1 
 

 

Consumer and Product-Related Factors Impacting 
on Green Product Purchase Behaviour 

 

 

 

Nombulelo Dilotsotlhe 

1599140 

 

 

Thesis 

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree 

of 

Doctor in Philosophy 

in 

Marketing Management 

School of Economic and Business Sciences 

at the 

University of the Witwatersrand 

 

 

Supervisor: Dr Helen Duh 

 

2018



 

i 
 

DECLARATION 
 

I, Nombulelo Dilotsotlhe, do hereby declare that this thesis is my own, unaided work. It is being 

submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of the Witwatersrand, 

Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other 

University. 

 

 

November 2018 

  



 

ii 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the following people for their contribution and 

assistance towards the completion of this study: 

 Firstly, my Heavenly Father, for giving me the will-power and perseverance in 

achieving my goals. 

 My husband Mokaedi and our two sons Thatoyaone and Masedi, for your love, 

understanding, support and encouragement. You believed in me when at times, I did 

not even believe in myself – forever thankful for having you in my life! 

 My mother Thembalihle Nkwanyana, for your unending support and for listening to my 

complaints and frustrations. 

 My research supervisor Dr Helen Duh, for guiding and mentoring me during this 

process. I am deeply grateful for your encouragement, support and the enthusiasm that 

you showed for my study topic from the very beginning of this journey. Words cannot 

express how thankful I am for having had you as my supervisor. 

 To the University of Johannesburg and WRSETA for financial support. Your 

contributions made my life much easier, as I did not (at any day) have to worry about 

funding the costs of this study. 

 Prof De Meyer-Heydenrych in the Department of Marketing at the University of 

Johannesburg, for approving my request to study at the University of the Witwatersrand.  

 Elrina Calitz and team from GfK (South Africa) for assisting me with data collection. 

Your hard work and patience are truly appreciated. 

 Dr Maduku, for his specialised support and assistance with the data analysis and 

interpretation. Your patience in explaining the key concepts of the structural equation 

modelling and your availability when needed is greatly appreciated. 

 Lastly, to all my colleagues, friends and Dr Wait, Head of Department (Marketing) at 

the University of Johannesburg, for your support and encouragement – thank you. 

  



 

iii 
 

ABSTRACT 
 

Following the growing environmental, health and social concerns about the impact of 

marketing activities and consumption, consumers are becoming increasingly conscious of the 

products they use in their households and the food they eat. Even though this awareness is 

advancing at a slower pace in South Africa when compared to other countries, South African 

consumers are nonetheless aware of green products and are buying such products.  

 

‘Green products’ can be defined as those products which do not pollute the earth or deplete 

natural resources and which can be recycled or conserved. Despite the awareness and 

availability of green products, sales of these products are reportedly low, with an estimated 

market share of less than 4% worldwide as at 2012. Considering the low demand for green 

products, there is a clear need to study factors that hinder or help the purchase and consumption 

of such products. 

 

In examining the drivers of green purchase behaviour, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) 

has been applied in a variety of pro-environmental, behavioural studies, including research on 

key factors that influence the intention to consume green products as well as studies on 

recycling and reducing energy consumption. The findings from these studies have supported 

the usefulness of the TPB constructs in predicting the intention to go green or to adopt green 

behaviour. However, the strength of the explanatory power of the TPB model has been widely 

debated. It has therefore been suggested that more constructs need to be examined in the TPB 

to improve the variance explained in intention or behaviour. Such constructs could include the 

different values that consumers enjoy from green products. The Theory of Consumption Values 

(TCV) has been used to understand such values. However, studies on these values have not 

examined the product-related factors which help or hinder green product purchase. The 

Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) addresses product-related factors but has been used 

chiefly in analysing the adoption of new technologies. Recommendations have therefore been 

made to test the Diffusion of Innovation Theory in green product purchase behaviour.  

 
Upon defining the research problem, this study integrated the TPB, TCV and DOI to understand 

the consumer-related and product-related factors driving green appliance (e.g. fridges, heaters, 

freezers) purchase behaviour among black middle class South Africans. This is particularly 



 

iv 
 

important since studies on green products in South Africa have focused primarily on 

understanding awareness, perceptions, interest and environmental concerns regarding eco-

friendly products or green products and not on how these factors drive green product purchase 

behaviour. The black middle class was selected because they are considered to be significant 

in terms of size and spending power and may have the income to purchase green products, 

which are often considered to be somewhat more expensive.  
 
A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 500 black middle class respondents 

residing in Gauteng. Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modelling were the 

main data analysis methods. Specifically, Partial Least Squares (PLS) Structural Equation 

Modelling was used to test the hypotheses after testing and obtaining good construct reliability 

and validity.  

 

The results indicated that the integrated conceptual model provided a reasonably good 

explanation of the consumers’ attitudes towards green appliances as well as their actual 

purchase and consumption of the products. All the significant independent variables (functional 

value, conditional value, epistemic value, relative advantage, compatibility and observability) 

explained 84.5% of the variance in attitude towards green consumption. Attitudes, social value 

and perceived behavioural control explained 83.1% of the variance in behavioural intention 

towards green consumption and behavioural intention explained 24.2% of the variance in 

adoption behaviour. 

 

This study made a major contribution to the body of literature on green consumption behaviour 

by presenting and testing an integrated model with the aim of increasing knowledge on green 

consumer behaviour. This study also identified key predictors of consumers’ green product 

consumption behaviour, enabling practitioners to understand which factors influence black 

middle class consumers in their decision-making regarding green purchase and consumption. 

This knowledge will help marketing managers design effective strategies to encourage green 

consumption behaviour among such consumers. Further studies should, however, investigate 

the factors which would convert the purchase intention into actual behaviour. The study could 

be replicated among Generation Y consumers, who are also a large and lucrative market 

segment in South Africa. 

  



 

v 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 

Declaration ......................................................................................................................... i 

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... ii 

Abstract ............................................................................................................................ iii 

Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. v 

List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xi 

List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xii 

 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ........... 1 

1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT  ........................................................................................ 3 

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 5 

1.3.1 Primary Objective ............................................................................................. 5 

1.3.2 Secondary Objectives ....................................................................................... 6 

1.3.2.1 Theoretical Objectives .......................................................................... 6 

1.3.2.2 Empirical Objectives ............................................................................ 6 

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 7 

1.5 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 7 

1.5.1 Overview of Green Consumer Behaviour ........................................................ 7 

1.5.2 Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DOI) ............................................................. 8 

1.5.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) .............................................................. 10 

1.5.4 Theory of Consumption Values (TCV) .......................................................... 11 

1.6 CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT  ...................... 12 

1.7 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................. 14 

1.7.1 Research Philosophy ....................................................................................... 14 

1.7.2 Research Approach ......................................................................................... 14 

1.7.3 Research Strategies ......................................................................................... 14 

1.7.4 Data Collection Methods or Designs .............................................................. 15 

1.7.5 Sampling Design ............................................................................................. 15 

1.7.6 Determining the Sample Size ......................................................................... 16 

1.7.7 Sampling Procedure ........................................................................................ 16 

1.7.8 Questionnaire Design ...................................................................................... 17 



 

vi 
 

1.7.9 Data Analysis .................................................................................................. 17 

1.8 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ....................................................................... 18 

1.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 19 

1.10 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY .................................................................................. 19 

 

CHAPTER 2: GREEN PRODUCT SUPPLY AND DEMAND GLOBALLY AND 

IN SOUTH AFRICA: EXAMINING THE BLACK MIDDLE CLASS AS A 

MARKET SEGMENT.................................................................................................. 21 

2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 21 

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF GREEN PRODUCTS AND GREEN MARKETING ............ 22 

2.2.1 What is a Green Product? ............................................................................... 22 

2.2.2 Types and Characteristics of Green Products ................................................. 23 

2.2.3 Benefits of Green Product Consumption ........................................................ 27 

2.2.4 Defining Green Marketing .............................................................................. 29 

2.2.5 Ways in Which a Firm Can Go Green ............................................................ 30 

2.3 SUPPLY MARKET OF GREEN PRODUCTS IN SOUTH AFRICA .................... 34 

2.3.1 Green Industry in South Africa ....................................................................... 34 

2.3.2 Dealers of Green Products in South Africa .................................................... 35 

2.3.3 Barriers to the Supply and Marketing of Green Products in South Africa ..... 35 

2.4 GREEN PRODUCT DEMAND ............................................................................... 40 

2.4.1 Green Product Demand Globally .................................................................... 40 

2.4.2 Size of Green Product Demand in South Africa ............................................. 41 

2.4.3 Profile of Green Product Consumers  ............................................................. 42 

2.5 SOUTH AFRICAN BLACK MIDDLE CLASS AS A POTENTIAL MARKET FOR 

GREEN PRODUCTS .............................................................................................. 43 

2.5.1 The Size and Income of the South African Black Middle Class .................... 43 

2.5.2 Segments and Consumption Lifestyle of South African Black Middle Class 45 

2.5.3 Can the South African Middle Class be an Attractive Market for Green 

Products? .................................................................................................................. 47 

2.6 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 49 

 

 



 

vii 
 

CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF DRIVERS OF GREEN PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR 51 

