ARCHAEOLOGICAL USE-TRACE ANALYSES OF STONE TOOLS FROM SOUTH AFRICA Marlize Lombard A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2007 ii DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. By thesis, it is understood to mean my contribution, as described in Chapter Two, for submission for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of the Witwatersrand by published and submitted articles. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination at any other University. ________________________ Marlize Lombard Date____________________ iii ABSTRACT Analytical methods for extracting detailed functional and technological information from Middle Stone Age stone tools were refined and developed. This was achieved within a theoretical framework that insists on multiple-stranded evidence for behavioural interpretation. The methods include micro-residue analysis, macrofracture analysis and usewear analysis. Stone tool assemblages ? spanning the period between about 100 000 and 50 000 years ago ? from Sibudu Cave, Umhlatuzana Rock Shelter, Klasies River Cave 2 and Blombos Cave were analysed. Results derived from macrofracture analyses, that are often conducted as an initial study to assess whether tool classes could have been used in hunting weapons, are used to formulate the following working hypotheses for Stone Age hunting technologies in South Africa: a) some pre-Howiesons Poort pointed tools were used as hafted butchery knives, while others could have been used to tip hunting weapons; b) Howiesons Poort backed tools were probably used as interchangeable pieces in hafted hunting weapons; c) post-Howiesons Poort points were used to tip hunting weapons; d) Later Stone Age hunting technologies were different from those practiced during the Middle Stone Age. The macrofracture results also provided interesting comparable data showing distinct time-related clustering of the results. Although more tools that could have functioned as hunting weapons must be analysed to evaluate the authenticity of these observations, the results suggest that macrofracture studies are important for the study of change in Stone Age hunting behaviours. The main methodological contribution of this thesis is micro-residue analysis. Advances in this method developed from blind tests on replicated flakes with residues derived from the processing of plant and animal products. Lessons learned from previous blind tests shaped the new research reported here and lead to improved methodology and interpretative skills. The last test in the series of four resulted in the most accurate interpretations because, prior to Test 4, iv identification difficulties experienced during the first three blind tests were addressed through replication. The new work reported here highlights some of the difficulties that can be experienced in the morphological identification of microscopic organic residues, particularly the distinction between animal and plant residues. It is specifically recommended that multi-stranded evidence be used for the identification of animal and plant residues. Micro-residue analysis of archaeological samples provided direct evidence for functional and hafting interpretations. These can be used to evaluate the hypotheses based on the results of macrofracture analyses and to provide data for further detailed interpretations. For example, it is shown that: a) retouched points from the Still Bay were used as knives hafted to wooden handles; b) segments from the Howiesons Poort were probably hafted in bone and wood shafts in different hafting configurations that varied during the span of the technocomplex; c) Howiesons Poort segments were mostly used on animal material; d) ochre was mixed into the adhesive recipes during the post-Howiesons Poort, the Howiesons Poort and possibly during the Still Bay technocomplexes at Sibudu Cave. Thus, the multi-analytical approach followed throughout the study contributes evidence for the early development of sophisticated and variable hunting and hafting technologies used by anatomically modern humans in South Africa. Our current knowledge of behavioural trends during the Middle Stone Age has been expanded, allowing rare glimpses into the everyday activities of people living in the deep past. Perceptions of a static, pre-modern technology and unvaried faunal exploitation during the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa are unfounded. v DEDICATION Lyn, this one is for you. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost my sincerest thanks go to Professor Lyn Wadley. When I started out on this journey, I aimed to learn from the best. Lyn, thank you for being the best supervisor I could have hoped for, for your unwavering dedication, patience, encouragement and enthusiasm, and most of all, for your wisdom. The original research proposal was read and commented upon by Dr Paola Villa, Dr Kathy Kuman, Dr Bonny Williamson and Dr Anne Delagnes. Although the end product is quite different from the initial conceptualisation, I thank everybody for their time and the contributions they made during that early stage. I also thank Helen Kempson for providing me with comprehensive notes of the resulting panel discussion. When a thesis is submitted by publication many people contribute their cumulative skills and expertise by commenting on draft manuscripts, or reviewing submissions. This process ultimately results in a product that is much more than what an individual could hope to produce without such input. In this regard I am indebted to Lyn Wadley, Isabelle Parsons, Gavin Whitelaw, Bronwen van Doornum, Val Ward, Sarah Wurz, Antonita Jerardino, Chris Henshilwood and Karen van Niekerk for reading all, some or single draft manuscripts, to Peter Mitchell, Larry Barham, Sarah Wurz, Erella Hovers, Chris Henshilwood, Tom Minichillo and several anonymous reviewers for their reviews of submitted articles, and to the editors of the various journals for producing the final publications. I gratefully acknowledge the following people for technical drawings, access to publications, information, artefacts and images, or their assistance in facilitating such access: Johan Binneman, Linda Davis, Antonita Jerardino, Chris Henshilwood, Jonathan Kaplan, Penny Letley, Isabelle Parsons, Karen van Niekerk, Wendy Voorvelt, Lita Webley and Sarah Wurz. Without the support of the Natal Museum, the microscope and digital camera equipment of the Archaeology Department of the University of the Witwatersrand and funding from the Palaeontological Scientific Trust this thesis would not have become a reality. Therefore, my sincere appreciation also goes to these institutions and the individuals associated with them who were always willing to assist. vii CONTENTS Title page???????????????????????? i Declaration by candidate?????????????????? ii Abstract????????????????????????.. iii Dedication???????????????????????.. v Acknowledgements???????????????????? vi Contents????????????????????????. vii Chapter One Introduction: macro perspective on micro-mania????????. 1 Chapter Two Structure of this thesis??????????????????? 15 Chapter Three The Howiesons Poort of South Africa: what we know, what we think we know, what we need to know??????????.. 27 Chapter Four A method for identifying Stone Age hunting tools???????.. 51 Chapter Five The morphological identification of micro-residues on stone tools using light microscopy: progress and difficulties based on blind tests??????????????????????. 58 Chapter Six Direct evidence for the use of ochre in the hafting technology of Middle Stone Age tools from Sibudu Cave?????????.. 70 Chapter Seven First impressions of the functions and hafting technology of Still Bay pointed artefacts from Sibudu Cave??????????. 82 Chapter Eight Small things in perspective: the contribution of our blind tests to micro-residue studies on archaeological stone tools??????. 98 Chapter Nine Micro-residues on stone tools: the bigger picture from a South African Middle Stone Age perspective?????????? 109 viii Chapter Ten The gripping nature of ochre: the association of ochre with Howiesons Poort adhesives and Later Stone Age mastics from South Africa?????????????????.. 121 Chapter Eleven Broken stones breaking ground: comparable data for Middle Stone Age hunting based on macrofracture analysis????.. 153 Chapter Twelve Finding resolution for the Howiesons Poort through the microscope: micro-residue analysis of segments from Sibudu Cave, South Africa?????????????????... 176 Chapter Thirteen Evidence for change in Middle Stone Age hunting behaviour at Blombos Cave: results of a macrofracture analysis???????.. 202 Chapter Fourteen Summary, discussion and conclusion?????????????? 219 References????????????????????????.. 238