform their duties effectively and competently using the skills they have if 



26 
 

they are working in a supportive work environment (Leshabari, Muhondwa, Mwangu, & 

Mbembati, 2008). Hence, it is paramount for organizations to maintain a positive climate 

within their organization and that their employees are satisfied with their job as this will 

determine the success of the organization (Mafini & Dlodlo, 2014).  

2.3.3 Professional isolation 

 

Professional isolation is a state of mind or belief of being out of touch with others in the 

workplace (Golden, Veiga, & Dino, 2008). It indicates a lack of social connections and 

inadequate access to critical influence networks and social contacts.  Professional isolation is 

characterized by its association with employee career development (Cooper & Kurland, 

2002). Employees who feel isolated at work believe that resources, both tangible (like 

equipment) and intangible (like social support) are insufficient. (Golden, Veiga, & Dino, 2008).   

One of the challenges for those WFH, or working remotely, is its enhancement of the feeling 

of alienation, anxiety, and social, and professional isolation (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; 

Waizenegger, McKenna, Cai, & Bendz 2020). This situation occurred a lot during the COVID-

19 pandemic period because of the lack of interaction among workers. Due to constrained 

interpersonal interactions, employees find it difficult to receive informal mentoring and 

performance feedback from co-workers and managers (Cooper & Kurland, 2002).   

 Employees who are WFH are also considered professionally isolated when they can no longer 

develop formally or informally from experiences such as workshops, mentoring, and training 

(Cooper & Kurland, 2002).  Similarly, Wolor, Solikhah, Susita, & Martono (2020) argue that 

WFH reduces interpersonal contact, and increases a feeling of isolation and the probability of 

misunderstanding. In addition, Beauregard, Basile, & Canonico (2019) acknowledge that in 

many organizations, employees whom WFH are forgotten when it comes to promotion or 

assigning tasks, therefore limiting their career growth. Studies by Susilo (2020) also confirm 

that it becomes difficult for employees to display their work ethics and gain recognition from 

the management when all communication is electronic.  Research by Craig and Kuykendall 

(2019) suggest that to lower the feelings of professional isolation, social support from friends, 

co-workers, and supervisor can contribute to employee well‐being by boosting self‐esteem, 

in addition, to support from other areas.  

 



27 
 

2.3.4 Communication   

 

Communication between employees, their workmates, and between management and 

employees is very important for teamwork when WFH as it enhances collaboration and work 

effectiveness (Bailey & Kurland, 2002). Organizations need to invest in technology to 

communicate effectively when employees are working remotely because they don't have 

access to break rooms or other public areas where they can observe personal cues (Rysavy & 

Michalak, 2020). Additionally, employees working remotely must develop themselves 

technologically to be able to communicate with colleagues, supervisors, and other experts in 

the same field (Rysavy & Michalak, 2020). Lack of communication and social isolation are 

major disadvantages of WFH (Nakrosiene et al., 2019). Establishing an effective means of 

communication is one of the ways of facilitating remote workplace arrangements.  

Diamantidis &Chatzoglou (2019) state that there is a connection between job communication, 

commitment, and motivation. Communication is critical for maintaining a continuous 

connection between employees and encourages teamwork and socialization. According to 

Jungert, Broeck, Schreurs, & Osterman (2018) working with colleagues, peers, or in teams 

widens the extent of supporting behavior through socializing. Besides, through 

communication, team members help each other and support each other’s needs for 

autonomy, and competence and therefore feel motivated and less controlled (Waizenegger 

et al., 2020).  

Although virtual teamwork is growing, Martins, Gilson, & Maynard (2004) argue that virtual 

teamwork lacks the communication affluence that is obtained from face-to-face teams. 

Furthermore, Bailey & Kurland (2002) states that face-to-face is important for the interaction 

between colleagues and supervisors as this help in developing informal communication 

networks.  Therefore, a lack of this can cause employees to feel less incorporated in the team, 

decreasing organizational commitment and leading to demotivation and dissatisfaction with 

work (Bailey & Kurland, 2002). As a result, workers tend to shy away from asking for assistance 

because of physical distance.  That is why communication is crucial as it helps to develop 

understanding and allows the need for motivation and job satisfaction (Reeve, Jang, Carrell, 

Jeon, & Barch, 2004).  