3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 51 

3.2 GREEN PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR AND ITS REPORTED DRIVERS .............. 51 

3.2.1 Defining Green Purchase Behaviour and its Facets........................................ 51 

3.2.2 Reported Drivers of Green Purchase Behaviour............................................. 53 

3.2.2.1 Demographic Variables ..................................................................... 53 

3.2.2.2 Psychographic Factors....................................................................... 56 

3.2.2.3 Group Factors .................................................................................... 62 

3.2.2.4 Marketing Factors .............................................................................. 66 

3.3 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 68 

 

CHAPTER 4: THEORIES AND MODELS EXPLAINING GREEN PRODUCT 

PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT .. 70  

4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 70 

4.2 THEORIES AND MODELS OF PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR DRIVERS ............. 70 

4.2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action ............................................................................ 71 

4.2.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour ......................................................................... 73 

4.2.3 Theory of Consumption Values ...................................................................... 75 

4.2.4 Diffusion of Innovation Model ....................................................................... 79 

4.3 CONSUMER FACTORS DRIVING GREEN PRODUCT ATTITUDE ................. 84 

4.3.1 Description of Consumer Factors ................................................................... 84 

4.3.2 Functional Value and Green Product Attitude  ............................................... 84 

4.3.3 Social Value and Green Product Attitude  ...................................................... 85 

4.3.4 Emotional Value and Green Product Attitude ................................................ 86 

4.3.5 Conditional Value and Green Product Attitude .............................................. 87 

4.3.6 Epistemic Value and Green Product Attitude ................................................. 87 

4.4 PRODUCT FACTORS DRIVING GREEN PRODUCT ATTITUDE .................... 88 

4.4.1 Description of Product Factors ....................................................................... 88 

4.4.2 Relative Advantage and Green Product Attitude  ........................................... 88 

4.4.3 Compatibility and Green Product Attitude ..................................................... 89 

4.4.4 Complexity and Green Product Attitude ........................................................ 89 

4.4.5 Observability and Green Product Attitude...................................................... 90 



 

viii 
 

4.5 GREEN PRODUCT ATTITUDE ............................................................................. 90 

4.6 PURCHASE INTENTION AND ACTUAL PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR .............. 91 

4.7 CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND HYPOTHESES  .................................................... 92 

4.7.1 Hypothesised Relationships between Constructs in the Conceptual Model  .. 95 

4.8 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 99 

 

CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................... 100 

5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 100 

5.2 RESEARCH PROCESS ......................................................................................... 100 

5.3 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY .................................................................................. 101 

5.4 RESEARCH APPROACH ..................................................................................... 105 

5.5 METHODOLOGICAL CHOICE ........................................................................... 107 

5.6 RESEARCH STRATEGY ...................................................................................... 113 

5.7 TIME HORIZON .................................................................................................... 114 

5.8 RESEARCH TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES ............................................. 115 

5.8.1 Sampling ....................................................................................................... 115 

5.8.2 Data Collection ............................................................................................. 120 

5.8.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 133 

5.9 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 136 

 

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ............ 137 

6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 137 

6.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ................................................................................ 137 

6.2.1 Green Appliance Product Awareness ........................................................... 138 

6.2.2 Green Appliance Product Purchase/Usage ................................................... 138 

6.2.3 Participants’ Profile ...................................................................................... 139 

6.2.4 Measurement Scales ..................................................................................... 141 

6.2.4.1 Functional Value ................................................................................ 141 

6.2.4.2 Social Value ........................................................................................ 142 

6.2.4.3 Emotional Value ................................................................................. 142 

6.2.4.4 Conditional Value ............................................................................... 143 

6.2.4.5 Epistemic Value .................................................................................. 144 

6.2.4.6 Relative Advantage ............................................................................. 145 



 

ix 
 

 

6.2.4.7 Compatibility ...................................................................................... 145 

6.2.4.8 Complexity .......................................................................................... 146 

6.2.4.9 Observability ....................................................................................... 147 

6.2.4.10 Attitudes ............................................................................................ 147 

6.2.4.11 Perceived Behavioural Control ........................................................ 148 

6.2.4.12 Behavioural Intention ....................................................................... 149 

6.2.4.13 Adoption Behaviour .......................................................................... 150 

6.3 MODEL ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................ 151 

6.3.1 Measurement Model ..................................................................................... 151 

6.3.2 Structural Model Analysis ............................................................................ 161 

6.3.2.1 Test of Collinearity ........................................................................... 162 

6.3.2.2 Structural Model Results and Observation of Path Coefficients ..... 163 

6.3.2.3 Discussions on Results from Hypotheses Testing............................. 165 

6.3.2.4 Evaluating the Explanatory Power of the Predictors with the 

Coefficient of Determination ( 𝑅𝑅2) .............................................................. 171 

6.3.2.5 Evaluation of the Effect Size (ƒ²) ...................................................... 173 

6.3.2.6 Assessment of Predictive Relevance (𝑄𝑄2) ........................................ 174 

6.4 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 175 

 

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................. 177 

7.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 177 

7.2 OVERVIEW AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ...................... 177 

7.2.1 Overview of the Study .................................................................................. 177 

7.2.2 Research Objectives ...................................................................................... 177 

7.2.3 Summary of Chapters ................................................................................... 178 

7.3 KEY EMPIRICAL FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE STUDY .......... 179 

7.3.1 Extent to which Consumer-related Factors Impact on Consumer Attitudes 180 

7.3.2 Extent to which Product-related Factors Impact on Attitudes Towards Green 

Products ................................................................................................................. 183 

7.3.3 Extent to which Green Product Attitude, Social Value (Subjective Norm) 

and Perceived Behavioural Control Affect the Intention to Buy Green Products . 185 



 

x 
 

7.3.4 Relationship Between the Intention to Buy Green Products and Actual 

Behaviour Towards Green Products ...................................................................... 186 

7.3.5 Observations on Testing the Integrated Conceptual Model for Understanding 

Consumer-and Product-related Factors that Impact on Green Product Purchase 

Behaviour ............................................................................................................... 187 

7.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 192 

7.4.1 Theoretical Contribution ............................................................................... 192 

7.4.2 Practical Contribution ................................................................................... 193 

7.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE 

RESEARCH .................................................................................................................. 195 

7.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS .................................................................................. 196 

 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 198 

ANNEXURE A: QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER ........................................... 254 

ANNEXURE B: RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................... 255 

ANNEXURE C: ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER ................................................ 262 

 

 

 

 

  



 

xi 
 

LIST OF FIGURES 
 

Figure 2.1: The pyramid of green marketing .................................................................. 33 

Figure 2.2: Population size of the middle class in South Africa ..................................... 44 

Figure 2.3: Electrical home appliances owned by the black middle class ...................... 48 

Figure 4.1: The Theory of Reasoned Action .................................................................. 71 

Figure 4.2: The Theory of Planned Behaviour ............................................................... 74 

Figure 4.3: The Theory of Consumption Values ............................................................ 76 

Figure 4.4: Stages in the innovation diffusion process ................................................... 81 

Figure 4.5: Adopter categories ........................................................................................ 82 

Figure 4.6: Conceptual research model .......................................................................... 94 

Figure 5.1: Research onion ........................................................................................... 101 

Figure 6.1: Structural model with path coefficients and path significance................... 165 

Figure 6.2: Structural model with path coefficients and 𝑅𝑅2 ......................................... 172 

Figure 7.1: The structural model with path coefficients and 𝑅𝑅2 estimates ................... 188 

 

  



 

xii 
 

List of Tables 
 

Table 2.1: Environmental innovation classification system ........................................... 24 

Table 2.2: Studies on the characteristics of green products ............................................ 25 

Table 2.3: Internal and external barriers to supply and marketing of green products .... 36 

Table 5.1: Positivist and interpretivist research philosophies ....................................... 104 

Table 5.2: Deduction, induction and abduction research approaches ........................... 106 

Table 5.3: Summary of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies .............. 112 

Table 5.4: Summary of characteristics of the major research strategies ....................... 114 

Table 5.5: Sampling designs ......................................................................................... 115 

Table 5.6: Types of survey research methods ............................................................... 121 

Table 5.7: Scales of measurement ................................................................................ 124 

Table 5.8: Operational definitions of the study constructs ........................................... 125 

Table 6.1: Awareness of the green products ................................................................. 138 

Table 6.2: Purchased/used green appliances ................................................................. 138 

Table 6.3: Number of green appliances used ................................................................ 139 

Table 6.4: Demographic information ............................................................................ 140 

Table 6.5: Functional value ........................................................................................... 141 

Table 6.6: Social value .................................................................................................. 142 

Table 6.7: Emotional value ........................................................................................... 143 

Table 6.8: Conditional value ......................................................................................... 143 

Table 6.9: Epistemic value ............................................................................................ 144 

Table 6.10: Relative advantage ..................................................................................... 145 

Table 6.11: Compatibility ............................................................................................. 145 



 

xiii 
 

Table 6.12: Complexity ................................................................................................ 146 

Table 6.13: Observability.............................................................................................. 147 

Table 6.14: Attitudes ..................................................................................................... 148 

Table 6.15: Perceived behavioural control ................................................................... 149 

Table 6.16: Behavioural intention................................................................................. 150 

Table 6.17: Adoption behaviour ................................................................................... 152 

Table 6.18: CFA analysis criteria for the measurement model .................................... 153 

Table 6.19: Factor loading for initial instrument .......................................................... 154  

Table 6.20: Internal consistency reliability ................................................................... 157 

Table 6.21: Average variance extracted........................................................................ 158 

Table 6.22: Discriminant validity ................................................................................. 159 

Table 6.23: Factor loadings and cross loadings ............................................................ 159 

Table 6.24: Criteria for assessing structural model ...................................................... 162 

Table 6.25: Collinearity statistic – Variance inflation factors (VIF) ............................ 163 

Table 6.26: Summary of structural model analysis ...................................................... 165 

Table 6.27: Effect size (𝑓𝑓2) .......................................................................................... 173 

Table 6.28: Predictive relevance (𝑄𝑄2 value) ................................................................. 175 

Table 7.1: Summary of studies that have used either one or two theories (TPB, TCV, 

and DOI) to understand green consumer behaviour ..................................................... 190 

 



 

1 
 

CHAPTER 1:  
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND  

 

 

1.1 INTRODUCTION  

There has been an increased global interest in green products, which have shown a remarkable 

growth in sales over the last ten to twenty years (Koller, Floh and Zauner, 2011:1163). The 

reasons for this growth, according to Vermeulen and Bienabe (2010:20), revolve around 

environmental, health and social concerns which are influencing consumer demand. Consumers 

are thus becoming more concerned about the products they use in their households and the food 

they eat, not only in terms of intrinsic factors (e.g. chemical residues, environmental 

contamination and nutritional content) that affect health, but also with regard to broader 

environmental issues such as the impact on the environment (biodiversity and climate change) 

and the welfare of animals.  

 

The term ‘green products’ is defined as products that do not pollute the earth or deplete natural 

resources and can be recycled or conserved (Shamdasani, Chon-Lin and Richmond, 1993:489; 

Mostafa, 2007:220). According to Tan (2011a:1766), green products address environmental 

issues by having characteristics of recyclability, reusability, refillability, long life, degradability 

or decomposability, high quality in terms of their green performance, energy saving and being 

made of recycled materials. Green products do not only help the environment; they are also a 

source of competitive advantage, profitability and a means to tap into the large and growing 

segment of health and environmentally conscious consumers. To reap the rewards of green 

products, firms and nations need to be committed to the innovation and production of green 

products (Olson, 2013:792). In South Africa (SA), for example, significant progress has been 

made with regards to environmental management in the last decade by implementing laws and 

strategies that focus on sustainable development and green issues (United Nations Environment 

Program, 2011:22). A number of South African businesses that in the past assumed that 

incorporating ‘green’ into their business strategy would cost money, are now realising that 

ignoring negative impacts on the environment will, in fact, be costly in the future (Van der Zee, 

2008:6).   

 



 

2 
 

Green product innovation, production and expected market and financial performance depends 

on assessing and understanding the market demand for the products (Lin, Tan and Geng, 

2013:101) and the factors which drive the adoption of the green product innovation (Olson, 

2013:791). This is particularly so because the demand for conventional products still outstrips 

the demand for green products (Ha and Janda, 2012:462; Kilbourne and Pickett, 2008:887; 

Olson, 2013:791). According to Gleim, Smith, Andrews and Cronin (2013:46), the estimated 

market share for green products in the year of 2013, was less than 4% worldwide. These figures 

confirm the findings of Godelink (2012:1) who maintains that although consumer spending has 

generally increased for conventional products, the ‘green glass ceiling’ is still unbreakable and 

its market share is still very small. There is therefore a clear need to study the factors that either 

hinder or drive the purchase and consumption of green products, especially in South Africa, 

where very few studies have been conducted on consumption drivers of green products or on 

environmentally and ethically friendly products.  

 

Studies in South Africa have focused on understanding the ethical consumer (Hughes, McEwan 

and Bek, 2015:148), green habits of generation Y consumers (Anvar and Venter, 2014:183), 

consumer attitudes towards green cosmetics (Beneke, Frey, Deuchar, Jacobs and Macready, 

2010:477), consumer perceptions of environmentally friendly packaging (Scott and Vigar-

Ellis, 2014:642) and consumer behaviour in relation to green wines (Kruger and Saayman, 

2013:63). These studies chiefly assessed awareness, perceptions, habits and knowledge of 

green products, however, the way in which these factors determine consumers’ willingness and 

actual purchase behaviour is yet to be investigated. Moreover, Lin et al. (2013:105) suggest 

that in today’s highly competitive market, green product marketers and innovators need to 

understand the value that consumers derive from their products to gain competitive advantage 

and sustain market demand. While Sheth, Newman and Gross’s (1991) Theory of Consumption 

Values (TCV) identifies the types of value consumers may gain from different product 

categories, Thøgersen, De Barcellos, Perin and Zhou (2015:411) suggest that for green products 

in emerging markets such as China and Brazil, the value consumers expect to derive from green 

products will affect their attitudes towards those products. According to the Diffusion of 

Innovation theory (DOI), it is the product-related factors which drive consumers’ attitude 

towards the products. These attitudes, according to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), 

can lead to purchase intention, which is a driver of purchase behaviour.  

 



 

3 
 

This study integrated the TCV, DOI and TPB to examine the extent to which consumer- and 

product-related factors impact on green product purchase behaviour in South Africa. 

Considering that high household electricity consumption is a growing problem in South Africa, 

and 80% of middle class consumers use electric cookers and appliances for household cooking, 

cooling, heating and entertainment (Department of Energy, 2013:13), this study will focus on 

green household electrical products such as fridges, washing machines, dryers, heaters, stoves, 

irons and light bulbs.  

 
The South African black middle class was the subject of study as this consumer market segment 

is said to be growing rapidly in size, influence and income. It also has the largest spending 

power compared to other South African middle class segments and, most importantly, its 

expenditure on houses, cars and household technological and electrical products is increasing 

rapidly (University of Cape Town’s Unilever Institute of Strategic Marketing, 2013:1).  

 

Considering the environmental and resource conservation benefits of consuming green 

products, this study will practically and theoretically contribute by revealing the consumer and 

product-related factors driving green products attitudes and ultimate purchase intention and 

behaviour of a large and lucrative market segment, such as the black middle class in South 

Africa. With this knowledge, marketers would be able to not only promote the appropriate 

benefits of purchasing green products over conventional products, but also increase their 

market demand for green products.  

 

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 

Numerous studies have been conducted on understanding green purchase behaviour. For 

example, in Asia researchers (Biswas and Roy, 2015; Kumar, 2012; Chen and Chang, 2012; 

Wu and Chen, 2014; Lin and Huang, 2012; Huang, Lin, Lai and Lin, 2014; Tan, 2011; 

Onwezen, Bartels and Antonides, 2014; Chairy, 2012; Zhao, Gao, Wu, Wang and Zhu, 2014) 

have examined the main determinants of green cosmetic product consumption, recycling, wind 

energy and influences of culture in green product purchases. In the United State of America, 

researchers (Matthes, Wonneberger and Schmuck, 2014; Barber, Bishop and Gruen, 2014; 

Elliott, 2013; Cho, Thyroff, Rapert, Park and Lee, 2013) have looked at the effects of 

advertising in increasing the purchase of green products, the role of price in green product 

purchase, consumer perceptions regarding hybrid vehicles and the role of culture in 

environmental behaviour. In Europe, studies (Vermeir and Verbeke, 2008; Gracia and 



 

4 
 

Magistris, 2007; Leire and Thidell, 2005; Grankvist and Biel, 2007; Kanchanapibul, Lacka, 

Wang and Chan, 2014; de Maya, Lopez-Lopez and Munuera, 2011; Paco, Alves, Shiel and Leal 

Filho, 2013) sought to understand perceptions of customers regarding green products, the 

influence of cultural values on green product purchase and the importance of eco-labelling in 

improving sales of green products. These studies have mainly and independently used either 

the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) or the Theory of Consumption Values (TCV) to 

understand green products purchase behaviour. However, with the complexity of drivers of 

purchase behaviour, especially for non-conventional items such as green products, there is a 

need to integrate theories for a deeper understanding of the phenomenon.  

 

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has been applied across a variety of pro-

environmental behaviour studies, including understanding the key factors that influence the 

intention to consume green products (Gracia and Magistris, 2007; Wu and Chen, 2014; Kim 

and Han, 2010), recycling (Boldero, 1995; Taylor and Todd, 1995) and reducing energy 

consumption (Sparks, Hindis, Curnock and Pavey, 2014). Findings from these studies have 

supported the usefulness of the TPB constructs in predicting the intention to go green or to 

adopt green behaviour. However, the strength of the explanatory power of the TPB model has 

been widely debated (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993; Conner and Armitage, 1998) and it has been 

suggested that more constructs should be examined in the TPB to improve the variance 

explained of purchase intention or behaviour. Thøgersen et al. (2015:411) maintain that such 

constructs may be the different values consumers enjoy from green products. 