28 
 

Chanana & Sangeeta (2020) describes communication as an important factor especially when 

WFH because it is through communication and sharing of information that employees get to 

learn and adjust to new technologies, besides work-related uncertainty, and stress. Hence, 

through increased and frequent communication, employees become less stressed and more 

motivated (Agarwal, 2021). Furthermore, leaders should communicate to their employees 

clarifying tasks that need more attention, in addition to the fact that it is important to organize 

one-on-one meetings with employees to discuss challenges that they may be facing (Toniolo-

Barrios & Pitt, 2021). It is therefore important for employers to be mindful of their employees 

when WFH regarding satisfaction, otherwise decrease in performance and a rise in employee 

attrition may occur.  

2.4  Motivation  

Motivation is important in directing and encouraging employees to perform successfully so 

that the organizational objective is achieved. A study by Bawa ( 2017) argues that motivation 

is an important factor in organizational growth and the country’s economic recovery. 

According to Ryan and Deci (2000), motivation is the “inherent tendency to seek out novelty 

and challenges to extend and exercise one’s capacity, to explore and to learn” (p. 70). On the 

other hand, Schunk & DiBenedetto (2020) define motivation as the process where an 

individual’s requirement will inspire him or her to implement various activities or influence 

certain behaviour to achieve a certain goal. However, Luthans (1998) contends that 

motivation is invisible; however, since human behaviour is the only thing visible, it should not 

be assumed as the only cause of the behaviour.  

Motivation is essential because if employees are motivated, they will look for ways to improve 

service and customer satisfaction, additionally, organizations benefit from highly motivated 

employees who work towards their goals (Mahmoud, Fuxman, Mohr, & Reisel, 2021).  

 Motivation theories were primarily used by psychologists in the 20th century to explain 

human behaviour (Prabakaran, Ispriya, Amsa, & Angulakshmi, 2014). Motivation has an 

impact on individuals in terms of the acquisition of skills and the degree to which they utilize 

their capacity (Locke & Latham, 2004). Lin (2007) identifies two classifications of motivation, 

extrinsic and intrinsic. Various factors affect job satisfaction, and these can be intrinsic or 

extrinsic. Employees' own internal needs and expectations are examples of intrinsic factors, 



29 
 

on the other hand, extrinsic factors are factors such as work environment, work policy, and 

interaction with fellow workmates among others (Suharnira, Suharto, & Guswandi, 2018).  

 Sapta, Muafi, & Setini (2021) finds that the culture of motivation and job satisfaction in an 

organization plays a fundamental role in employee performance. Studies by Werner, Schuler, 

& Jackson, (2012) confirm that motivation theories help managers understand the root causes 

of employee behaviour and maintain or eliminate certain behaviours that may harm the 

organization. One way to achieve motivation is for employers to understand what motivates 

their employees and how to keep them satisfied. Hence, with motivation, the management 

can explain what type of employees they have in the organization through their behaviour.  

Employee motivation is thus a worker’s willingness to exert effort to work towards the 

achievement of the organizational goal, depending on the ability to meet the individual needs 

of the employees (Robbins & Coulter, 1996). Employee motivation is known to be a problem 

for the management and supervisors since employees who have low levels of motivation are 

likely to put little or no effort into their jobs and this accounts for the organization’s revenue 

leading to more expenses (Ganta, 2014). In their, studies Hackman and Oldham’s  (1976 ) 

developed a model that suggests that jobs can be more motivated by increasing the variety 

of skills appropriate for the job, the extent to which the job is productive, and the extent to 

which the job is productive, autonomy and employee’s feedback on performance. Motivated 

employees are considered satisfied with their work, furthermore, social relationships at work 

are also known to be an important source of job satisfaction (Shamir & Salomon, 1985). The 

authors confirm that different assignments or techniques laid out for the job that employees 

accomplish affect employees’ behaviours at the workplace.   