 

The Theory of Consumption Values (TCV) of Sheth et al. (1991) suggests the types of values 

which consumers may seek from green products. The TCV has been used extensively in the 

past in analysing consumer behaviour. In their attempt to understand green behaviour, Lin and 

Huang (2012:11) used the consumption values to determine the main influencing factor on 

choice behaviour. Haws, Winterich, Naylor (2014:336) and Suki and Suki (2015:269) 

examined the impact of green consumption values on protecting the environment. Goncalves, 

Lourenco, Silva (2016:1484) adopted the TCV in identifying the specific consumption values 

that can better predict green purchase behaviour. Biswas and Roy (2015:332) and Hur, Yoo 

and Chung (2012:688) also used the TCV in understanding environmental attitudes, consumer 

innovativeness in relation to sustainable green consumption. Thøgersen et al. (2015:411) 

suggest that in emerging countries, the purchase of green products is not only rooted in 

consumer value priorities, but also in how the values drive attitudes towards green products in 



 

5 
 

the first place. All these studies uncover the various values consumers would have to enjoy in 

order to develop positive attitudes, go green and act pro-environmentally. However, these 

researchers did not examine the product-related factors which may drive attitudes and help or 

hinder green product purchase. The DOI suggests such factors. 

 

The DOI has been widely used to identify aspects of an innovation (such as a product or idea), 

which helps or hampers the adoption of the innovation. The theory has also been used to predict 

whether or how a new invention will be successful (Zhu, Dong, Xu and Kraemer, 2006:602; 

Tan, Chong, Lin and Eze, 2008:227; MacVaugh and Schiavone, 2010:198). Even though the 

DOI is mainly used to determine the adoption of technological, business-to-business products, 

a study by Vaccaro (2011:328) demonstrates that the DOI can provide insights into 

understanding product-related factors driving the adoption of green consumer products. 

Considering, however, that the intention and actual adoption of behaviour may be first driven 

by a positive attitude towards the innovation, as the TPB suggests, it is important to integrate 

both the DOI and the TPB to better understand the process of green product adoption.  

  

In South Africa, studies are needed to understand green products purchase drivers to improve 

demand. Local research has chiefly focused on assessing the level of awareness, perceptions, 

interest and environmental concerns regarding eco-friendly products or green products with 

little insights into how these factors drive green product purchase behaviour. The present study 

will therefore integrate the TPB, TCV and DOI to provide a holistic look at the consumer and 

product-related factors driving green product purchase in South Africa. With the growing 

awareness and interest in green products and green marketing in SA (Dallas, 2015:14), this 

study will be of value to companies seeking to understand what consumers seek in green 

products and which aspects of those products will affect their attitudes and ultimate purchase 

and consumption. 

 

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

1.3.1 Primary Objective 

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the consumer and product-related factors 

impacting on green appliance attitudes and purchase behaviour among the black middle class 

in South Africa. 

 



 

6 
 

1.3.2 Secondary Objectives 

To achieve the primary objective, the following theoretical and empirical secondary goals have 

been formulated: 

 

1.3.2.1 Theoretical Objectives 

 To assess the size of supply and demand of green products globally and in South Africa 

and the attractiveness of Black middle class as a market for green products 

 To review literature on the consumer-related factors that impact on consumers’ attitude 

towards the purchasing of green products. 

 To review literature on the various product-related factors that impact on consumers’ 

attitude towards the purchasing of green products. 

 To review literature on the extent to which consumers’ attitude towards green products 

can affect their intention and decision to purchase green products. 

 To appreciate theories and models explaining green products purchase, and to develop 

a conceptual model, which delineates how consumer and product-related factors affect 

attitude towards green products, purchase intention and actual behaviour. 

 

1.3.2.2 Empirical Objectives 

 To examine the extent to which functional, emotional, social, conditional and epistemic 

values (i.e. consumer factors) impact on consumer attitude towards green products. 

 To examine the extent to which relative advantage, compatibility, complexity and 

observability (i.e. product-related factors) impact on attitude towards green products. 

 To determine the extent to which green product attitude, social value (subjective norm) 

and perceived behavioural control affect the intention to buy green products. 

 To examine the relationship between the intention to buy green products and the actual 

behaviour towards green products. 

 To empirically test the conceptual model developed to understand the consumer and 

product-related factors that impact on green product purchase behaviour. 

  



 

7 
 

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

This study seeks to answer the following main question: 

  

→ To what extent do the consumer- and product-related factors impact on attitudes 

towards green products and the ultimate intention and actual purchase behaviour of 

black middle class in South Africa?   

 

From this question, the following sub-questions will be addressed: 

 

 What are the impacts of functional, emotional, social, conditional and epistemic values 

(i.e. consumer factors) on attitudes towards green products among South African black 

middle class? 

 What are the impacts of relative advantage, compatibility, complexity and observability 

(i.e. product-related factors) on attitudes towards green products among South African 

black middle class? 

 What influence do attitudes towards green products, social value (subjective norm) and 

perceived behavioural control have on the intention to purchase green products among 

South African black middle class? 

 To what extent does the intention to buy green products affect the actual purchase 

among South African black middle class? 

 

1.5 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW 

This section reviews literature on green consumer behaviour. It then discusses a number of 

theories that are commonly used in understanding green purchase behaviour by consumers. The 

relevant literature will be drawn from textbooks, journal articles and conference papers. 

 

1.5.1 Overview of Green Consumer Behaviour 

An understanding of green consumer behaviour is fundamental for environmental and business 

reasons. From an environmental standpoint, the reduction of negative effects of consumption 

is essential to fulfil some of the goals put forth by the international community (Organisation 

for Economic Co-operation and Development - OECD, 2009; United Nations Environment 

Programme - UNEP, 2007; 2010). From a business and marketing perspective, the development 

of less ecologically harmful products is of little use without consumers adopting these greener 



 

8 
 

technologies and lifestyles. Researchers have also argued that the ‘right’ purchasing decision 

has the potential to reduce, and even eliminate, environmental harm in the later stages of the 

consumption cycle (Cheah and Phau, 2011:503; Vergragt, Akenji and Dewick, 2014:2). 

However, the consumer behaviour of reducing negative environmental impact (for example, 

energy conservation and recycling) has received considerably more attention than the consumer 

behaviour of purchasing green products. The failure to purchase green products, Tseng and 

Hung (2013:182) suggest, could be attributed to the unavailability of green products. However, 

even when green products are available, it is necessary to understand the factors helping or 

hindering green consumer behaviour (Follows and Jobber, 2000:745; Cheah and Phau, 

2011:452). Consequently, theories and models have been proposed to understand the drivers of 

green consumer behaviour. 

 

1.5.2 Diffusion of Innovation Theory  

Diffusion of innovation is defined as a process by which an idea, practice or object that is 

perceived as new catches on among mainstream consumers. It is described as a process by 

which consumers gain knowledge about the innovation, are persuaded or form attitudes towards 

the innovation, make a decision to adopt or reject the innovation, use the innovation, and 

evaluate the results (Rogers, 2003:229).  

 

Rogers (2010:62) posits that every time that an innovation emerges, the act of diffusion occurs, 

involving a process of communicating or disseminating the information and opinions on that 

innovation to potential users through a communication channel. Based on this information, the 

potential adopter then decides to adopt (or reject), and use the innovation to confirm his/her 

decision. Rogers (2010:10) refers to this process as the innovation decision process and 

conceptualises five logical steps of this process as depicted in Figure 2.1 (see Chapter 2). The 

steps in the process are: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and confirmation. 

 

Rogers (2003:232) further states the rate of adoption id affected by factors such as type of 

innovation decision, communication channels involved, nature of the social system in which 

the innovation is placed and the extent of the change agents’ promotional efforts. Rogers 

(2003:232) argues that perceived innovation characteristics are an important explanation of the 

rate of adoption and that most of the variance in adoption rates of (49 to 67%) is explained by 

five characteristics. The five innovation characteristics are as follows: 



 

9 
 

Relative advantage – This is described by Rogers (1995:11) as the degree to which an 

innovation is perceived to be a better idea than the idea it supersedes. For example, a new 

product that is technologically more advanced and may reduce production costs, may be 

evaluated as having a relative advantage.  

 

Compatibility – This refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being 

consistent with existing values, past experiences and needs of potential adopters.  

 

Complexity – This refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively 

difficult to understand and use. The more difficult a product is to understand and use, the less 

likely consumers are to adopt the product. 

 

Trialability – This refers to the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with, on 

a limited basis. According to Rogers (1995:12), when users can try an idea in small doses or 

ease into an innovation gradually, they are more likely to adopt the innovation. This innovation 

characteristic will be excluded from this study. Previous research on household/domestic solar 

power systems has excluded trialability, as these products are not considered to be trialable due 

to their nature (Faiers and Neame, 2006; Tapaninen, Seppanen, and Makinen, 2009a:102) 

 

Observability – This refers to the extent to which the outcomes of an innovation are noticeable 

to others. The easier it is for potential users to see the results of an innovation, the more likely 

they are to adopt it.  

 

Although the DOI theory has been widely accepted as a useful theory for studying the adoption 

of technological innovations, it can also be used to understand the adoption of green products. 

For example, the DOI has been used to explore factors driving the decision to adopt or reject a 

green product innovation or stimulate the diffusion of green products (Oliver, 2007:24; Janssen 

and Jager, 2002:288), consumer purchase motivations for hybrid cars (Ozaki and Sevastyanova, 

2011:2218) and modelling of eco-innovation diffusion (Kijek, 2015:67). Another useful theory, 

which can be used for the understanding of green product purchase behaviour is the TPB. 

 

 

 



 

10 
 

1.5.3 Theory of Planned Behaviour 

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), as proposed by Ajzen in 1991, is derived from the 

Theory of Reasoned Action developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). According to the TPB, 

an individual’s specific behaviour is determined by his/her behavioural intention to perform the 

behaviour. This behavioural intention is in turn determined by three factors related to the 

behaviour: the person’s attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. Attitude 

reflects the degree to which carrying out the behaviour is valued positively or negatively by the 

individual, subjective norm reflects the perceived social pressure to engage with the behaviour 

and perceived behavioural control reflects the individual’s appraisal of his/her ability to carry 

out the behaviour. In summary, if individuals feel favourable towards a particular behaviour, 

believe that important people in their lives would approve of them carrying out the behaviour 

and are confident about their ability to undertake the behaviour, then they are more likely to 

have a positive intention to engage in the behaviour. This positive intention is in turn associated 

with a greater likelihood that the behaviour will be enacted. It is also worth noting that in some 

situations perceived behavioural control is believed to exert a direct effect on behaviour 

unmediated by intention (Ajzen, 1991:198). 

  

According to Han, Hsu, Lee and Sheu (2011:351), the TPB allows researchers to examine the 

influence of personal determinants, social surroundings as well as non-volition determinants 

on intention. The TPB model optimises the potential relationship between intention and its 

determinants by measuring each construct at equivalent levels of specificity. The TPB has been 

used to understand organic food choice (Paul and Rana, 2012:415; Davis, O’Callaghan and 

Knox, 2009:138) and green purchase intentions (Chen and Tung, 2014: 222; Barber, 2010:424). 

Although the TPB gained empirical support from previous pro-environmental behaviour 

studies (Dowd and Burke 2013:137; De Leeuw, Valois, Ajzen and Schmidt, 2015:128), it has 

inherent limitations (Sniehotta, Presseau and Araujo-Soares, 2014:3). The TPB emphasises 

proximity between intention and behaviour, which renders the operationalisation of the TPB 

problematic. These limitations notwithstanding, Ajzen (1991:199) maintains that TPB is open 

to the inclusion of additional constructs that have the ability to demonstrate a significant 

variance in intention or behaviour. 

 

 

 



 

11 
 

1.5.4 Theory of Consumption Values (TCV) 

The Theory of Consumption Values proposed by Sheth, Newman and Gross (1991a, 1991b) 

suggests that consumers attach different values to product groups and that these in turn will 

affect motivations to purchase. Sheth et al. (1991) suggest that consumers’ choice behaviour of 

products or services is influenced by five expected values or benefits, namely, functional, 

social, conditional, emotional and epistemic values.  

 

The five values are explained as follows: 

 

Functional value - also referred to as ‘value for money’, this is measured by consumers’ 

perception about the product performance with respect to price. It is assessed as the primary 

driver of consumer choice behaviour with regard to green product purchase (Sheth et al., 

1991:172; Biswas and Roy, 2015:464).  

 

Social value – measures perceived utility derived from consumers’ association with social 

groups. Social value for green products can be defined as the perceived net utility derived from 

green product consumption based on the perception of social pressure or prestige gain through 

engagement with environmental issues (Sheth et al., 1991:172; Biswas and Roy, 2015:464). 

This represents the subjective norm in the TPB. 

 

Conditional value – denotes the perceived net utility derived in a specific situation or 

circumstances faced by the decision maker (Sheth et al., 1991:172; Gadenne, Sharma, Kerr and 

Smith, 2011:7686).  

 

Emotional value – refers to the perceived utility derived from an alternative capacity to arouse 

feelings or affective state. (Sheth et al., 191:173). 

 

Epistemic value – refers to the perceived utility resulting from a product or service that 

stimulates the desire for knowledge and offers novelty (Sheth et al., 1991:173; Biswas and Roy, 

2015:464). 

 



 

12 
 

Sheth et al. (1991b:6) posit that by analysing the values which predominate among a given 

population regarding a product category, it is possible to discriminate between various offers 

according to particular value weightings. 

 

The TCV applies only in cases of individual, voluntary and rational or systematic decision 

situations, and depends on three axioms: 

i. Market choice is a function of multiple values; 

ii. These values make differential (and incremental) contributions to choice; and 

iii. The values are independent (Sheth et al., 1991b:7). 

The TCV has been applied by Lin and Huang (2012) in determining the drivers of consumer 

choice behaviour for green products. Biswas and Roy (2015) also used TCV to examine the 

consumption values impacting on sustainable consumption behaviour across different 

consumer segments with preferential green choice. While Lin and Huang (2012) found all 

consumption values have a positive relationship with the choice behaviour of green products, 

Biswas and Roy (2015) revealed that social value was the dominant factor in influencing 

sustainable consumption behaviour adoption among the green consumers. Whether these 

values will affect South African consumers’ attitudes toward green product purchase is one of 

the aims of this study. 

 

1.6 CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 

This study integrates the components of the DOI, TPB and TCV to develop the conceptual 

model and hypotheses. This conceptual model proposes that the consumer-related factors 

(functional, social, emotional, conditional and epistemic values) and product-related factors 

(relative advantage, compatibility, complexity and observability) are likely to positively 

influence green purchase behaviour attitudes, which may in turn positively lead to intention to 

buy and the actual buying of green products. Social value (subjective norm) is likely to 

positively influence behavioural intention. Perceived behavioural control is expected to 

influence the intention to buy and the actual purchase of green products. 

 

The Theory of Consumption values developed by Sheth et al. (1991:159) focuses on values 

that explain “why consumers choose to buy or not to buy (or use or not use) a specific product, 

why consumers choose one product type over another”. The Diffusion of Innovation theory of 



 

13 
 

Rogers (2003:273) is mostly used to study adoption patterns, clarify the mechanism and assist 

in predicting whether and how a new invention or idea will be successful. The Theory of 

Planned Behaviour, which was first put forward by Ajzen (1991:197), is one of the classic 

theoretical models for studying individual behaviour. The theory suggests that an individual’s 

behavioural intention is affected by behavioural attitudes, subjective norms and perceived 

behavioural control. 

 

A number of studies that have examined the key determinants of green products have integrated 

the TCV and TPB (de Maya et al., 2011:1773, Lin and Huang, 2012:15; Papista and Krystallis, 

2013:83; Jiang and Kim, 2014:308; Biswas and Roy, 2015:336). All of the results from these 

studies show that the integrated models provided a good relationship of green product purchase 

attitudes and behavioural intention. In the study by Biswas and Roy (2015:335), their results 

for testing the integrated model explained 51% variance in attitudes and 53% variance in 

behavioural intention. 

 

The integrated model of DOI and TPB has been used in numerous studies seeking to understand 

the important attributes that consumers or potential consumers will consider when buying a 

new cell phone, hybrid vehicle, alternative fuel vehicle or solar system (Jansson, 2011:196; 

Ozaki and Sevastyanova, 2011:2218; Karakaya, Hidalgo and Nuur, 2014:393). All these 

studies showed a good relationship between variables and attitudes towards these above-

mentioned products. In the study (Karakaya et al., 2014:393) on hybrid vehicles (also referred 

to as eco-innovation in the study), the integrated model was found to explain 52% and 49% of 

the variance in attitudes towards hybrid vehicles and behavioural intention respectively. 

 

It is therefore, the researchers’ opinion that the proposed integrated model from three theories 

is likely to provide a higher explanatory power for attitudes towards green product purchase, 

intention and actual behaviour than when these theories are used separately or paired. 

 

The next section introduces the research methods used to test the conceptual model. 

  



 

14 
 

1.7 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  

The research methodology outlines the procedures that are followed by a researcher when 

conducting the study (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2012: 118). This study used the following 

research methodology described below. 

 

1.7.1 Research Philosophy 

A research philosophy refers to a set of assumptions and beliefs that guide an empirical study 

(Jonker and Pennink, 2010:29). Saunders et al. (2012:119) propose three research philosophies 

− positivism, realism and interpretivism. This study follows a positivistic philosophy. The 

positivistic philosophy assumes that objective knowledge is acquired through the use of 

systematic, scientific methods of inquiry (Bryman and Bell, 2011:20). Using theories and 

models, positivists formulate hypotheses which need to be tested (Saunders et al., 2012:120; 

Sekaran and Bougie, 2013). Consistent with the positivistic philosophy, this study proposed a 

set of hypotheses that were verified by collecting quantitative data that were subjected to 

statistical analysis. 

 

1.7.2 Research Approach 

From the inductive and deductive research approaches described by Saunders et al. (2012:121), 

this study subscribed to the deductive approach. While the inductive approach is aimed at 

developing a theory or a model, the deductive is used to test theories or models. The deductive 

approach draws inferences from analysed data with the objective of generalising research 

findings to a broader population (Saunders et al., 2012:121). The deductive approach is 

consistent with the objectives of this study, which tests relationships between variables as 

hypothesised in the conceptual model. 

 

1.7.3 Research Strategies 

Saunders et al. (2012:122) define a research strategy as the overall plan that is followed by a 

researcher to gather the primary data and answer the research questions. A survey is an 

appropriate strategy for this study. Survey research involves acquiring information about one 

or more groups of people about their characteristics, opinions and attitudes, or previous 

experiences, by asking them questions and tabulating their answers. The ultimate goal is to 

learn about a large population by surveying a sample of that population (Leedy and Ormrod, 

2013:195). According to Neuman (2011:83), surveys give the researcher a picture of what many 



 

15 
 

people think or report doing and also allow the researcher to explore the characteristics, 

attitudes and behaviours of the targeted respondents through interviews or a self-administered 

research instrument.  