According to Adeleye, Lawal, & Olatunde, (2015), work is unavoidable and since it has to be 

done in whatever way, it is up to the managers or the employers to help motivate employees 

to develop the desire for satisfaction in their work. Work becomes a powerful factor in 

determining the behaviour of workers (Sultan, 2012). He further says that the change of 

culture from office to home may increase tension levels considering that many employees do 

not respond well to change unless it is beneficial to them. The growth of any organization 

depends on its assets, the capabilities of the management, and employees who require a 

motivating work environment to be able to work and achieve the organizational objectives 



30 
 

(Elnaga, 2013). Hence, disease outbreaks not only disorganize basic life activities and hinders 

the growth of the economy but also have long-term effects on individuals (Agarwal, 2021).   

The most commonly  used elements of employee motivation are;  

2.4.1 Extrinsic motivation 

Extrinsic motivation is associated with instrumental values, and expectations such as money, 

and fame (Reiss, 2012). An extrinsically motivated individual focuses on goal-driven reasons 

expecting a specific result for that particular behaviour, for instance, benefits, rewards, or an 

increase in wages and salary (Ryan & Deci, 2000).  Because of this, there is evidence showing 

that extrinsic motivation plays an important role in making employees more productive (Ryan 

& Deci, 2000). Most senior employees value praise and recognition because, through these, 

their self-esteem is increased which develops a favourable connection between the individual 

and his or her work (Locke & Latham, 2004). Sharing knowledge online when telecommuting 

with co-workers can be an effective motivator as employees believe in mutual benefits from 

other colleagues and thus a long-term relationship is maintained (Lin, 2007). Therefore 

reciprocal benefits act as extrinsic motivation.  

Moreover, extrinsic motivation comes from sources outside the individual while intrinsic 

factors originate from a source or sources within the individual (Tovmasyan & Minasyan, 

2020). When WFH, employees require social interactions and encouragement from their 

colleagues or teamwork as this will help them in motivation and productivity (Ariani, 2017). 

Research by Whitefield, Dresser, Magoffin, & Wilby (2021) also indicated that work-life 

balance plays an important role in extrinsic motivation when WFH, this is because it allows 

employees to schedule their time to work, attend to personal commitments and time for 

leisure thereby improving their productivity. Given that work is a way for extrinsically 

motivated employees to earn money, they will at least partially fulfill their duties. (Elias, 

Smith, & Barney, 2012). 

 

 

 

 



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2.4.2 Intrinsic motivation  

 

Intrinsic motivation is the willingness to complete a task because it interests and excites the 

individual (Ryan & Deci, 2000).  Intrinsically motivated behaviours are natural and foster 

creativity and flexibility. More importantly, employees with intrinsic motivation are self-

driven, more satisfied with their job, and perform their duties effectively (Ryan & Deci, 2000). 

Furthermore, intrinsically motivated individuals nurture rapport and personal growth and 

contribute to organizational growth, not to mention the quality of work-life with a deeper 

and long-term effect because their motivation comes from within (Armstrong, 2006). On the 

other hand, extrinsic behaviours are a result of pressure leading to uncertainty and a lack of 

confidence (Lin, 2007). According to Rupietta & Beckmann (2018), WFH promotes intrinsic 

motivation because employees have more autonomy, and again intrinsic motivation has a 

positive effect on employees’ willingness to perform without being affected by their work 

environment.  Each of the theories above helps to make meaningful sense of the research on 

motivation, but WFH is more moderated by intrinsic motivation, and therefore, the two 

complement each other.  

 

2.5 Job Satisfaction 

An employee's satisfaction is influenced by a variety of elements, including experiences, 

values, and needs, which are determined not only by the employee but also by the employer 

and the external environment. (Sabbagha, Ledimo, & Martins, 2018). Job satisfaction is one 

of the most important factors influencing human resource production. This is also used widely 

used measure of workplace attitudes. Job satisfaction is a positive feeling about one’s work 

and is achieved through one’s motivation and performance (Andrade & Westover, 2020). 

Similarly, Locke 1976 as cited in (Demirkol & Nalla, 2018)  defined job satisfaction as “a 

pleasant or positive emotional state resulting from the evaluation of one's job or work 

experience” (p.1904). However, for Schultz & Schultz (1998), job satisfaction entails both the 

positive and negative feelings and attitudes that individuals possess towards their jobs, which 

may be job-related or personal attributes such as age, gender, and social relationships. On 

the other hand, Adeleye, Lawal, & Olatunde (2015) indicated that job satisfaction affects the 

employee’s capacity to work, they described job satisfaction as the frame of mind gained from 



32 
 

positive or negative feelings about the work. Gupta & Joshi (2008) argues that job satisfaction 

is vital as individuals spend part of their entire lives at work. Therefore, an individual’s attitude 

towards work can be used to determine job satisfaction. Hence, they have to be mentally and 

physically fit to perform their duties effectively.  

According to Elnaga (2013), job satisfaction is gained when the minimum urge limit has been 

achieved and no separation is found between one’s desire and reality. Sarker, Sultana, & 

Prodhan (2017) confirms that dissatisfied employees may not stop performing their tasks, 

however, their dissatisfaction could affect them and their co-workers as well. For this reason, 

the quality of service delivered is affected. Thus, a positive atmosphere of motivation is 

important to job satisfaction for employees and also for the effective functioning of work in 

organizations because they are a resource to the organization.  

A satisfied employee will be identified through his or her hard work, confidence, remaining 

loyal to the organization as well as an employee who doesn’t have the intention of leaving 

the organization after working briefly (Robbins & Coulter, 1996). In their studies, Waizenegger 

et., al (2020) established that employees with positive attitudes toward their jobs have high 

levels of job satisfaction, moreover, those with negative attitudes will experience 

dissatisfaction, and lack of loyalty, followed by increased absenteeism (Aziri, 2011). 

Therefore, the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of an individual towards work can be said to be 

unique and will depend on the perceptions of similarities or differences between his needs, 

and the outcome (Andrade & Westover, 2020).  

According to various researchers, job satisfaction is determined by different factors. Spector 

(1997) explained that job satisfaction is influenced by factors such as colleagues, supervisors, 

and fringe benefits, while Aziri (2011) concurs with Vroom who states that job satisfaction is 

influenced by factors such as leadership, type of work, working conditions, teams, and 

management. Mutual relationships with co-workers and teamwork in the workplace have a 

major impact on employee job satisfaction as the support employees receive will lead to job 

satisfaction and this also affects organizational commitment (Peters, Lau, & Ng, 2014). The 

researchers further state that when employees are stressed with no sufficient emotional 

support, they detach themselves from their duties and become less committed.  



33 
 

Working conditions as a factor of job satisfaction also affect employees’ performance, this is 

an advantage to both employee and the employer. According to Raziq & Maulabakhsh (2015), 

employees will feel secure if they are provided with good working conditions and the 

employability of that organization is motivated.  Studies by Bakotic & Babic (2013) confirmed 

that difficult working conditions could be due to poor lighting, noise, and interference. Again, 

the equipment or tools that workers use to perform their daily duties can also affect job 

satisfaction (McMurtrey, Grover, Teng, & Lightner, 2002). Additionally, hours of work and 

support from administration and co-workers are also critical in making job performance 

easier.  

When employees are communicated to and trained, they can share information about 

themselves, listen to each other, and learn each other’s differences and because of this, they 

become satisfied and motivated to perform (Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019). Furthermore, 

they become less motivated to go for further training, getting new skills and career 

development due to the decline of their intelligence.  Maurer, Weiss, & Barbeite (2003) also 

reported that older workers are less motivated to seek such opportunities to develop their 

careers due to a lack of support from supervisors and co-workers. This generation of 

employees is good at maintaining social interactions and has a positive attitude about working 

with others, autonomy, and self-acceptance (Ryan & Deci, 2000). On the contrary, the 

satisfaction of younger workers increases when they are given more opportunities to develop 

their careers, unlike older workers whose higher satisfaction levels are linked to their well-

being and mental health (Riza, Ganzach, & Liu, 2018). Furthermore, they seem to be more 

motivated by extrinsic motivation than the older workers and are more likely to leave for 

another organization if better extrinsic motivators pay is provided (Yusoff & Kian, 2013).  