 

1.7.4 Data Collection Methods or Designs 

The primary data collection was accomplished through a survey using structured 

questionnaires. It was a face-to-face survey, which produces a higher response rate and is 

known to generate large amounts of data (Babin and Zikmund, 2016:303). The use of 

questionnaires during a survey yields essential information which can be generalised to the 

target population (Saunders et al., 2012:122).  

 
1.7.5 Sampling Design 

The target population for this study was the South African black middle class living in Gauteng 

Province, who have the income and capability of purchasing green appliances. A study 

conducted by the University of Cape Town’s (UCT) Unilever Institute of Strategic Marketing 

(2013) posits that more than 4,2 million people in South Africa fall within the category of black, 

middle class, salaried and well-educated people. Gauteng Province is considered to be the ideal 

setting for this study as more than 66% of the black middle class resides in Gauteng, according 

to the UCT findings. The UCT findings also indicate that the spending power of this market 

has increased substantially, from R1,7 billion (approximately, $123 million US dollars) 

annually in 2004 to over R400 billion (approximately, $29 billion US dollars) annually in 2013. 

The findings further state that more people are entering the housing market for the first time, 

spurring construction and resulting in increased demand for household products.  

 

There are two types of sampling techniques, namely, probability and non-probability sampling 

(Burns and Bush, 2014:262; Saunders et al., 2012:125). Probability sampling is “a sampling 

technique in which each population element has a known, non-zero chance of being included 

in the sample” (Iacobucci and Churchill, 2010:285). The non-probability sampling technique, 

on the other hand, relies on the researcher’s judgment to select a suitable population element to 

form part of the sample (Zikmund and Babin, 2013:305). Probability sampling is constituted 

by simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling and cluster sampling. 

Non-probability sampling is subdivided into convenience sampling, quota sampling, judgement 

sampling and snowball sampling (Saunders et al., 2012:125). For the purposes of this study, a 



 

16 
 

probability sampling technique using simple random sampling was used. This was possible, 

because the research company that was tasked with the field work had an existing database for 

the South African middle class from which they could randomly select respondents to 

participate in the study. Simple random sampling ensures a high degree of representativeness, 

as it guarantees that every sample of a given size, as well as every individual in the target 

population, has an equal chance of being selected (Saunders et al., 2012:125). 

 

1.7.6 Determining the Sample Size 

The sample size for the study will be determined by using two approaches − the historical 

evidence method and the requirements of the data analysis method. The historical evidence 

method determines sample size by benchmarking against previous related studies (Zikmund 

and Babin, 2010:265). Based on previous similar studies conducted by Arvola, Vassallo, Dean, 

Lampila, Saba, Lahteenmaki and Shepherd (2008:446), Orten and Atik (2009:822), Thøgersen 

(2011:1062), Peloza, White and Shang (2013:106), White and Simpson (2013:81), Rajalakshmi 

(2014:143), Cheung, Lam and Lau (2015: 233), it was found that researchers used sample sizes 

of between 200 – 400. Based on the requirements of the data analysis methods, as a rule of 

thumb for robust partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) estimations, it 

has been recommended that the sample size be equal or larger to ten times the number of 

structural paths directed at a particular construct in the structural model (Barclay, Higgins and 

Thompson, 1995: 306). Kline (2011:112) further states that when using confirmatory factor 

analysis, having fewer than 300 respondents is considered weak, 300 respondents is considered 

to be good, and 400 to 500 respondents is very good. With this study having thirteen constructs, 

the sample size of 500 respondents was deemed acceptable for the confirmatory factor analysis 

and partial least square structural equation modelling that was used to analyse data of this study.  

 

1.7.7 Sampling Procedure 

To contact the targeted sample, the researcher used the services of Ramsay Research Media – 

a research company that has offices in both Cape Town and Johannesburg. For more than ten 

years, Ramsay Research Media has been collecting large amounts of data for the UCT Unilever 

Institute of Strategic Marketing for numerous studies involving the black middle class of South 

Africa. Ramsay Research Media therefore has extensive experience in working with the South 

African black middle class and they could be contracted to collect reliable data for this study. 

 



 

17 
 

1.7.8 Questionnaire Design  

Data was collected by means of a self-administered, structured questionnaire. The 

questionnaire consisted of five sections. A cover letter introduced the purpose of the study and 

advised the participants of their anonymity, the confidentiality of their response and their right 

to withdraw from the study at any point in time, should they wish to do so. Section A contained 

questions that sought biographic information of the respondents using a multi-choice and 

dichotomous questions. Section B covered questions on consumer-related factors expected to 

have an impact on attitudes towards green products, such as functional, social, emotional, 

conditional and epistemic values. Section C covered questions on product-related factors 

expected to have an impact on attitude towards green products such as relative advantage, 

compatibility, complexity and observability. Section D questions were designed to measure 

respondents’ perceived behavioural control, attitudes, intention and actual behaviour of green 

product purchase. A filter question was used to separate current users and non-users of green 

products. All measurement items in Sections B, C, and D used a seven-point Likert scale 

anchored by ‘strongly agree’ (7) and ‘strongly disagree’ (1). All constructs in Sections B, C 

and D were operationalised using validated scales from previous similar studies (Beck and 

Ajzen, 1991; Kim and Choi, 2005; Mostafa, 2009; Han, Hsu and Sheu, 2010; Chen and Peng, 

2012; Chen and Chang, 2012) in order to enhance reliability and validity. 

 

1.7.9 Data Analysis 

Data analysis is defined as the process of bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of 

collected data (De Vos, 2011:335). Descriptive statistics, reliability and validity tests, 

measurement model and PLS-SEM were used to analyse the data. The descriptive statistics 

provided the mean, standard deviation and percentages of respondents' responses. They were 

also used to assess the profiles of the respondents.  

 
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using the partial least squares structural equation 

modelling technique, with the aid of the SmartPLS version 3.2.7 software, was conducted to 

evaluate the measurement model. A number of criteria were used to assess the measurement 

model; these included Factor Loading, Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach’s alpha and 

Composite Reliability), Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity, as suggested by Hair, 

Hult, Ringle and Sarstedt, 2017). The same program was used to evaluate the structural 

equation model, which tested for Collinearity Assessment, Coefficients of Determination (𝑅𝑅2) 



 

18 
 

value, Predictive Relevance (𝑄𝑄2), identification of the size and significance of the path 

coefficient and effect sizes (𝑓𝑓2). The hypothesised relationships between the latent constructs 

in the structural model were also tested. 

 

1.8 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY 

This study seeks to make theoretical and managerial contributions. From a theoretical 

viewpoint, the following contributions will be made: 

 

 The body of knowledge on understanding the drivers of attitudes, intention and 

behaviour towards green product purchase and consumption will be broadened by 

conducting the study in a multicultural and socio-demographically diverse country like 

South Africa (SA). 

 This study will not only fill a void of academic information on drivers of green product 

consumption in South Africa, but will do so among the black middle class, who are a 

large, lucrative and fast-growing market segment in SA. 

 Another theoretical contribution of this study will be to test the explanatory power of 

integrating DOI, TPB and TCV and in an emerging consumer market.  

 

From a managerial viewpoint, the contributions will be the following: 

 

 Previous research studies have estimated market share for green products to be growing 

at a very slow pace despite increased awareness of green products. By understanding both 

the consumer and product-related factors helping and hindering green product purchase 

behaviour in SA, marketers will ultimately be better equipped with information on the 

benefits middle class consumers seek from green products and on how they can best 

position green products for increased adoption, purchase and consumption. This will not 

only increase sales and profits for the marketers from a large and lucrative market 

segment like the black middle class in SA, but will be good for the health of the consumer 

and the general environment. Other global marketers, consumer and environmental 

interest groups can use the findings for better targeting and positioning for green 

appliances. These can increase general demand for green appliances. 

 
 



 

19 
 

1.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Ethical issues become crucial whenever human subjects are the focus of investigation. It is 

expected that the researcher always searches for truth, however, this should not be at the 

expense of others (Babbie and Mouton, 2008:521; Saunders et al., 2012:226). Babin and 

Zikmund (2016:89) suggests four ethical guidelines that should be adhered to by the researcher 

when dealing with respondents. These guidelines are listed as follows: 

 Respondents’ right to privacy should be preserved; 

 Respondents should be assured of confidentiality; 

 Respondents should not be deceived regarding the purpose of the study; and 

 Respondents’ safety should not be compromised. 

These guidelines were applied in this study. Furthermore, the questionnaire included a covering 

letter (Annexure A) which explained the purpose of the study and assured the respondents of 

their anonymity and confidentiality. The respondents were assured that the collected data would 

to be used for research purposes only. To ensure anonymity and confidentiality, no names were 

mentioned in the questionnaires (Babin and Zikmund, 2016:90). The findings of the study were 

reported in an aggregated format and no personal details of the participants were included in 

the presentation of results. 

 

In addition to the above, ethical clearance for the study was obtained from the University of the 

Witwatersrand internal ethics review committee, and a letter of approval authorising the 

researcher to proceed with the study was received (Annexure C). All data collected from 

respondents was stored and disposed of in accordance with the rules and regulations provided 

by the Ethical Review Committee.  

 

1.10 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY 

This thesis comprises seven chapters which are outlined below. 