According to Thiagaraj & Thangaswamy (2017), job satisfaction is an important factor for 

employee performance and therefore needs to be addressed for better results in any 

organization. Moreover, Solanki (2013) explained that job satisfaction and motivation are 

crucial in an individual’s professional life besides having an impact on performance in the 

workplace. Previous research found that pay, anxiety, work environment, and interaction 

with co-workers among others are key to job satisfaction (Chandrasekar, 2011). In addition, 

Locke 1976 as cited by Dalkrani & Dimitriadis (2018) suggested that job satisfaction among 



34 
 

workers can be obtained by allowing people the sufficient obligation to develop 

psychologically by taking on more responsibilities, this consequently increases earnings.  

Varma (2017) posits that acquiring new information, and new development opportunities 

motivate and boost individuals’ satisfaction. Furthermore, studies by Thiagaraj & 

Thangaswamy (2017) reveal that encouraging, and supporting employees to commit to work 

management plays a significant role in motivating, empowering them, and improving 

performance. However, some employees tend to get satisfaction because of their goal 

achievement (Diamantidis & Chatzoglou, 2019).  On the other hand, Khuong & Vu ( 2014) 

argues that job satisfaction also depends on the beliefs and feelings of employees’ job 

experiences in terms of their tasks, coworkers, and supervisors. However, Mehrad (2020) 

posits that job satisfaction can be used to determine the employees' intention to stay or leave 

the organization because of its capability to make them feel their physical and mental well-

being.  

Khalifa & Truong (2010) ascertains that one of the key factors required for continued growth, 

positive outcomes, and success in universities is job satisfaction. Hence, there is a positive 

significance between university results and job satisfaction. Furthermore, studies by 

Gebremichael & Prasada Rao (2013) confirm that a university’s well-being is based on the 

presence of job satisfaction and it is through job satisfaction that educational organizations 

identify difficulties that their employees undergo and what policies and strategies can be 

implemented. The researchers pointed out that a lack of job satisfaction in universities can 

lead to undesirable behavior such as turnover, slowness, and absenteeism among staff. 

Because of this, the management can identify such behaviors and direct them in the right 

direction. 

Many research studies suggest that demographic factors have an influence on motivation and 

job satisfaction, for example, age and job satisfaction (e.g., Olorunsola, 2010; Bas and 

Ardic,2002), gender, and satisfaction (Moors, Malley, & Stewart, 2014).  

 

 

 



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2.6 Technological skills 

One of the prerequisites for employees to successfully work from home and maintain an 

organization’s productivity is technological skills (Al-Shathry, 2012). Both technology and 

human resources must be developed continuously to enable the company to remain 

competitive. Technological skill is the expertise and ability of an individual or employee to 

manage technology in performing their job effectively (Moorman & Slotegraaf, 1999). 

Technological skill is identified as an important factor in influencing employee productivity 

when engaged in WFH (Aboelmage & Subbaugh, 2012). During the lockdown, many 

organizations had to quickly train their employees to use technology while WFH, and this also 

became a huge task.  

However, Information and Communications technology (ICT) has encroached on the 

boundaries of work and life through massive workloads sent by employers which require 

immediate response, (Cooper & Lu, 2019). Through technology, WFH has a lot of distractions 

resulting from endless interruptions from phone calls, emails, and texts, which makes 

employees have longer working hours (Farrell, 2020). In some cases, complicated technical 

problems may occur, forcing the employee to discontinue working hence dissatisfaction and 

demotivation (Greer & Payne, 2014).  Therefore to avoid these problems, the employer needs 

to ensure that the social exchange of workers is maintained through free access to technology 

as this is essential for employee psychological well-being (Greer & Payne, 2014).  

 

Developing the desired knowledge, skills, and abilities requires an effective training program 

to enable employees to work from home as the process is managed online (Elnaga & Imran, 

2013). The stronger a person’s technological orientation, the more open they are to the use 

of digital technologies, and because of this, a digitally oriented employee commits to taking 

digital initiatives for their daily work responsibilities and this improves employee productivity 

while WFH (Khin & Ho, 2018). However, Aboelmage & Subbaugh (2012) indicates that if 

employees lack technological skills, their institution will