 

Chapter 1 – This chapter introduces the research and states the research problem and 

objectives. It also introduces the theories and models used to develop the conceptual model and 

hypotheses and describes the research methods which were used to test the model.  

 



 

20 
 

Chapter 2 – This chapter presents an overview of green product marketing, supply and 

demand. Green conscious consumers and the barriers and opportunities of green product 

consumption are also discussed. The chapter also discusses why understanding green 

consumption among the SA middle class is important for this study. 

 

Chapter 3 – This chapter reviews existing literature on drivers that have been found to 

influence green purchase behaviour. 

 

Chapter 4 – The theoretical models and theories that inform the drivers of green consumption 

are examined in this chapter. The conceptual model and hypotheses are also formulated in this 

chapter. 

 

Chapter 5 – This chapter outlines the research methodology of the study. Specifically, it 

discusses the research philosophy, research design, sampling method and other methods used 

to obtain the primary data, which was used for the empirical testing of the conceptual model. 

The chapter also describes the statistical techniques used to analyse the data and test the 

relationships of the conceptual model. 

  

Chapter 6 – The results of the statistical data analyses are presented and the key findings are 

highlighted in this chapter. 

 

Chapter 7 – Conclusions and key findings are discussed. Theoretical and practical 

contributions are presented, as well as limitations of the study and suggestions for future 

research of the study. 

  



 

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CHAPTER 2:  
GREEN PRODUCT SUPPLY AND DEMAND GLOBALLY 
AND IN SOUTH AFRICA: EXAMINING THE BLACK 
MIDDLE CLASS AS A MARKET SEGMENT 
 

 

2.1 INTRODUCTION 

The risks and impact of climate change will increase significantly over the next decade (UNEP 

2014a), with annual climate change adaptation costs projected to reach US$300 billion by 2050 

(UNEP, 2015). Energy consumption, particularly in relation to carbon dioxide emissions, is the 

major contributor to rising global temperatures and many associated environmental problems 

(Gardner and Stern, 2002). The promotion and adoption of lower energy consuming lifestyles 

is therefore imperative for environmental sustainability (Bhate, 2005; Pothitou, Kolios, Varga 

and Gu, 2016; UNEP, 2015). This is particularly needed in emerging markets such as South 

Africa, where there are faster electricity demand growth rates (UNEP, 2014b). More so, in 

emerging markets, the economic aspirations of billions of inhabitants are often facilitated by 

“unprecedented levels of energy consumption” (Smil, 2013:145). Creating awareness of 

sustainability concerns and supplying green products to promote the demand and use of green 

products in emerging markets will therefore be important. 

Growing global public awareness of sustainability issues has been widely reported in 

documents about climate change (e.g. IPCC, 2014; UNEP, 2015) and numerous global 

initiatives such as the Efficient Appliances and Equipment Partnership (UNEP, 2014b) seek to 

accelerate the transition to more sustainable consumption behaviour. However, educating 

consumers about sustainability is challenging, not least because awareness and concerns about 

environmental issues frequently fail to translate into sustainable behaviours (Figueredo and 

Tsarenko, 2013). Nonetheless, according to Squires, Juric and Cornwell (2001), and depending 

on the level of economic development of a country, the demand for organic and green products 

is increasing. The question, however, is whether the supply of these products is matching the 

demand, and which consumer segment is the most likely to drive the demand of green products.  

 



 

22 
 

This chapter discusses the demand and supply of green products in South Africa and globally. 

It starts by exploring the concept of green products and green marketing, green product 

characteristics and how using green products can benefit the consumer and the community at 

large. It then proceeds to explore the supply of green products, barriers to supply and the size 

of the green market in South Africa and globally. The discussion moves to exploring the 

demand for green products and identifying the profiles of green product consumers. The chapter 

ends with a discussion of the South African black middle class as a potential market for green 

products, their consumption lifestyle and the attractiveness of the segment for green products 

purchase. 

 

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF GREEN PRODUCTS AND GREEN MARKETING 

2.2.1 What is a Green Product? 

The terms ‘green product’ or ‘environmentally-friendly products’ usually describe products 

that protect or enhance the natural environment, the conservation of energy and the reduction 

or elimination of toxic agents, pollution and waste (Olson, 2013:171). Olson (2013:172) further 

states that: 
…although no consumer product has a zero impact on the environment, in business, the terms 
‘green product’ or ‘environmental product’ are used commonly to describe those that strive 
to protect or enhance the natural environment by conserving energy and/or resources and 
reducing or eliminating the use of toxic agents, pollution, and waste. 

 

The American Marketing Association (2015:1) defines green products as those which “use less 

resources, have lower impacts and risks to the environment and prevent waste generation 

already at the conception stage”. This definition emphasises the importance of designing green 

products, even from the conceptualisation phase.  

 

Peattie (2010:181) feels that a product is green “when its environmental and societal 

performance, in production, use and disposal is significantly improved in comparison to 

conventional or competitive products”. This means that the environment should be considered 

at the different life cycle phases of a product. Additionally, Tomasin et al. (2013:74) state that 

“green products are designed to prevent, limit, reduce and/or correct harmful environmental 

impacts on water, air and soil.” Reinhardt (1998:46) explains that environmental product 

differentiation entails “creating products that provide greater environmental benefits or that 

impose smaller environmental costs than similar products.” Dangelico and Pontrandolfo 



 

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(2010:1609) indicate that this definition illustrates how green products are able to generate a 

lower environmental impact and provide higher environmental benefits compared to 

conventional products. All these definitions stress the importance of considering environmental 

factors such as energy, resources, pollution, waste, water, air and soil at every stage of 

developing, manufacturing, using and disposing of products and services. Examples of some 

green products in the market are household appliances (microwaves, fridges, kettles, washing 

machines, hair dryers, heaters) that use less electricity and water; compact fluorescent lamps 

(CFLs) which use 75% less energy than incandescent bulbs (Energy Star, 2015); organic foods, 

which are grown and processed without antibiotics, pesticides or synthetic fertilisers 

(Environmental Protection Agency, 2015); hybrid gas electric vehicles such as Toyota Prius, 

which uses significantly less fuel than comparable conventional vehicles; and eco-friendly 

tissue papers and biodegradable detergents (European Commission, 2012b). Thus, in 

developing these green products, it is important to also create successful environmental 

strategies and to ensure that companies and economies become environmentally sustainable 

(Pujari, 2009:76).  

 

2.2.2 Types and Characteristics of Green Products 

By studying literature on green product classification, it was discovered that different 

perspectives are used to classify green products. Dangelico and Pontrandolfo (2010:1609) 

quote Brezet’s (1997) studies that resulted in four different types of environmental innovations 

which vary in terms of eco-efficiency. As shown in Table 2.1 below, these are i) Product 

improvement, ii) Product re-design, iii) Function innovation and iv) System innovation. 

  



 

24 
 

Table 2.1: Environmental innovation classification system 

Type of Innovation Characteristics 

Product improvement  Product improvements from a preventative 
environmental impact perspective for existing 
products. Product and production technology are the 
same. 

Product re-design  The product concept remains almost intact. The 
product and its components are further developed or 
replaced, for example, by introducing non-toxic 
materials, improving distribution, recycling or energy 
efficiency. 

Function innovation  Not limited to existing product concepts. The 
innovation is related to how the function is achieved, 
for example changing paper-based information 
sources to e-mail. 

System innovation  The complete technological system (product, 
production chain, infrastructure and related 
institutions) is replaced by a new system. 

Source: Brezet (1997) 

 

These four types of innovation are all environmentally driven but have different characteristics. 

The first type involves the improvement of products from the perspective of pollution 

prevention and environmental care. Both the product and production technique will generally 

remain the same. 

 

With the second type of innovation which involves redesigning the product, the product concept 

remains the same but parts of the product are improved and replaced for the purpose of using 

non-toxic materials, recycling and disassembly, improved distribution and energy use reduction 

with respect to all components over the product life cycle. 

 

The starting point of the third type, functional innovation, is the function of the current product. 

In this case, the way in which the product fulfils the function is changed. The generation shift 

from physical products to dematerialised services belongs to this category. 

 

In the fourth type, the system innovation, the entire technological system (product, production 

chain and associated infrastructure and institutional structure) is replaced. System innovation 

tends to create a new system, for example, consumption is organised in such a way that the 

environment does not suffer as a result and other economic rules and principles are applied. 



 

25 
 

Dangelico and Pontrandolfo (2010:1610) conducted a review of research conducted over two 

decades on the features of green products. Their review is presented Table 2.2.  

 

Table 2.2: Studies on the characteristics of green products 

Authors Characteristics associated with the ‘green’ 
nature of a product 

Ljungberg (2007)  Reduce the materials and the use of energy for a 
product 

 Reduce emissions, dispersion and creation of toxins 
 Increase the amount of recyclable materials 
 Maximise the sustainable use of renewable 

resources 
 Minimise the service intensity for products and 

services 
 Extend the useful life of a product 
 Assess and minimize the environmental impact  
 Having a ‘functional economy’ 
 Use ‘reverse logistics’ 
 Increase the efficiency in the usage phase 

Luttropp and Lagerstedt (2006)  Do not use toxic substances and utilise closed loops 
for necessary but toxic ones 

 Minimise energy and resource consumption in the 
production phase and transport 

 Use structural features and high-quality materials to 
minimize weight 

 Minimise energy and resource consumption in the 
usage phase 

 Promote repair and upgrading 
 Promote long life 
 Invest in better materials, surface treatments or 

structural arrangements 
 Prearrange upgrading, repair and recycling 
 Promote upgrading, repair and recycling 
 Use as few joining elements as possible 

Roy, Wield, Gardiner and Potter 

(1996) 

  

 Capable of lessening global environmental 
problems 

 Energy efficient 
 Easily repairable 
 Designed to last, or to be reused, reconditioned or 

recycled 
 Generates minimum pollution and waste 
 Can be disposed of safely 
 Minimal use of materials, including packaging 
 Manufactured from renewable or abundant 

resources or recycled materials 
 Manufactured, if possible, locally and from locally 

obtainable materials to reduce transport 
requirements 



 

26 
 

 Environmental information on product available to 
purchase 

 Not harmful to human health 
 Satisfies a genuine human need 

Shrivastava and Hart (1995)  Low environmental impact during usage 
 Easily composted, reused, or recycled at the end of 

their useful life 
Robert (1995)  Minimise the use of nonrenewable materials 

 Avoid the use of toxic materials 
 Use renewable resources in accordance with their 

rate of replenishment 
Peattie (1995)  Recyclability 

 Resource efficiency 
 Emissions 
 Impact on ecosystems 
 Social impact 
 Sustainability of resource use 
 Waste and disposal 
 Eco-efficiency of production and organisation 

Schmieding (1992)  Eliminate or replace product 
 Eliminate or reduce harmful ingredients 
 Substitute environmentally preferred materials or 

processes 
 Decrease weight or reduce volume 
 Produce concentrated product 
 Produce in bulk 
 Combine the functions of more than one product 
 Produce fewer models or styles 
 Redesign for more efficient use 
 Increase product life span 
 Reduce wasteful packaging 
 Improve reparability 
 Redesign for consumer reuse 
 Remanufacture the product 

Simon (1992)  Reduced raw material, high recycled content 
 Non-polluting manufacture/non-toxic materials 
 No unnecessary animal testing 
 No impact on protected species 
 Low energy consumption during 

production/use/disposal 
 Minimal or no packaging 
 Reuse//refillability where possible 
 Long useful life, updating capability 
 Post-consumer collection/disassembly system 
 Remanufacturing capability 

Elkington and Hailes (1988)  Not endangering the health of the consumer or of 
others 

 Causing no significant damage to the environment 
during manufacture use or disposal 



 

27 
 

 Not consuming a disproportionate amount of energy 
during manufacture, use and disposal 

 Not causing unnecessary waste, either because of 
over-packaging or because of an unduly short useful 
life 

 No use of materials derived from threatened species 
or from threatened environments 

 Not involving unnecessary use or cruelty to animals 
 Not adversely affecting other countries, particularly 

the third world 
Source: Dangelico and Pontrandolfo (2010:1610) 

  

It is important to note that recent studies (American Marketing Association, 2013; Leonidou, 

Katsikeas and Morgan, 2013:152) show the same or similar characteristics as described by 

previous authors in Table 2.1. These characteristics indicate that irrespective of how green 

products have been classified, their contribution to the environment and their sustainability 

cannot be underestimated.  

 

2.2.3 Benefits of Green Product Consumption 

Green products consumption is beneficial to the environment, the consumer, the economy and 

business. Environmentally, green products have evolved as a result of the growing concerns 

about global and local pollution levels, global warming, diminishing natural reserves and 

overflowing waste (Maniatis, 2015:218). Given these concerns, and according to the facts in 

Table 2.1, the consumption of green products will undoubtedly protect the environment. For 

example, green products have been proven to have reduced harmful side effects, reduced 

hazards, reduced toxic substances, reduced health issues, improved recyclability and improved 

environmental friendliness (Azevedo, Carvalho and Machado, 2011:851). 

 

Green standards, technologies, and practices in supply chains have benefitted consumers in 

many ways (Palevich, 2012:63). Over a period, economic gains could also be realised because 

of the benefits of green products consumption to consumers (Azevedo et al., 2011:851). For 

example, improved recyclability helps in reducing waste disposal costs (Azevedo et al., 

2011:851). The true gains from a green product come from its lifecycle benefits (Zhao, Gao, 

Wu, Wang and Zhu, 2014:144). Many environmental impacts are caused by using natural 

resources in massive quantities, hazardous methods of manufacturing, harmful ways of usage, 

harmful patterns of generating waste and harmful patterns of disposal (Zhao et al., 2014: 143). 

A green product may be costlier than other comparative products but may have lower lifecycle 



 

28 
 

costs (Boztepe, 2012:92). For example, the product may be easily recyclable causing little 

negative impact on the environment (Zhao et al., 2014:143).  

 

Green products, their consumption and marketing also benefit business, especially in terms of 

providing competitive advantage. Prior studies have found that product and process innovations 

contribute to a firm’s competitive advantages (Chiou, Chan, Lettice and Chung 2011:822; 

Wong, 2012:469). These advantages, as postulated by Porter (1985), can be gained by 

differentiation and cost leadership strategies. ‘Greenness’ is a differentiator because waste and 

pollution represent an inefficient and incomplete use of resources. Thus, preventing or reducing 

waste and pollution through green marketing entails better resources utilisation, a lesser burden 

on the environment and better value to customers (Porter and van der Linde, 1995). While the 

innovative processes which are green confer cost advantage on a firm over its competitors, 

innovative green products also enhance firm profitability as products marketed under the green 

and innovative concept may bring in new customers and fresh revenue (Chiou et al., 2011, 

Kash and Rycoft, 2000; Lieberman and Montgomery, 1988; Nassimbeni, 2003). 

 

Studies have found that to embark on green innovation early enables a firm to gain first-mover 

advantage (Porter and van der Linde, 1995). For example, when Sony launched its ‘Green 

Partner’ programme in 2005 to restrict the use of hazardous substances by suppliers, only a few 

component manufacturers could meet this requirement. Those that met the requirement became 

Sony’s preferred suppliers and partners in developing the new green electronics market. This 

partnership enabled the chosen suppliers to gain first-mover advantages and to grow and 

develop with Sony in the flourishing green electronics arena. Many of the selected suppliers 

won orders from other green innovative companies such as Apple and Cisco by leveraging on 

the partnership status conferred on them by Sony. In the past ten years, the number of green 

electronic component manufacturers eligible to become Sony’s ‘Green Partners’ continues to 

expand. The late-movers face an uphill battle of competing against the first- and fast-movers.  

 

Competitive advantage is the result of matching the core competencies of a firm to market 

opportunities (Porter, 1985). Most firms, after identifying a market opportunity, take their first 

steps in building up green core competences by initiating green process innovation alongside 

product development. These steps may typically include activities such as promoting firm-wide 

learning about green innovation and environmental management trends and regulations, 



 

29 
 

translating green opportunities into green product features and building up new capabilities and 

aligning both new and existing capabilities with opportunities (Chen, 2008; Chiou et al., 2011).  

 

Green innovation usually entails changes in technology and raw materials and ultimately 

provides competitive advantage. For example, before the turn of the century, solder alloys with 

40% lead were a primary choice for assembling electronics. Due to the relatively high toxicity 

of lead to human health and environment, European countries banned the use of lead in 

electronic assemblies in 2005. The leading component manufacturers responded by realigning 

their capabilities to facilitate a phased replacement of lead-based with lead-free solders in full 

compliance with the European requirements (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 

2011). For manufacturers which were less capable of mastering the use of lead-free solder, it 

took them considerably longer to make the process and materials change to catch up with the 

market. Considering the benefits of green products to businesses, initiatives for green marketing 

are being forged. 

 

2.2.4 Defining Green Marketing 

Green marketing is defined as holistic management for identifying, anticipating and satisfying 

the requirements of customers and society in a profitable and sustainable way (Choudhary and 

Gokarn, 2013:27; Stenzel 2011:1). According to Cheung, Lam and Lau (2015:234), green 

marketing refers to marketing activities developed to stimulate and maintain consumers’ 

environmental attitudes and behaviours. The American Marketing Association (AMA, 2015:2) 

provides three perspectives of green marketing, viewing it “as the marketing of products that 

are presumed to be environmentally safe” (retailing perspective), as “the development and 

marketing of products designed to minimise negative effects on the physical environment or to 

improve its quality” (social marketing perspective) and also as “the efforts by organisations to 

produce, promote, package, and reclaim products  in a manner that is sensitive or responsive to 

ecological concerns” (environment perspective). Following the social marketing view, Morel 

and Kwakye (2012:53) state that that the primary objective of green marketing is to educate 

customers with an aim of increasing their willingness to go green, because this has an influence 

on changing the lifestyle and behaviour of potential consumers.  

 

Kotler and Armstrong (2013:453) posit that since marketing is seen as a process whereby the 

marketing mix (product, price, promotion and place) is used to respond to the needs and wants 



 

30 
 

of customers while achieving business objectives, many marketers have seen green marketing 

as simply another way of satisfying consumer needs under the same marketing mix. However, 

a closer look at the concept of green marketing shows a distinct variation that has transformed 

traditional marketing thinking (Kotler and Armstrong 2013:454). The term ‘green marketing’ 

itself has undergone many changes, with different terminology such as environmental 

marketing, sustainable marketing and ecological marketing being vaguely used.  

 

The term ‘green marketing’ surfaced in the 1980s following growi